Skeleton Excavation Manual Part 2

Skeleton Manual Part 2 In the Laboratory
Editor: Ray Carpenter
Pou lto
uman Rema H i n
Seventh Edition First Revision - April 2013
am Te ns
Copyright Notice
Copyright 2013. This manual is the Copyright of Raymond Carpenter, Stephen Crane and Carla Burrell who have asserted their right to be identified as the authors of the work in accordance with the Copyright, Design and Patent Act 1988.
Poulton Skeleton Manual
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Table of Contents
List of Contributors Editors Note 1 2 Introduction 1.1 Legal and Ethical Considerations Post-Excavation Storage 2.1 Skeletons 2.2 Disarticulated Bones 2.3 Date Coding Basic Post-Excavation Processes 3.1 Inventory Record 3.2 Basic Analysis Advanced Post-Excavation Analysis 4.1 Overview 4.2 Other Ageing Methods 4.3 Other Sexual Dimorphism 4.4 Abnormalities Disposal References Appendices Appendix A Bones of the Adult Human Skeleton Appendix B Bones of the Juvenile Human Skeleton Appendix C Inventory: Worked example Appendix D Post-Excavation Skeleton Analysis: Worked Example Appendix E Descriptions of Pubic Symphyseal Surface Phases Appendix F Descriptions of Auricular Surface Phases Appendix G Stature Estimation: Worked example Appendix H Notes on the Formulae used to Estimate Stature 1 1 3 3 5 5 5 6 7 7 7 23 23 23 23 24 27 29 31 33 35 37 41 45 47 49 51
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List of Contributors
Steve Crane, ex-Poulton Research Project Carla Burrell, Liverpool John Moores University
Editors Note
As Editor, I accept full responsibility for this document. Everything correct belongs to Steve and/or Carla; the mistakes are all mine.
Ray Carpenter
March 2013
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1 Introduction
Ray Carpenter & Steve Crane This Skeleton Manual is a stand-alone companion to the Poulton Research Project Site Manual [Emery, 2005]. It provides a detailed handbook for the treatment of human remains at all stages of the archaeological process. It is in two parts: In the Field and In the Laboratory. This, Part 2, covers storage, post-excavation analysis and disposal. It focuses on the types of human remains that have been found to date at Poulton, together with the procedures developed by the Poulton Research Project to handle these remains. It is not a general guide to the processing of human remains.
1.1 Legal and Ethical Considerations

The overriding principle is that human remains must always be treated with respect, care and dignity. It is a privilege to be allowed to excavate the remains of another human being. We adhere strictly to the code of ethics published by the British Association for Biological Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology [BABAO Code of Ethics, 2010]. There are important legal restrictions on the excavation and subsequent processing of human remains. This is an area where the legal situation is currently under review by the Ministry of Justice (MoJ), and may be subject to change in the near future [MoJ, 2011]. Excavation at Poulton is at present licensed by the Ministry of Justice under the terms of the 1857 Burial Act.
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2 Post-Excavation Storage
Ray Carpenter & Steve Crane Much of the material in this section comes from [Anderson, 1993] and [BABAO Code of Practice, 2010]. Excavated human bones need to be cleaned, both to prevent them from going mouldy and to aid postexcavation analysis. Although some sources recommend dry brushing as a means of removing soil, this is generally ineffective with the clay soil typical of Poulton: instead, the bones must be washed. Bones must not be treated with any sort of chemicals. In certain circumstances, broken bones may be glued together on a medium term basis using HMG acrylic adhesive B72. This adhesive may be safely removed with solvents. For short term use (such as photography), 3M Scotch Magic Tape may be used. Note: Bones should only be glued for specific research purposes (for example, reconstruction of a fragmented skull), and with the prior agreement of the Human Remains Team.
Gloves MUST be worn when cleaning a skeleton (and whenever else bones are handled), to minimise contamination that might compromise future DNA analysis.
2.1 Skeletons
On arrival in the bone cabin, the trays should be laid out on the drying racks. The drying process may take several days depending on the conditions. Once dry, the skeleton should be fully laid out and the full inventory and dental recording (Section 3.1) completed. If time and resources permit, the full basic analysis (Section 3.2) should now be completed. Otherwise, the dry bones should be placed back in the original bags (turned the right way out), or if the bags are too dirty or damaged, in new bags. The site code, trench number, skeleton number, skeleton context and description of bones should be written on the outside of the bag with an indelible marker. All the bags for a single skeleton should be stored together. Normally one box per skeleton is sufficient but additional boxes may be used if necessary. For example, if the skull is reasonably complete, or if there are environmental samples, which should be kept with the skeleton at this stage. In this case, label the boxes 1 of 2, 2 of 2, etc. A standard label (below) should be stuck onto the end of the box(es) for each skeleton, giving the skeleton number and context number, and its status in terms of post-excavation analysis. See Section 2.3 below regarding colour coding.
Finally, the box should be placed in the skeleton store, in the area allocated to skeletons awaiting postexcavation analysis, with the label visible. Boxes should not be stacked too high, to avoid crushing. Stacking directly on the floor should also be avoided as the boxes may become damp.
2.2 Disarticulated Bones

Disarticulated bones are processed in basically the same way as articulated skeletons, but note the following:
All the bones excavated at one time from a single context should be kept together. The Site Code and year of excavation (POU/CHF/yy), the description DISARTICULATED HUMAN BONE (or DHB for short) and the context number should be identified on a label and/or by writing on the bag. If the remains are unstratified, write U/S as the context number.
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There may be several bags for each context, either because the bones were excavated at different times, or because of the sheer volume of material. Disarticulated bone should be stored in separate boxes from articulated skeletons. It is quite acceptable to store disarticulated bone for different contexts as well as unstratified bone in a single box, so as not to waste space. A standard label (below) should be stuck on the end of each box. See Section 2.3 below regarding colour coding.
Finally, the boxes should be placed in the area allocated to disarticulated bones.
2.3 Date Coding

From 2008 onwards, due to differing reburial requirements, the storage boxes for both articulated skeletons and disarticulated bones are colour coded according to the year of excavation. The first style was single colour stickers: Red Yellow Green Blue = 2008 = 2009 = 2010 = 2011
From 2012 onwards, two coloured circles are printed on the labels. These colours represent the last two digits of the year according the significant figure colours of the Electronic Colour Code [EN 60062: 2005], that is: Brown & Red Brown & Orange Brown & Yellow Brown & Green = 2012 = 2013 = 2014 = 2015
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3 Basic Post-Excavation Processes

Ray Carpenter, Steve Crane & Carla Burrell An inventory and a basic level of post-excavation analysis must be carried out on every excavated skeleton. Gloves MUST be worn when analysing a skeleton (and whenever else bones are handled), to minimise contamination that might compromise future DNA analysis.
3.1 Inventory Record

The inventory should be completed as soon as the skeleton can be safely handled after its arrival in the bone cabin. On completion of the inventory, the skeleton may be put into its own box(es), clearly labelled and placed in store pending further analysis. There are a number of standards for inventories. The form used at Poulton (Appendix C) was created by Carla Burrell and is derived from an inventory recording form for complete skeletons used in standards [Buikstra, J. E., and Ubelaker, D. H., 1994] and the forensic data bank form [Burns, K. R., 2007]. It also includes a dentition chart which should be completed. The data from this chart is used later in assessing the age of the skeleton. For the analysis of each skeleton, the inventory is the initial starting point. The skeleton is laid out in the anatomical position. This view of the remains provides an accessible observation of the whole skeleton. Each bone whether complete or fragmented is recorded in sequence from the cranium to the metatarsals. The form used at Poulton provides a selection of tables, sectioning the skeleton into 6 areas; cranial and post-cranial bones, vertebral column, long bones, the extremities (hands and feet) and the dentition. Each table contains a list of the typical bones present of a complete skeleton, the side whether left, right or medial and finally, further comments such as the condition of the bone and noticeable pathologies. There is also a review section at the end of the form to record any anomalies that may have arisen. This is an important process of any analysis in the archaeological context and even in the forensic context. Any pathology or trauma noticed here could be missed at a later point in the examination process; in turn these forms become a reference point throughout the rest of the analysis.
3.2 Basic Analysis

This is the estimation of the age at death, sex, stature of the skeleton. An example of a completed form used to record the results of this analysis is shown in Appendix D.
3.2.1 Age at Death Estimation

In order to estimate sex and stature, it is necessary to establish an arbitrary age of adulthood. At Poulton, that age is 18; below that, skeletons are classified as subadults without further distinction. All techniques for determining age at death rely on relating changes in the skeleton to the age of the individual concerned. Even where these relationships can be determined with some degree of accuracy for modern populations, there is no guarantee that they will be equally applicable to the population under study. Furthermore, individuals within a population can show great variability. It may sometimes prove impossible to estimate the age at all, though it is usually possible to differentiate between adult and sub-adult.
3.2.1.1 Adult/Subadult Differentiation

A brief examination of the skeleton should be done to establish the approximate age of the skeleton before undertaking any detailed analysis. In particular, overall bone size (length and diameter), the state of epiphyseal fusion and/or dental development will normally allow adult/subadult categorisation. Specifically, the skeleton is adult if: One or more third molars are (or have been) fully erupted All the epiphyses (except perhaps the sternal end of the clavicle) are fused.
In the case of doubt, treat the skeleton as a subadult and do a full dental development and/or a fusion analysis and reclassify the skeleton as appropriate.
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3.2.1.2 Adults
Many methods have been proposed for estimating adult age at death but there is not one that is fully satisfactory. It is only possible to assign skeletons to fairly wide age bands, for example the groups defined by [Powers, 2008]:
Description
Young adult Early middle adult Later middle adult Mature adult The three techniques used at Poulton are: dental attrition, pubic symphysis degeneration, and auricular surface degeneration.
Age Range
18 25 years 26 35 years 36 45 years 46 years
We use all three techniques where possible to increase the accuracy of the overall age determination. However, in some cases the relevant parts of the skeleton may not be available or may be in poor condition. Cranial suture closure is another widely used technique [White & Folkens, 2005: 369], but this requires relatively complete and undamaged skulls; these are rare at Poulton. Similarly, we do not use the technique based on metamorphosis of the sternal end of the fourth rib, because of the difficulty in identifying this rib in incomplete skeletons and the damage that this area often suffers. Dental Attrition The diagram below [Brothwell, 1981: 72] shows the pattern of molar wear in Neolithic to Medieval British skulls, which covers most of those expected to be found at Poulton.
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Notes 1. 2. The correlation between age and dental wear is greatest for first and second molars, and much lower for third molars [Mays, 2010: 72]. It is possible for the third molar to be present on the mandible but not on the maxilla (or vice-versa) or even more confusingly, to vary from side to side of the maxilla or mandible. In this situation, there would be minimal wear on the third molar, but this would give little or no indication of age. This should be borne in mind particularly when you are missing the mandible or maxilla.
Pubic Symphysis Degeneration The changes in the surfaces of the pubic symphysis at the front of the pelvis are considered to be one of the most reliable criteria for estimating adult age [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: 21]. The surfaces degenerate with age from a distinctive ridge and furrow pattern to a smoother surface. However, be aware that these bones are often damaged in the supine burials typical of Poulton, and also that the technique does require knowledge of the sex of the skeleton. We use the Suchey-Brooks scoring system ([Brooks & Suchey, 1990] and [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: 2124]), in conjunction with: the diagrams below the detailed descriptions in Appendix E, and the full set of acrylic casts. The latter are preferred; they are an easier to use, more reliable aid to assessing the phase. Each side should be scored separately.
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The phase is converted to an age range (years, with 95% certainty) using the following table:
Phase
1 2 3 4 5 6 Auricular Surface Degeneration
Female
15 24 19 40 21 53 26 70 25 83 42 - 87
Male
15 23 19 34 21 46 23 57 27 66 34 - 86
Like the pubic symphysis, the auricular surface, where the os coxae meet the sacrum, also degenerates from an undulating to a smooth surface. This area of the skeleton tends to survive burial well, and the technique can be applied even where the sex of the skeleton is not known. We use the technique described by [Lovejoy et al., 1985] and [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: 24-32], using the diagrams below and the detailed descriptions in Appendix F. Each side should be scored separately. The photographs in [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: 26-32] may also be useful.
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3.2.1.3 Children and Young Adults

Age at death is most accurately determined for children and young adults, as age-related changes to the skeleton are most distinct at this stage of development. The most accurate method is dental development. The teeth are relatively less affected by environmental influences such as poor diet or disease during growth [Roberts, 2009: 130]. For older children and young adults, the fusion of the epiphyses is also commonly used [Mays, 2010: 56] and [Bass, 1995: 194]. The dentition chart (see section 3.1) should be used in conjunction with the chart below, taken from [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: 51], to determine age based on overall development of the teeth:
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Epiphyseal Fusion The diagram below [Mays, 2010: 58] with the addition of the ischiopubic ramus (o) from [Bass, 1995: 194] shows the ages of epiphyseal fusion. Use the recording form (Appendix D) to record absence or presence of fusion for each available epiphysis and then use the diagram to determine a bounding age for each one. For example:
If the femur head (p) is fused in a male skeleton, then record age as 14. If the radius distal epiphysis (f) is unfused in a female skeleton, then record age as 20.
In cases where it is not possible to determine the sex, check the figures for both males and females and use the least restrictive condition. For example:
If the femur head is fused, it implies 14 (male) or 13 (female). Record age as 13. If the radius distal epiphysis is unfused, it implies 23 (male) or 20 (female). Record age as 23.
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Finally, use the data for all available epiphyses to determine an overall age range. A Visual Basic program is available which performs all these calculations. Note: Newborn infants do not have any epiphyses. However, the absence of epiphyses should not be used as a guide to age determination, as these small and less-mineralised bones often do not survive anyway or are lost during excavation.
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Key
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y
Description
Clavicle: Humerus: Humerus: Humerus: Radius: Radius: Ulna: Ulna: Metacarpals: Metacarpals: Phalanges: Phalanges: Pelvis: Pelvis: Pelvis: Femur: Femur: Femur: Tibia: Tibia: Fibula: Fibula: Tarsal Metatarsals Phalanges sternal head distal medial epicondyle proximal distal proximal distal proximal distal first and second third iliac crest triradiate ischiopubic ramus head greater trochanter distal proximal distal proximal distal
Diaphyseal and Epiphyseal Length For subadults, there is obviously a relationship between age and height, and thus between age and the length of the long bones. This technique is particularly useful where insufficient material is available to assess age based on dental development and/or epiphyseal fusion. However, it does tend to produce a lower estimate of age than these other methods (at least for the Poulton skeletons). This matches the results found at Wharram Percy [Mays, 2010: 134-137], where medieval children were found to be significantly shorter than modern children of the same age, lagging in growth by about 1-2 years. The table below (taken from [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 267; 286; 302; 174; 191; 207] and by taking the mean of the male and female measurements) can be used to estimate the age of subadults based on the length of the long bones. For bones where the epiphyses have not yet fused, this is the diaphyseal length (Di in the table below), that is, the length of the diaphysis or shaft of the bone. For bones where the epiphyses have fused, this is the epiphyseal length (Epi in the table below). The bones should be measured to the nearest mm using an osteometric board, and the lengths and derived ages recorded on the form (Appendix D) under the Height Determination section.
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Age (Yrs)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Note:
Femur Di Epi
13.6 17.2 19.9 22.4 24.7 26.9 29.0 31.1 33.0 34.9 36.7 38.7 38.4 40.4 42.7 44.7 46.5 47.7 48.5 48.6
Tibia Di Epi
10.9 13.9 16.2 18.2 20.1 21.8 23.5 26.8 26.7 28.5 30.0 31.7 32.1 33.9 35.9 37.6 39.1 39.9 40.5 40.4
Fibula Di Epi
10.6 13.7 16.1 18.1 20.0 21.7 23.3 25.0 26.5 28.0 29.5 31.1 30.9 32.5 34.4 35.9 37.4 38.3 38.9 38.9
Humerus Di Epi
10.5 12.9 14.6 16.2 17.7 19.0 20.3 21.7 22.8 24.0 25.2 26.4 25.7 27.0 28.5 29.9 31.3 32.2 32.9 33.1
Radius Di Epi
8.1 9.7 11.0 12.1 13.2 14.2 15.1 16.1 16.9 17.9 18.7 19.7 19.1 20.1 21.3 22.4 23.4 24.2 24.6 24.8
Ulna Di Epi
9.1 10.8 12.2 13.4 14.6 15.6 16.6 17.6 18.5 19.5 20.5 21.5 20.3 21.4 22.7 23.9 25.0 25.8 26.4 26.5
All bone lengths in cm.
For other methods of ageing children, see Section 4.
3.2.1.4 Infants and Foetuses

Diaphyseal bone length is a good indicator of age in infants and foetuses. Bone growth is less affected by external factors (for example, malnutrition) than after birth, and the skeleton grows rapidly during this stage. Age can be estimated from long-bone length to an accuracy of approximately 2 weeks. The data in the table below is from [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 264; 284; 300; 171; 188; 204]. For foetuses younger than 20 weeks, see Section 4. The bones should be measured using an osteometric board or sliding callipers and the lengths recorded on the form (Appendix D) under the Height Determination section. For other methods of ageing infants, see Section 4.
Foetal Age (weeks)

20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 Note:
Femur
3.26 3.57 4.03 4.19 4.70 4.87 5.55 5.98 6.25 6.89 7.43
Tibia
2.85 3.26 3.58 3.79 4.20 4.39 4.82 5.27 5.48 5.99 6.51
Fibula
2.78 3.11 3.43 3.65 4.00 4.28 4.68 5.05 5.16 5.76 6.23
Humerus
3.18 3.45 3.76 3.99 4.42 4.58 5.04 5.31 5.55 6.13 6.49
Radius
2.62 2.889 3.16 3.34 3.56 3.81 4.08 4.33 4.57 4.88 5.18
Ulna
2.94 3.16 3.51 3.71 4.02 4.28 4.67 4.91 5.10 5.59 5.93
All bone lengths in cm.
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3.2.2 Sex Estimation

Within any human population, adult male and female skeletons differ in general size and shape and this is the basis for determining their sex. There are currently no generally agreed standards for determining sex in juveniles (apart from DNA analysis which we are unlikely to use at Poulton). This can lead to problems with adolescent skeletons [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994]:
Pelvis Immature pelvises tend to follow the male pattern. Hence female features are a reasonable indicator of sex, but male features are ambiguous, since they may represent either a male or an immature female. Skull Conversely, immature skulls tend to follow the female pattern. Hence male features are a reasonable indicator of sex, but female features are ambiguous since they may represent either a female or an immature male
The estimation of sex should always be done after that of age (see Section 3.2.1) and when the skeleton is believed to be an adult. Occasionally, skeletons classified as subadult display sufficient sexual dimorphism to estimate the sex. In that case, do the sex estimation and record the results. The two primary bones for determining sex are the pelvis and skull. The accuracy which can be achieved has been estimated as follows [Dunn, 2002]: Skull alone 80% Pelvis alone 95% Both skull and pelvis 98% Many different attributes of the pelvis and skull have been proposed as a means of sex estimation. A number of the most commonly used have been taken from [Brothwell, 1981: 60], [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: 17-20], [Sutherland and Suchey, 1991: 502] and [Mays, 2010: 41]. As many as possible of these attributes should be used for each skeleton; this increases the accuracy of sex determination. Sometimes the skull or pelvis may not be available or may be in poor condition, that it is not possible to determine the sex. In this case, record the sex as indeterminate. Equally, sometimes the indicators may be contradictory. If the pelvis and skull are self-consistent but contradictory, score the sex according to the pelvis. If the pelvis is not self-consistent, review the balance of stronger and weaker indicators and consider recording the sex as Ambiguous. On the recording form (Appendix D), each attribute is scored using a range of 1 (most female) to 5 (most male), using as a guide the diagrams given below.
Where diagrams are only given for values of 1 and 5, interpolate for the intermediate values. Attributes more extreme than 1 and 5 should be scored as 1 and 5 respectively. If it is not possible to assess the attribute (for example, because of damage to the bone), then assign a score of 0.
Finally, make an overall assessment based on all the available data and taking into account the varying reliability of the different indicators (That is, dont simply average the scores!)
3.2.2.1 Pelvis
The Greater Sciatic Notch tends to be broad in females and narrow in males. Hold the os coxae (innominate) about 15cm above the figure below [Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994: 18] and align it as closely as possible with the diagram (which shows the left side). As a rule of thumb, place your thumb in the notch. If the notch is filled or only limited side-to-side movement is possible, it is male. If considerable side-to-side movement is possible, it is female.
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The Sub-Pubic Angle, the dotted line in figure [after Mays, 2010: 41] below, tends to be wider and more Ushaped in females, narrower (generally less than 90) and more V-shaped in males.
The Preauricular Sulcus (location shown in the left figure [Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994: 19] and the details in the right figure by one of the authors, C. Burrell, below) is more consistently present in females, although sometimes poorly developed, or present on one side only or not present at all.
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There are three main attributes of the subpubic region, the area indicated in the figure below (the right side is shown):
The Ventral Arc is a slightly elevated ridge of bone across the ventral surface of the pubis, which tends to be present in the female (diagram shows view from front):
1 The Subpubic Concavity (diagram shows left side viewed from rear):
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The Ischiopubic Ramus Ridge (diagram shows left side viewed end-on):
3.2.2.2 Skull
Males tend to have larger, more robust skulls than females, but the differences can be difficult to interpret. Four key aspects have been chosen, based on the parts of the skull which tend to survive reasonably intact at Poulton, and are illustrated below (originally from [Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994] but also in [White and Foulkens, 2005: 391]). Nuchal Crest: Hold the cranium (or relevant part of it) at arms length a few inches above the appropriate part of the figure, oriented as closely as possible to the diagram.
Mastoid Process: The most important variable to consider is the volume, not the length.
Supra-Orbital Margin: Hold the edge of the orbit between your fingers to determine its thickness. To score 1, the edge should feel sharp, like the edge of a slightly dulled knife. To score 5, the edge should feel thick and rounded like a pencil.
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Supra-Orbital Ridge/Glabella: Hold the cranium (or relevant part of it) at arms length a few inches above the appropriate part of the figure, oriented as closely as possible to the diagram.
3.2.3 Stature Estimation

For adults, the most reliable method of estimating stature is from the long bones [Brickley & McKinley, 2004: 33]. Formulae can then be applied to calculate height from the length of these bones. This technique can only be applied to mature individuals (that is, those with fused epiphyses) because the relative sizes of the bones change during development. There is currently no generally agreed method for estimating height in subadults. Use the following procedure for an adult skeleton:
Back of bone placed face downward on board, long axis of bone parallel to long axis of board.
Head placed against fixed vertical, distal end against movable upright. Bone moved up & down and side to side until maximum length obtained. (Ulna and fibula are also measured in the same way).
Back of bone placed face downward on board, rotate bone to find maximum length.
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Measure the lengths of all available bones to the nearest mm using an osteometric board. The diagrams above [Brothwell, 1981] show how the bones should be positioned. Horizontal arrows denote movement from side to side, curved arrows circular movement. Broken bones can generally be re-assembled and measured, provided that the breaks are clean and all pieces are present. The pieces should be held together by hand and not glued or fixed in any way other than by the minimal use of 3M Scotch Magic Tape [BABAO Code of Practice, 2010]. This may require two people, one to hold the bone and the other to operate the osteometric board. The measurements are recorded on the form (Appendix D). Also record on the form the number of pieces of each bone and whether or not it is complete. Calculate the stature using the appropriate set of equations, Male American White or Female American White, depending on sex (stature can only be determined if the sex is known). Each formula should be calculated separately for left- and right-side bones and the results are normally averaged where both values are available. However, when clear pathology causes the left and right values to differ significantly (>0.3cm), consider ignoring the affected side. Examine and compare the various estimates and consider rejecting any outliers which appear too different from the rest (for example, might a bone from a different skeleton have been measured?). Also carefully (re-)examine the bones for pathology that might explain the difference. A common cause is a healed fracture. The stature estimate based on the equation with the lowest standard error should be taken as the best estimate, rather than averaging the estimates from all the available equations. A spreadsheet is available which performs all these calculations (see Appendix G). Record the estimated stature and the standard error of the corresponding equation on the PostExcavation recording form (Appendix D). The stature should be recorded to a precision of 0.1cm and ", and the standard error to a precision of 0.1cm. Detailed notes on the formulae used are in Appendix H.
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4 Advanced Post-Excavation Analysis

Ray Carpenter & Carla Burrell
4.1 Overview
This section firstly describes methods and techniques that have been used at Poulton when those described in Section 3 cannot be applied. Note that in all cases the results will be less reliable than those obtained from the methods described in Section 3. Secondly, it describes bone abnormalities and anomalies not covered at all in Section 3. It is intended for people with experience in human ostoeology. There are no illustrations or diagrams but there are references to standard text-books. The reader is expected to have (access to) a copy.
4.2 Other Ageing Methods

Although dental development remains the best method for ageing subadults, the dentition is not always available. The long bone measurements in Section 3 may be used (with the caveat that long bone age and dental development age may not agree for Poulton specimens). The relevant chapters of [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009] contain alternative sets of measurements and extended ranges of the measurements quoted. There are also other age indicators which been used successfully at Poulton when the dentition is not available and the long bones are in a poor state. In some cases, age estimation using the ribs may be possible [Iscan, Loth, & Wright, 1984] and [Iscan, Loth, & Wright, 1985].
4.2.1 Other Fusions

As well as the epiphyseal fusions identified in Section 3, there are other sites of fusion in the subadult skeleton that we commonly use at Poulton to give an (albeit poorer) estimate of the age at death. There are also many other fusion sites across the subadult skeleton that can be reviewed if required. Vertebral Fusion Most vertebrae are in three pieces at birth and fuse to a single entity by the age of 5. [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 114] shows the age of fusion on the posterior arch and of the arch to the centrum. The atlas and axis (C1 & C2) also follow a documented fusion process which can be used. Sacral Fusion [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 121] gives an outline of sacral fusion by age. Occipital Fusion The two pars lateralis and the pars basilaris often seem to survive intact at Poulton. The morphology and age as these (and the pars supra-occipitalis) fuse to encircle the foramen magna is documented in [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 15]
4.2.2 Bone Metrics

As well as the long bones, metrics of other parts of the subadult skeleton which survive at Poulton have been used to estimate the age at death.
Bone
Pars basilaris Pars lateralis Maximum iliac length & width
Reference
[Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 11; 13] [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 11] [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 241-242]
4.3 Other Sexual Dimorphism

Although not as reliable or accurate as those described in Section 3, there are other techniques for estimating the sex of a skeleton. These may be helpful when the previously described methods cannot be used.
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Humeral and femoral head diameters The femoral and/or humeral head is measured using a sliding calliper according to [Stewart, 1979] Diagnostic categories are [Stewart, 1979]: Femoral head: <42.5mm 42.5 - 43.5mm 43.5 - 46.5mm 46.5 - 47.5mm > 47.5mm Humeral head: <43mm 43 - 47mm >47mm 21mm 22 - 23mm 24mm Curvature of the sacrum Sacral curvature is an additional observation. [Bass, 1995] indicates that the sacrum is generally more curved in males than females. [Mishra, Singh, Agrawal & Gupta, 2003] have also reported more detailed results based on the sacral curvature. Dentition A number of authors have proposed methods of sex estimation based on dentition. These include: The mandibular canines [Mays, 2010] General sexing of permanent dentition: [Ditch and Rose, 1972] Immature skeletons [Rosing 1983] Gonial Angle The gonial angle has been proposed as sex determinant. However, to date the evidence is contradictory. [Karoshah, Almadani, Ghaleb, Zaki & Fattah, 2010] suggest (using CT scans rather than the dry mandible itself) that such a metric is viable; [Ayoub, Rizk, Yehya, Cassia, Chartouni, Atiyeh & Maizoub, 2009] suggest the contrary. Considerably more work needs to be performed using the Poulton assemblage before this metric could become a reliable sex determinant. = Female = Possible female = Indeterminate = Possible Male = Male = Female = Indeterminate = Male = Female = Ambiguous = Male
[Berrizbeitia, 1989] provides similar data for the radial head:
4.4 Abnormalities
Any abnormality in the skeleton must be identified as either taphonomy or pathology. Taphonomy occurs to the bone after death (post-mortem); pathology occurs before death (ante-mortem). There are some around death (peri-mortem) anomalies but they can be difficult to identify. Taphonomic abnormalities such as root marks, rodent gnawing, deformation through soil pressure, and soil erosion. These should be noted on the recording form (Appendix D), for possible further investigation. Pathological anomalies are more common and potentially more interesting. Definite abnormalities should be recorded. The following information should be recorded for each abnormality:
Which bone/tooth is affected (including side)? Which part of the bone/tooth (for example, proximal shaft)? What is the nature of the change has additional bone been formed (most common), has bone been destroyed, or has the bone changed shape (least common)? If bone has been formed, is it disorganised (indicating active disease at the time of death) or organised (indicating a healed lesion)? If bone has been destroyed, is there any sign of healing, for example, rounding of the edges of the lesion? What is the distribution pattern if more than one tooth/bone is affected? Can the abnormality be measured and compared with a normal tooth/bone?
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Photographs should be taken and noted on the recording form. A scale bar and label showing the site code and skeleton number should be included in each photograph. Where appropriate, a normal bone or tooth should be included for comparison.
4.4.1 Types of Pathological Abnormality

The following list summarises the major types of pathological abnormality which should be recorded, with the most common type first.
Type
Arthropathy (joint diseases)
Description & Examples

Osteoarthritis (formation of new bone on and around joints) is most common. In severe cases, the cartilage is totally destroyed and bones directly abrade each other; this can lead to joint surface polishing (eburnation). Wear on teeth can lead loss of teeth. Gum (periodontal) disease is common and leads to abscesses and to loosening or loss of teeth. Broken bones note whether any healing has occurred (can help to determine if damage is post-mortem). Healed fractures. Trephining or trepanning. Injury from weapons (for example, an arrow head), tools or implements. Scoliosis Osteophytes Horizontal striations on teeth (dental enamel hypoplasia). Harris lines in long bones (visible only in radiographs). Cribra orbitalia (pitting in the tops of the orbits, due to anaemia). Rickets. Osteoporosis (thinning of walls of long bones and loss of bone mass difficult to identify). Generally leaves little evidence on the skeleton. TB causes centres of vertebrae to collapse, leading to curvature of spine. Syphilis causes a gnawed effect on many bones, with rough edges. Leprosy bone is lost on the palate, front of maxilla, etc., with smooth edges. Pagets disease bone assumes a distorted and enlarged character Osteomyelitis pitting and irregularity of the bone surface and possibly cavity formation within the bone interior. Cleft palate. Hip dislocation due to shallow acetabulum. Hydrocephalus (indicated by enlarged skull). Sacralisation of 5th lumbar vertebra. Supernumerary vertebrae Unusual formation of teeth. Erosion of normal bones and growth of other bone.
Dental Disease
Trauma
Stress Indicators
Infection
Congenital/Developmental
Cancerous Growths
[Roberts and Manchester, 1995] and/or [Waldron, 2009] give a comprehensive description of the most common diseases and traumas which affect bone. In exceptional circumstances where the skeleton is of special interest or importance, it may be necessary to call upon the services of an external expert to carry out a professional examination of the remains. It is essential that all basic post-excavation recording and analysis has been completed before any destructive analysis is performed (such as 14C dating).
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5 Disposal
Ray Carpenter Ultimately the remains will be re-interred in a duly authorised burial ground. Previously we arranged for our human remains to be re-buried at Mount St. Bernard monastery, near Loughborough in Leicestershire. This is particularly appropriate as this is a Cistercian monastery, maintaining the link with the chapels past history. However, recently that route has become unavailable to us. At the time of writing, the terms of our MoJ licence require all the human remains excavated by the Project to be re-interred during 2015. We plan to apply for an extension of that licence in due course. However, as precautionary measure, the Trustees have drawn up outline plans to re-inter all the remains on specially dedicated land at Chapel House Farm, close to the original burial grounds. The Trustees will decide the exact form and procedure of the re-burial closer to the event.
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6 References
Anderson, S., 1993 Digging Up People: Guidelines for Excavation and Processing of Human Skeletal Remains. http://www.spoilheap.co.uk/pdfs/digbone.pdf. Date accessed 26Jan-2013. Sexual dimorphism of mandibular angle in a Lebanese sample, Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine 16- 3:121-124. 2010 BABAO Code of Ethics. British Association for Biological Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology and http://www.babao.org.uk/index/ethics-and-standards. Date accessed 26-Jan-2013. 2010 BABAO Code of Practice. British Association for Biological Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology and http://www.babao.org.uk/index/ethics-and-standards. Date accessed 26-Jan-2013 Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual (4th ed.). Special Publication No. 2 of the Missouri Archaeological Society. Poster presented at the 58th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, San Diego, CA. 7 April 1989 Sex determination with the head of the radius. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 34: 1207-1213. Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human Remains. IFA Paper No. 7, Reading. Skeletal Age Determination Based on the Os Pubis: A Comparison of the Acsdi-Nemeskri and Suchey-Brooks Methods. Human Evolution, 5: 227-238. Digging Up Bones (3rd ed.). British Museum (Natural History), London/Oxford University Press, Oxford. Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series, No. 44. Forensic Anthropology Training Manual (2nd Eds.) Pearson Education, Pearson Practice Hall. A multivariate dental sexing technique. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 37: 61-64 Personal Communication Poulton Research Project Site Manual (v0.2). Poulton. BS EN 60062 :2005: Marking codes for resistors and capacitors http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=0000000000301 61717 Date accessed 26-Jan-2013 Age estimation from the ribs by phase analysis: White males. Journal of Forensic Sciences 29: 1094-1104 Age estimation from the ribs by phase analysis: White females. Journal of Forensic Sciences 30: 853-863 Sexual dimorphism of the mandible in a modern Egyptian population, Journal of Forensic and Legal medicine 17- 4: 213-215. Chronological Metamorphosis of the Auricular Surface of the Ilium: A New Method for the Determination of Adult Skeletal Age at Death. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 68: 1528. The Archaeology of Human Bones (2nd ed). Routledge, London.
Ayoub, F., Rizk, A., Yehya, M., Cassia., A, Chartouni, S., Atiyeh, F. & Maizoub, Z., 2009 BABAO Code of Ethics, 2010
BABAO Code of Practice, 2010
Bass, W.M., 1995 Bedford M.E. , Russell K.F. & Lovejoy C.O., 1989 Berrizbeitia, E.L., 1989 Brickley, M. and McKinley, J.I. (eds.), 2004 Brooks, S. and Suchey, J.M., 1990
Brothwell, D., 1981 Buikstra, J.E. and Ubelaker, D.H. (eds.), 1994 Burns, K. R. (2007) Ditch, L. E., and Rose, J. C. (1972). Dunn, G., 2002 Emery, M., 2005 EN 60062:2005
Iscan, M. Y., Loth, S. R., and Wright, R. K., 1984. Iscan, M. Y., Loth, S. R., and Wright, R. K., 1985. Karoshah, M., Almadani, O., Ghaleb, S., Zaki, M. & Fattah, Y., 2010 Lovejoy, C.O., Meindl, R.S., Pryzbeck, T.R. and Mensforth, R.P., 1985 Mays, S., 2010.
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McKinley, J.I. and Roberts, C., 1993
Excavation and Post-Excavation Treatment of Cremated and Inhumed Human Remains. IFA Technical Paper No. 13, Birmingham. Identification Of Sex Of Sacrum Of Agra Region. Journal of Anatomical Society of India, 52(2): 132-136 Statement on the exhumation of human remains for archaeological purposes http://www.justice.gov.uk/downloads/burials-andcoroners/statement-exhumation-human-remainsarchaeological.pdf. Date accessed 26-Jan-2013 Human Osteology Method Statement. Museum of London and http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/NR/rdonlyres/2D513AFAEB45-43C2-AEAC30B256245FD6/0/MicrosoftWordOsteologyMethodStatementMar ch2008.pdf. Date accessed 26-Jan-2013. The Archaeology of Disease (2nd ed.). Sutton Publishing, Stroud. Report on Skeletal Remains of One Individual from Poulton Chapel, Cheshire. http://www.poultonproject.org/skel.shtml. Date accessed 26-Jan-2013. Human Remains in Archaeology: A Handbook (Practical Handbooks in Archaeology No. 19). Council for British Archaeology, York. Sexing immature skeletons. Journal of Human Evolution, 12: 149155. Juvenile Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual. Academic Press, London. Essentials of Forensic Anthropology. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Human Bones in Archaeology. Shire, Princes Risborough. Use of the Ventral Arc in Pubic Sex Determination. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 36(2): 501-511. Estimation of Stature from Long Bones of American Whites and Negroes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 10: 463-514. A Re-Evaluation of estimation of stature based on measurements of stature taken during life and of long bones after death. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 16: 79-123. Corrigenda to estimation of stature from long limb bones of American Whites and Negroes. American Journal Physical Anthropology (1952). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 47: 355-6. Estimation of Stature from Intact Long Bones. In TD Stewart Personal Identification in Mass Disasters. Washington: Smithsonian Institution 71-83. Paleopathology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. A Field Guide to the Excavation of Inhumated Human Remains. http://www.ossafreelance.co.uk/PastProjects/FieldGuidetotheE xcavationofHumanInhumatedRemains.pdf. Date accessed 26Jan-2013. The Human Bone Manual. Elsevier, London.
Mishra, S.R., Singh, P.J., Agrawal, A.K., Gupta, R.N., 2003 MoJ, 2011
Powers, N. (ed.), 2008
Roberts, C. and Manchester, K., 1995 Roberts, C., 1998
Roberts, C.A., 2009
Rosing, F. M. (1983). Schaefer, M., Black, S. & Scheuer, L., 2009 Stewart, T.D., 1979 Stirland, A., 1999 Sutherland, L.D. and Suchey, J.M., 1991 Trotter, M. and Gleser, G.C., 1952 Trotter, M. and Gleser, G.C., 1958
Trotter, M. and Gleser, G.C., 1977
Trotter, M., 1970
Waldron, T., 2009 Western, A.G. and Kausmally, T., 2005
White, T.O. and Folkens, P.A., 2005
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7 Appendices
A B C D E F G Note: Bones of the human skeleton Inventory: Worked example Post-excavation Skeleton Analysis: Worked example Descriptions of Pubic Symphyseal Surface phases Descriptions of Auricular Surface phases Stature Estimation: Worked example Notes on the Formulae used to Estimate Stature The pro-forma sheets are always being revised and those in current use may differ slightly from those shown in these appendices.
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Appendix A Bones of the Adult Human Skeleton
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Bones of the Adult Skeleton

from [Mays, 2010: 2-3] Skull: Spinal column: Including mandible & ossicles Hyoid Vertebrae Cervical Thoracic Lumbar Sacrum Coccyx Thoracic cage: Pectoral girdle: Pelvic girdle: Limb bones: Rib Sternum Clavicle Scapula Pelvic bone Arm bones: Humerus Radius Ulna Wrist/hand: Carpal Metacarpal Phalanx Leg bones: Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Ankle/foot: Tarsal Metatarsal Phalanx Total 12 pairs 28 1 7 12 5 1 1 24 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 16 10 28 2 2 2 2 14 10 28 206
In addition, there are a variable number of small bones (sesamoids) embedded in the tendons of the hands and feet. Although this list shows the standard number of bones in an adult skeleton, extra bones are not uncommon, for example, 13 rather than 12 thoracic vertebrae, or 6 rather than 5 lumbar vertebrae. Detailed descriptions and photographs of all the bones can be found in [White & Folkens, 2005].
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Appendix B Bones of the Juvenile Human Skeleton
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Bones of the Juvenile Skeleton

from [Mays, 2010: 2-3] with additonal data from [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009] Skull: Spinal column: Including mandible & ear ossicles Hyoid Vertebrae Cervical Thoracic Lumbar Sacrum Coccyx Thoracic cage: Pectoral girdle: Pelvic girdle: Limb bones: Rib Sternum Clavicle Scapula Pelvic bone Arm bones: Humerus Radius Ulna Wrist/hand: Carpal Metacarpal Phalanx Leg bones: Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Ankle/foot: Tarsal Metatarsal Phalanx Total 12 pairs 39-28 3-1 22-7 36-12 15-5 15-5-1 1-1 24 5-2-1 4-2 4-2 10-2 8-2 6-2 6-2 16-16 20-10 56-28 8-2 2-2 6-2 6-2 16-14 20-10 56-28 404-206
This shows the total number of elements in the juvenile skeleton against that of an adult. For example, the mandible can be in 1 or 2 pieces depending on the age of the juvenile.
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Appendix C Inventory: Worked example
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Appendix D Post-Excavation Skeleton Analysis: Worked Example
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Appendix E Descriptions of Pubic Symphyseal Surface Phases

The following descriptions are taken from [Brooks & Suchey, 1990], and should be read in conjunction with the sub-section Pubic Symphysis Degeneration in Section 3.2.1.2 Phase 1 : Symphyseal face has a billowing surface (ridges and furrows), which usually extends to include the pubic tubercle. The horizontal ridges are well-marked, and ventral bevelling may be commencing. Although ossific nodules may occur on the upper extremity, a key to the recognition of this phase is the lack of delimitation of either extremity (upper or lower). Phase 2 : The symphyseal face may still show ridge development. The face has commencing delimitation of lower and/or upper extremities occurring with or without ossific nodules. The ventral rampart may be in beginning phases as an extension of the bony activity at either or both extremities. Phase 3 : Symphyseal face shows lower extremity and ventral rampart in process of completion. There can be a continuation of fusing ossific nodules forming the upper extremity and along the ventral border. Symphyseal face is smooth or can continue to show distinct ridges. Dorsal plateau is complete. Absence of lipping of symphyseal dorsal margin; no bony ligamentous outgrowths. Phase 4 : Symphyseal face is generally fine grained although remnants of the old ridge and furrow system may still remain. Usually the oval outline is complete at this stage, but a hiatus can occur in upper ventral rim. Pubic tubercle is fully separated from the symphyseal face by definition of upper extremity. The symphyseal face may have a distinct rim. Ventrally, bony ligamentous outgrowths may occur on inferior portion of pubic bone adjacent to symphyseal face. If any lipping occurs, it will be slight and located on the dorsal border. Phase 5 : Symphyseal face is completely rimmed with some slight depression of the face itself, relative to the rim . Moderate lipping is usually found on the dorsal border with more prominent ligamentous outgrowths on the ventral border. There is little or no rim erosion. Breakdown may occur on superior ventral border. Phase 6 : Symphyseal face may show ongoing depression as rim erodes . Ventral ligamentous attachments are marked. In many individuals the pubic tubercle appears as a separate bony knob. The face may be pitted or porous, giving an appearance of disfigurement with the ongoing process of erratic ossification. Crenulations may occur. The shape of the face is often irregular at this stage.
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Appendix F Descriptions of Auricular Surface Phases

The following descriptions are taken from [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: 25], and should be read in conjunction with the sub-section Auricular Surface Degeneration in Section 3.2.1.2 Phase 1 . Transverse billowing and very fine granularity. Articular surface displays fine granular texture and marked transverse organization. There is no porosity, retroauricular or apical activity. The surface appears youthful because of broad and well-organized billows, which impart the definitive transverse organization. Raised transverse billows are well-defined and cover most of the surface. Any subchondral defects are smooth-edged and rounded. (Age, 20-24) Phase 2 . Reduction of billowing but retention of youthful appearance. Changes from the previous phase are not marked and are mostly reflected in slight to moderate loss of billowing, with replacement by striae. There is no apical activity, porosity, or retroauricular activity. The surface still appears youthful owing to marked transverse organization. Granulation is slightly more coarse. (Age, 25-29) Phase 3 . General loss of billowing, replacement by striae, and distinct coarsening of granularity . Both demifaces are largely quiescent with some loss of transverse organization. Billowing is much reduced and replaced by striae. The surface is more coarsely and recognizably granular than in the previous phase, with no significant changes at apex. Small areas of microporosity may appear. Slight retroauricular activity may occasionally be present. In general, coarse granulation supersedes and replaces billowing. Note smoothing of surface by replacement of billows with fine striae, but distinct retention of slight billowing. Loss of transverse organization and coarsening of granularity is evident. (Age, 30-34) Phase 4. Uniform, coarse granularity. Both faces are coarsely and uniformly granulated, with marked reduction of both billowing and striae, but striae may still be present. Transverse organization is present but poorly defined. There is some activity in the retroauricular area, but this is usually slight. Minimal changes are seen at the apex, microporosity is slight, and there is no macroporosity. (Age, 3539) Phase 5 . Transition from coarse granularity to dense surface. No billowing is seen. Striae may be present but are very vague. The face is still partially (coarsely) granular and there is a marked loss of transverse organization. Partial densification of the surface with commensurate loss of granularity. Slight to moderate activity in the retroauricular area. Occasional macroporosity is seen, but this is not typical. Slight changes are usually present at the apex. Some increase in macroporosity, depending on degree of densification. (Age, 40-44) Phase 6 . Completion of densification with complete loss of granularity. Significant loss of granulation is seen in most specimens, with replacement by dense bone. No billows or striae are present. Changes at apex are slight to moderate but are almost always present. There is a distinct tendency for the surface to become dense. No transverse organization is evident. Most or all of the microporosity is lost to densification. There is increased irregularity of margins with moderate retroauricular activity and little or no macroporosity. (Age, 45-49) Phase 7 . Dense irregular surface of rugged topography and moderate to marked activity in periauricular areas. This is a further elaboration of the previous morphology, in which marked surface irregularity becomes the paramount feature. Topography, however, shows no transverse or other form of organization. Moderate granulation is only occasionally retained. The inferior face generally is lipped at the inferior terminus. Apical changes are almost invariable and may be marked. Increasing irregularity of margins is seen. Macroporosity is present in some cases. Retroauricular activity is moderate to marked in most cases. (Age, 50-59) Phase 8 . Breakdown with marginal lipping, macroporosity, increased irregularity, and marked activity in periauricular areas. The paramount feature is a nongranular, irregular surface, with distinct signs of subchondral destruction. No transverse organization is seen and there is a distinct absence of any youthful criteria. Macroporosity is present in about one-third of all cases. Apical activity is usually marked but it is not requisite. Margins become dramatically irregular and lipped, with typical degenerative joint change. Rctroauricular area becomes well defined with profuse osteophytes of low to moderate relief. There is clear destruction of subchondral bone, absence of transverse organization, and increased irregularity. (Age, 60+)
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The following is from [Bedford, Russell. & Lovejoy, 1989]
Age
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
Transverse 1 Organisation
Texture
Retroauricular Activity
Apical Activity
Porosity
billowing (20-24)
fine granularity
decr. billowing incr. striae (25-29)
slight coarse granularity (25-29)
decr. transv striae evident (30-34)
incr. coarse granularity (30-34)
slight retro. possible (30-34)
micropor. possible (30-34)
last striae (35-39)
uniform coarse granularity (35-3.9)
slight retro. activity (35-39)
minimal apical change (35-39)
micropor. often slight (35-39)
vague transv. (40-44)
coarse granularity to dense (Islands) (40-44)
slight/moder. retro. activity (40-44)
slight apical changes (40-44)
micropor. occas. macropor. (40-44)
no transv. (45-49)
decr. granularity incr. density (45-49)
moderate retro. activity (45-49)
apical change irreg. margins (45-49)
micropor. to densification possib. macropor. (45--49)
irregular surface (50-60)
dense possib. residual granularity (50-60) dense, with subchondral destruction (60+)
mod/severe retro. activity (50-60)
more apical change irreg. margins (50-60) more apical change margin lipping osteophytes (60+)
possib. macropor. (50-60)
irregular surface (60+)
severe retro. activity (60+)
macropor. (60+)
Terms used here are defined in Lovejoy et al. (1985) Chronological Metamorphosis of the Auricular Surface of the Ilium: A New Method for the Determination of Adult Skeletal Age at Death. Amer. J. Phys. Anth. 68:15-28.
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Appendix G Stature Estimation: Worked example
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Appendix H Notes on the Formulae used to Estimate Stature

The process used to calculate stature for the Poulton skeletons is as defined in [Brickley and McKinley, 2004: 33]. That document includes both the formulae (which are quoted in full, including the corresponding standard error estimates) and their method of application, for example the use of the single formula with the lowest standard error. We only use the sets of formulae for white males and white females, and ignore those for black males and females as unapplicable for the medieval population of Poulton. Source Papers The formulae are taken from four well-known sources: [Trotter & Gleser, 1952], [Trotter & Gleser, 1958], [Trotter, 1970] and [Trotter & Gleser, 1977]. However, the way in which formulae have been selected from the source papers is not straightforward, and is certainly not explained. This Appendix attempts to clarify the origin of the sets of formulae we use. The four source papers can be briefly summarised as follows, in chronological order: [Trotter & Gleser, 1952] male formulae based on WW II data, female formulae based on the Terry skeletal collection (at that time located at the Washington University Medical School, St. Louis). [Trotter & Gleser, 1958] male formulae revised, based on Korean War data. [Trotter, 1970] just repeats some (but not all) of the formulae from the 1952 paper. It prefers these to the formulae from the 1958 paper, on the grounds that the differences are of not statistical significance and that the 1952 set have slightly smaller standard errors. [Trotter & Gleser, 1977] corrections to some of the black female formulae. These are not relevant for Poulton.
Males
The white male formulae recommended by [Brickley & McKinley, 2004:33] are listed in the table below: Formula (in cm) 1.30 (XLF + LCT) + 63.29 2.38 XLF + 61.41 2.68 XLG + 71.78 2.52 LCT + 78.62 1.31 (XLF + XLG) + 63.05 3.08 XLH + 70.45 1.82 (XLH + XLR) + 67.97 3.70 XLU + 74.05 3.78 XLR + 79.01 Std Error 2.99 3.27 3.29 3.37 3.62 4.05 4.31 4.32 4.32 Source 1952 1952 1952 1952 1958 1952 1958 1952 1952
These are taken primarily from the 1952 paper, with the exception of two formulae from the 1958 paper (highlighted in the Source column). The logic behind the selection is not clear.
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Females The white female formulae recommended by [Brickley & McKinley, 2004:33] are listed in the table below: Formula (in cm) 0.68 XLH + 1.17 XLF + 1.15 LCT + 50.12 1.48 XLF + 1.28 LCT + 53.07 1.39 (XLF + LCT) + 53.20 2.93 XLG + 59.61 2.90 LCT + 61.53 1.35 XLH + 1.95 LCT + 52.77 2.47 XLF + 54.10 4.74 XLR + 54.93 4.27 XLU + 57.76 3.36 XLH + 57.97 Std Error 3.51 3.55 3.55 3.57 3.66 3.67 3.72 4.24 4.30 4.45 Source 1952 1952 1952 1952 1952 1952 1952 1952 1952 1952
This is the full set of formulae from the 1952 paper. In this case the logic is clear, as there are no other formulae for white females in the source documents.
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Skeleton Excavation Manual Part 2

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Editor: Ray Carpenter

Seventh Edition First Revision - April 2013

Poulton Skeleton Manual

Poulton Skeleton Manual

Poulton Skeleton Manual

Poulton Skeleton Manual

Poulton Skeleton Manual

1.1 Legal and Ethical Considerations

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2.2 Disarticulated Bones

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2.3 Date Coding

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3 Basic Post-Excavation Processes

3.1 Inventory Record

3.2 Basic Analysis

3.2.1 Age at Death Estimation

3.2.1.1 Adult/Subadult Differentiation

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Poulton Skeleton Manual

Poulton Skeleton Manual

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3.2.1.3 Children and Young Adults

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All bone lengths in cm.

For other methods of ageing children, see Section 4.

3.2.1.4 Infants and Foetuses

Foetal Age (weeks)

All bone lengths in cm.

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3.2.2 Sex Estimation

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3.2.3 Stature Estimation

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4 Advanced Post-Excavation Analysis

4.2 Other Ageing Methods

4.2.1 Other Fusions

4.2.2 Bone Metrics

4.3 Other Sexual Dimorphism

Poulton Skeleton Manual

[Berrizbeitia, 1989] provides similar data for the radial head:

Poulton Skeleton Manual

4.4.1 Types of Pathological Abnormality

Description & Examples

Poulton Skeleton Manual

Poulton Skeleton Manual

Poulton Skeleton Manual

Poulton Skeleton Manual

BABAO Code of Practice, 2010

Poulton Skeleton Manual

McKinley, J.I. and Roberts, C., 1993

Powers, N. (ed.), 2008

Roberts, C. and Manchester, K., 1995 Roberts, C., 1998

Roberts, C.A., 2009