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Basic Concepts of Surveying

Surveying can be defined in a number of ways. Surveying is the science of


determining the position in three dimensions, of natural and man made
features on or beneath the surface of the earth. Alternatively surveying is the
art and science of making the measurements required to enable the relative
positions of points on the surface of the earth or in the subsurface to be
represented on a map or plan, or alternatively in a digital model in a computer
database.

The art in surveying involves the selection of the most elegant and efficient
method of making the required measurements. Generally one can state that
the minimum number of measurements should be made in the shortest
possible time to achieve the required result.

The science of surveying comes from the requirement to have knowledge of
the following:

Trigonometry
Geometry in two and three dimensions
Physics with respect to optical theory, for precise measurements also
meteorological aspects and other aspects of physical science
Statistics and error theory
Construction of instrumentation

Surveying Equipment

Numerous types of surveying equipment exist, the list below details some:

Measuring tapes
Differential levels
Plane tables
Theodolites
Tacheometers
Electronic distance measuring equipment
Global positioning systems

In addition, a range of ancillary equipment is used; details are in a number of
surveying texts and are not included here.

Measurements

Measurements are undertaken to determine numeric values for:

Distances
Elevation or differences in elevation
Angles
Time

1
It must be noted that measurements are a comparison with a standard and
will always be subject to error. This is not just the case in surveying and
affects all aspects of measurement. The error in measurement can be defined
as:

value true the L
value measured the L
t measuremen in error the e
where
T
M
=
=
=
=
T m
L L e


For a treatment of errors please refer to Schofield W (1993) Engineering
Surveying, fourth edition, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford. Also note a
fifth edition of this text is due to be released in 2001.

Relative position of points

Surveying requires points on the earths surface or in the subsurface to be
related to each other. The relative position of points can be divided into two
types:

1. Determining the horizontal, also called the planimetric position
2. Determining differences in height or elevation

The horizontal position of points can be determined by a number of methods
including:

a) Triangulation
b) Trilateration
c) Radiation
d) Rectangular offsets
e) Satellite positioning systems
2

Triangulation

The length and direction of the line AB is known. Angles A and B are
measured.


Trilateration

The length and direction of the line AB is known. The lengths a and b are
measured.


3

Radiation

The length and direction of line AB is known, angle A and length B are
measured.

Rectangular offsets

The length and direction of the line AB is known. The distance d along the line
AB and the right angle offset h are measured.

















Satellite Methods

Described later in the notes.

4
Differences in Elevation

Differences in elevation between points can be determined by:

a) Differential levelling
b) Trigonometrical levelling

Differential levelling


The levelling instrument defines a horizontal line of sight. The vertical
distances above or below this line of sight are measured using a graduated
vertical staff.

Trigonometrical levelling

In this method the vertical angle and the slope distance to the target location
are measured and the difference in elevation is calculated.
5




Map and Plan scales

Survey results are usually presented in the form of a map, plan or computer
generated output at some scale. Numerous scales are used, the scale used
depends on the detail required. Scales are represented as some form of
representative fraction. Usually in the form of 1 map or plan unit to X ground
units, for example a scale of 1:500 means 1 mm on the plan represents 500
mm on the ground.

At this point it must be stressed that such plans are a horizontal
representation of the survey and are reduced to a horizontal plane for plotting
purposes.

In the modern world computers are used to process and store survey
information. Generally a database is created from the field survey information,
there may be several databases for example raw survey information and
various levels of processed survey information. Such databases may form a
portion of a Geographic information system (GIS).

Typically the database may contain the spatial coordinates of the points, the
east or E coordinate, the north or N coordinate and the Z or elevation
coordinate. These coordinates will be referred to some datum. Additional
information may be appended, for example the depth, dip and direction of a
borehole.

Trigonometry

Trigonometry is an essential element in the science of surveying. To aid the
student the following presents a review of the basic trigonometrical formulae
that are used in surveying.
6

Basic Trigonometrical ratios

With reference to the right angled triangle ABC, the angles are represented by
A, B and C whilst the length of the side opposite each angle is represented by
a, b and c.


Six common trigonometrical functions are used, the following lists the
common abbreviations employed mathematically:

Sine =sin
Cosine =cos
Tangent =tan
Cotangent =cot
Secant =sec
Cosecant =cosec

The basis of trigonometry is summarised by the following relationships:

B
a
b
CotA
B
a
c
A Co
ecB
b
c
SecA
B
b
a
TanA
B
c
b
CosA
B
c
a
SinA
tan
sec sec
cos
cot
sin
cos
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =


From the above the following can be derived:

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A
b
B
b
B
a
A
a
c
B a A a B c A c b
B b A b B c A c a
cos sin cos sin
tan cot sin cos
cot tan cos sin
= = = =
= = = =
= = = =


Additionally the pythagoras theorum can be applied to a right angled triangle

2 2 2
b a c + =

also for a right angled triangle the sum of the angles is always 180.

A +B +C =180

In the case of oblique triangles, those where no angle is equal to 90 as
illustrated on the following page the following relationships can be applied:

Sine rule:

C
c
B
b
A
a
sin sin sin
= =





Cosine Rule:

C ab b a c
B ac c a b
A bc c b a
cos 2
cos 2
cos 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
+ =
+ =
+ =

8

Half Angle Formulae

ab
b s a s C
ac
c s a s B
bc
c s b s A
) )( (
2
sin
) )( (
2
sin
) )( (
2
sin

=

=

=


Note: s =the semi perimeter of the triangle ABC =(a +b +c)/2

An alternative form of the half angle formulas are:

) ( 2
tan
) ( 2
tan
) ( 2
tan
c s
K C
b s
K B
a s
K A

=

where

s c s b s a s K / ) )( )( ( =

The following table summarises the formulas required to solve for various
missing elements of a triangle. This can be any three of the six elements,
angles A, B, C and lengths a,b,c in combination except the case where the
three angles are given, this yields an infinite number of solutions.



9
A number of other trigonometrical identities are also employed in the
derivation of formula used in surveying.

Compound angle relationships

) tan 1 (
) tan 2 (
2 tan
1 cos 2 sin 2 1 sin cos cos
2sinAcosA sin2A
then B A if
) tan tan 1 (
) tan (tan
) tan(
sin sin cos cos ) cos(
sin cos cos sin ) sin(
2
2 2 2 2 2
A
A
A
A A A A A
B A
B A
B A
B A B A B A
B A A A B A

=
= = =
=
=

=
=
=
m
m


Transformation of Products and Sums

} 2 / ) sin{( 2 sin sin
sin sin 2 ) cos( ) cos(
cos cos 2 ) cos( ) cos(
sin cos 2 ) sin( ) sin(
cos sin 2 ) sin( ) sin(
B A B A
B A B A B A
B A B A B A
B A B A B A
B A B A B A
+ = +
= +
= + +
= +
= + +

2
) (
cos
2
) (
cos 2 cos cos
2
) (
sin
2
) (
sin 2 cos cos
2
) (
cos
2
) (
sin 2 sin sin
2
) (
cos
2
) (
sin 2 sin sin
B A B A
B A
B A B A
B A
B A B A
B A
B A B A
B A
+
= +
+
=
+
=
+
= +


Errors

It must be noted that measurements are a comparison with a standard and
will always be subject to error. This is not just the case in surveying and
affects all aspects of measurement. The error in measurement can be defined
as:

10
value true the L
value measured the L
t measuremen in error the e
where
T
M
=
=
=
=
T m
L L e


With reference to the equation above the value of e is never known. Estimates
of the true value and error can be estimated by the use of statistics such as
the mean and standard deviation of a repeated set of measurements,
however this will only give an indication of the true value.

Errors in measurements can be subdivided into two types:

1. Random errors
2. Systematic errors

In addition to the above types an addition variation can be introduced to
measurements, these are not classed as errors and are Blunders and/or
Mistakes.

Random errors remain after all blunders and systematic errors have been
removed from a measurement. Random errors are the result of human and
instrument limitations and as such cannot be completely eliminated even
following statistical manipulation.

Propagation of random errors can result in large variations in calculated
quantities. This can be reduced by taking the mean of repeated
measurements and by applying the least square.

Systematic errors result from a number of causes. These include poor
adjustment of measuring equipment or changes in environmental conditions.
Under the same set of conditions these errors remain constant. Systematic
errors conform to physical laws and can be eliminated by applying the correct
adjustments to instruments prior to taking the measurement or by the
application of appropriate measurement techniques or adjustments to
measured values.

Accuracy and Precision

These are both important to understand. Accuracy is an indication of the
degree of agreement to the true value of a measurement. Precision is the
degree of agreement between measurements and has nothing to do with
accuracy.



11
1
Levelling

Levelling is also termed vertical control and refers to various heighting procedures
that are used to obtain the elevation of points of interest above or below a reference
datum. In Australia the most commonly used datum is the Australian Height Datum
(A.H.D.)
Engineers are generally more concerned with the relative height of one point above
or below another, to obtain the difference in height between the points. As such it is
not unusual for an arbitrary datum to be used locally.
The vertical heights of points above or below a reference datum are referred to as
the reduced level (RL) or more simply the level of a point.
Levelling
Levelling is the most widely used method of obtaining the elevations of ground points
relative to a reference datum and is usually carried out separately to the
determination of the planimetric position. Basically levelling involves the
measurement of vertical distance relative to a horizontal line of sight
Definitions
Reduced Level (R.L.)
The height of a point above the selected datum.
Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.)
This is the datum most frequently used. Datum for Australia is the Australian Height
Datum (A.H.D.)
Backsight (B.S.)
The first reading taken by an observer at every instrument station.
Foresight (F.S.)
The last reading taken at an instrument station
Intermediate sight (I.S.)
Any reading taken at an instrument station which is NOT a permanent stable
reference point.
Bench Mark (B.M.)
A point of known Reduced Level (R.L.), usually a permanent stable reference point.
Temporary Bench Mark (T.B.M.)
Where only relative heights are required or a bench mark is required within area of
work T.B.M. is established.
Change Point
The point at which the position of the instrument is changed, making it both a
backsight and foresight.
2
Basic Principle
To determine the difference in height between different points it is necessary
to produce a horizontal line of sight. This requires the use of an instrument. In
surveying, this instrument is known as a surveyor's level, often generically known as
a dumpy level although this is not strictly correct. All levels consist of these Features:
a telescope with a cross hair, mounted on a device that enables the line of sight to be
oriented in a horizontal plane or line.
Levels can be used for:
Determining the height of a particular point
Determining differences in height between points
Determining the contours of a land profile
Providing data for road cross-sections
Providing data to calculate volumes for earthworks
Setting out level surfaces for construction
Setting out inclined surfaces for construction

Factors influencing the use of Levels:
Clear lines of sight are needed between points to be measured.
Height precision is dependant upon the precision of the instrument used and
the length of the line of sight.
Height accuracy is maintained through proper adjustment of the level and
correct field procedures.
Models
There are three types of levels, defined by different design principles:
Dumpy - levelled using three foot screws to define a horizontal plane.
Tilting - manually tilted to give a horizontal line of sight only.
Automatic - automatically tilted to give a horizontal line of sight only.
Precision
The different types of levels can be further divided into different classes
defined by their precision:
Precise
These are very accurate instruments for geodetic networks, monitoring surveys or
any other very precise levelling. Instruments in this class are tilting or automatic types
and can be levelled within approximately +/-0.2" of a horizontal line.
Medium Accuracy
These are used for engineering surveys and small control networks. Instruments in
this class are tilting or automatic types and can be levelled within approximately +/-1"
of a horizontal line.
3
Builders

Used for low accuracy, short range levelling such as setting out on building sites.
Although described as being low accuracy instruments, this is relative to the other
classes of levels and the results obtained with this class of instruments will be well
within the tolerances required on the majority of construction sites. Instruments in this
class are tilting or dumpy types and can be levelled within approximately +/-10" of a
horizontal line or plane.
Auxiliary Equipment Required:
Levelling staff to determine height above a ground point or below an
overhead point.
Staff bubble to ensure the levelling staff is vertical during measurements.
Change plate to ensure the levelling staff is stable during measurements.

Figure 1 Staff Bubble
The Staff bubble is attached to the level staff while taking level readings. The staff
bubble should be centred in the circle as shown in the picture here. A centred staff
bubble indicates that the staff is being held vertical and accurate staff readings can
be made at this time. If a staff bubble is not available the staff can be rocked slowly
backwards and forwards and the minimum reading on the staff booked as this is the
reading when the staff is vertical.

Levelling staffs are made of wood, metal or glass fibre and are graduated into metres
and decimals as illustrated in figures 2, 3 and 4. The alternate metre lengths are
black and red on a white background. Most staffs are telescopic or socketed in three-
sections for easier carrying. The graduations come in numerous forms, the E Pattern
type, as defined in BS 4484 is commonly applied. The smallest graduation on the
staff is 0.01m with readings estimated to the nearest millimetre.

4

Figure 2


Figure 3


5

Figure 4

6

Figure 5 Change plate

Types of level

Dumpy level

The dumpy level is a small cheap optical level found on many construction sites, it is
not usually used by surveyors. For the line of sight to be horizontal the bubble tube
axis must be made perpendicular to the vertical axis - the direction of gravity. This is
achieved by the precise levelling of the foot screws.


Figure 6: Dumpy level
7
Tilting Level

These are a more modern instrument than the dumpy level, where the telescope can
be rotated slightly through the vertical plane. When the telescope is set onto the staff,
the line of sight is set precisely horizontal using the highly sensitive tubular bubble. A
tilting screw is used to raise or lower one end of the telescope to centre the tubular
bubble - the line of sight at this point is horizontal. This instrument was used
extensively in the past by Surveyors but has been largely superseded by the
Automatic Level.


Figure 7: Tilting level

The Automatic level

The telescope is rigidly fixed to the tribrach and the line of sight is set horizontally by
a vertical compensator set inside the telescope. Gravity acts on the compensator (a
series of prisms, forcing the line of sight through the telescope into the horizontal
plane).

The combination of low cost and simplicity of operation of the automatic level means
that it is the most popular type of level used in the Surveying Industry.
8

Figure 8: Automatic level
Digital Level
This instrument uses electronic digital image processing to evaluate a bar coded
survey staff. The process is very similar to the commonly used bar coding systems
used in industry. The system was first introduced in 1990 by the Wild company (now
Leica Geosystems) and has since been adopted by others. Digital image processing
allows height and distance data to be read and recorded electronically- thus
eliminating manual booking errors and also reducing the time taken for the manual
staff reading and booking process.

Figure 9: Digital level
9
The Levelling staff

There are a number of different types of staffs that are used for levelling. They are
usually made of rigid fibreglass or aluminium box sections of about 1.5m in length,
that telescope or socket together. Other varieties are made from wood and hinge
together. The total height for a staff is generally no higher than 5m.
The most common staffs are graduated in metres, decimetres and centimetres using
alternating colours of black and red (see picture at right). There are a variety of ways
in which they are graduated. The two most common types of staff faces are the E
type face or the 5mm graduated face.
The staff should be held vertical over the point to be measured with the face of the
staff pointing towards the level. The staff can be held vertical with the aid of a bubble
which has a convenient right angle handle which allows it to be held against the staff.
If a precise level is to be taken at a point then care must be taken too ensure the staff
is correctly positioned over the point and it does not subside under the weight of the
staff. For points that are not clearly defined or on soft ground a change plate is often
used.











Figure 10

Setting up the Automatic level
1. Set up the legs of the tripod so that they are firmly secured and the plate is
approximately horizontal.
2. Take the level out of the box, and while still holding firmly, attach it to the
head of the legs using the plate nut.
3. Centralise the circular bubble using the foot screws on the tribrach of the
level.
4. Eliminate parallax - This will occur when the crosshairs are not brought into
sharp focus. Parallax is present when the crosshairs appear to move when
the position of your eye changes. To eliminate parallax it is necessary to bring
the cross hairs into sharp focus using the eyepiece focusing screw.
5. Centre the vertical cross-hair on the levelling staff and clamp the telescope.
6. Focus onto the staff.
7. With the staff in the field of view as shown above in figure 10, record the staff
reading as shown by the horizontal cross-hair.
10

Figure 11

Booking and Reduction - Collimation method
Levelling observations are recorded either in specially ruled levelling books or
levelling sheets that are later stapled into a book. Information that should be included
on the sheet is the following:

Heading statement describing the job, date, personnel and Bench Mark data used.
The reduction of the observations should be done by either the Collimation method or
the Rise and fall method. The Rise and Fall method of booking is discussed later.

Spaces should be left for the relevant checks to be carried out.

Column left to enable to sets of observations to be compared or adjusted.

The steps for the reduction of the observations are as follows:

Determining the height of collimation and enter it into the appropriate column.
Collimation Height (CH) =RL BM+BS

Determine the RL for each intermediate point by subtracting the intermediate sight
staff reading from the collimation height. Results are written into the 'OUT' column.
RL Point =CH InterSight

The Foresight reading is subtracted from the collimation height and compared to the
known RL of the Bench mark (BM).
RL BM =CH - FS

Reductions must be checked by:
11
CH =(Sum of BS +Sum of IS +Sum of FS +RLout )/n
n =number of staff readings

If a second set of levelling observations are taken from a new point, the staff
observations are booked and reduced in a similar manner to the first set.

The reduced RL for each point is placed in the REDUCEDBACK column.

The seconded set of reduced RL's are transcribed onto the first levelling sheet in the
REDUCEDBACK column.

If no gross errors are evident the mean RL for each point is determined and written
into the adjusted column.


Figure 12: Booking sheet following the height of Collimation method

Series Levelling (Rise and Fall)- Field Procedure
What is Series Levelling?
Series Levelling can be described as the procedure of moving the instrument through
a succession of points. At each level position a BS and FS is read and booked. See
figure 13. This procedure becomes necessary when heights are needed at a number
of points or the BM is some distance from the site of interest.
Series levelling should commence and terminate on points of known RL
(Bench Marks).
Referring to figure 13 the field procedure is a follows:

12

Figure 13
1. The instrument is set up approximately 50m to 100m away from the BM (point
A) and a staff reading to the nearest 0.001m is observed and booked.
2. The staff is moved to the FS position (point B) and again the observation is
observed to 0.001m and booked. (An example of the booking sheet is shown
in figure 14)
Care should be taken that the BS distance is equal or nearly
equal to the FS distance.
This point (A) is referred to as a change point and must be a
firm physical object.
3. The level is then moved to point 2 approximately 50m to 100m from staff, as
shown in the diagram above. A BS reading is then observed to the staff at B
to the nearest 0.001m.
4. If any levels are required to objects in the immediate area of the level, then
intermediate levels are taken and booked in the intermediate sight column.
5. The staff is then moved to the next change point (C) and a FS reading taken.
6. These steps are repeated until the end of the levelling run is reached - the
last point (FS) should always be a point of known RL. When the observations
are complete:-
7. The observations are then reduced as shown below.
Series Reduction Steps
Sum the BS Column and sum the FS column
Sum of BS minus sum of FS should equal the first RL minus last RL
Calculate the rise and fall for each line
Sum the rise and fall columns. The difference between the two columns must
equal the difference between BS and FS column.
Using the rise or fall value for each line calculate the RL for each change
point.
Subtract the last RL from the first RL. The result should be the same as BS -
FS
13

Figure 14: Rise and Fall booking sheet

Visit the following website to view an online demonstration of levelling:

http://www.cage.curtin.edu.au/leap/virtu-o-modules/virtu-o-
levelling/1_LevellingModuleStart/1_LevellingModuleStart.html

The following pages are taken from Schofield W (2001) Engineering Surveying:
Theory and examination problems for students, 5
th
ed, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford, ISBN 0 7506 4987 9 and demonstrate the methods of undertaking a levelling
exercise and booking.

14
15
16

17
Trigonometrical Levelling

An alternative to using a level is to use a theodolite and measure angles and
distances to determine changes in level. The following pages sourced from Schofield
W (2001) Engineering Surveying: Theory and examination problems for students, 5
th

ed, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, ISBN 0 7506 4987 9 give details of this method.

18

19

20

21

1
Angle Measurement

Theodolites

A theodolite is an instrument specifically designed for measuring angles.

A horizontal angle is the angle in Plan subtended by two distant points at the station
where the theodolite is set up.

A vertical angle is one between a distant point and a vertical axis (zenith angle) or a
horizontal axis (angle of elevation or depression) at the geometric centre of the
theodolite. Note: the geometric centre is the intersection point of the vertical and the
horizontal axes of rotation and the line of collimation of the telescope, as illustrated in
figure 1.


Figure 1 Theodolite Geometry
2


Figure 2 Theodolite

Angle measurement is undertaken as part of control and detail surveys. It can also
be used to set out angles on construction sites; it can also be used to extend straight
lines and to check verticality (also called plumbing). In modern surveying theodolites
are frequently used in combination with electromagnetic distance measuring
equipment.

1 Theodolite construction

The main component of any theodolite is a telescope equipped with cross hairs
enabling precise sighting of distant points. This telescope is able to rotate about
vertical and horizontal axes, with the angles of rotation measured on graduated
circles. The theodolite is mounted on a tripod enabling it to be set with its axes
correctly aligned and its geometric centre over a station.

Theodolite precision depends on quality of construction, but more importantly on the
magnification of the telescope, the lowest direct reading it can take (known as the
least count) and the plate bubble sensitivity. The sensitivity is quoted as the number
of seconds corresponding to one division (2mm) on the bubble tube of dislevelment

1.1 Telescope

A telescope provides approximately 30x magnification with internal focussing
producing a real erect image, which can be made coincident with the crosshairs. A
gun sight allows for an initial pointing to be made. Horizontal and vertical clamps are
provided to lock the telescope. With these locked tangent screws can be used to
3
allow small limited movement for exact sighting of a point. The circle-viewing
eyepiece is generally located next to the telescope eyepiece. The barrels of both can
be rotated to provide clear images of the circle graduations and of the crosshairs.

1.2 Circles

1.2.1 Optical Theodolite

Graduated glass circles are enclosed and are viewed via an auxiliary eyepiece. A
small mirror must be adjusted to provide adequate circle illumination by natural light
or an artificial source. Many instruments have an optical micrometer controlled by a
screw to enable angles to be read with sufficient precision.

1.2.2 Electronic Theodolite

Glass circles are used for stability, electronic codings are scanned and angles
displayed on an LCD screen.

1.3 Standards

The telescope is supported by two standards and can rotate about a horizontal
trunnion axis running between them. The clamp and tangent screws controlling this
motion are located on one of the standards, as are the mirror for circle illumination
and the micrometer screw. The vertical circle is located in one of the standards, on
older instruments an attitude bubble for indexing the vertical circle was mounted on
top of this standard. A clipping screw is fitted to the same standard to allow centring
of this bubble. In modern instruments automatic indexing is achieved using a
pendulum and damper inside the standard.

1.4 Plate assembly

The standards project upwards from the plate assembly. This contains the horizontal
clamp and tangent screw, the horizontal circle with a means of setting it (often a
second clamp and tangent screw), an optical plummet and the plate bubble. The
plate assembly above the circle, the standards and the plate bubble are called the
upper motion or alidade.

1.5 Tribrach

This supports the plate assembly, which is allowed to rotate horizontally above it.
Three footscrews allow the instrument to be levelled so that the vertical axis is truly
vertical. The plate bubble is used to check this levelling, a small bullseye bubble is
often also provided to enable a quick approximation of levelling to be made. The
tribrach is the lowest part of the theodolite and is bolted on top of a tripod prior to
use.

1.6 Tripods

These have pointed feet and telescopic legs to allow them to be set firmly over
stations enabling the theodolite to be easily and precisely levelled and centred. The
flat head and securing bolt allow theodolites to be moved by a small amount
4
sidewards to allow precise centring over a station as checked via the optical plummet
in the plate assembly. Provision also exits for the hanging of a plumb bob.

2 Setting up

For angle readings to be valid a theodolite must be set up with the vertical axis truly
vertical (shown by the plate bubble) and with this axis over the station. Two methods
of setting up exist, the first does not require a plumb bob, this works best when the
instrument is set up over a point that is at the same level as the tripod feet. The
second involves the use of a plumb bob.

The first two steps are the same regardless which method is used.

1. Open the tripod legs; adjust the length of the legs so that the instrument when
attached is at a convenient height. Clamp the legs and by estimation set the
tripod over the station.
2. Remove the theodolite from its box, bolt it centrally on the tripod and set the foot
screws to the middle of their travel.

Method 1

3. Tread one tripod foot into the ground, and looking through the optical plummet
position the other two legs so that the station appears central. Tread in the other
two feet. If on a hard smooth surface this cannot be done, the tripod legs must be
prevented from slipping sidewards.
4. If the station appears to be no longer central in the plummet, turn the foot screws
until it appears central.
5. Make the instrument level by raising or lowering the tripod legs. If a bullseye
bubble is fitted use this, if not set the plate bubble parallel to the line between two
legs, shorten or lengthen the legs to centre the bubble. Turn the alidade through
90 and recentre the bubble by adjusting the third leg. Repeat this until the
bubble is to within two divisions of central. Sight through the optical plummet, if
the instrument is not centred, recentre it by slackening the securing bolt, slide the
theodolite horizontally and tighten the bolt.
6. Finely level the theodolite using the foot screws. Set the plate bubble parallel to
the line of two foot screws and turn these screws in opposite directions until the
bubble is central. Turn the alidade trough 90 and recentre the bubble using the
third foot screw. Return the bubble to its original position and repeat the
procedure until the bubble remains central in both positions. The bubble will
follow the direction of the left thumb. If the bubble is correctly set in its mounting,
it will remain central whatever its disposition. This can be checked by turning the
alidade through 180 from its first position. If the bubble moves off centre it
should be brought halfway back with the foot screws with further adjustments
made with all foot screws so that the bubble remains in this off-centre position.
Figure 3 shows the plate with the bubble in its various positions.
7. Precisely centre the theodolite. Loosen the securing bolt and carefully move the
instrument sideways till the station appears central in the optical plummet.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 until the theodolite remains centred and level.
9. Sighting on a plain background rotate the eyepiece to focus the crosshairs.
5

Figure 3 levelling the theodolite

Method 2

3. Hang the plumb bob under the theodolite. Move the tripod legs and bring the bob
over the station and level the tripod legs. The legs should be moved
circumferentially for levelling and radially for centring. Tread the legs into the
ground. If this moves the bob off centre shorten or lengthen the tripod legs to
bring it back.
4. Finely level the theodolite using the foot screws. Set the plate bubble parallel to
the line of two foot screws and turn these screws in opposite directions until the
bubble is central. Turn the alidade trough 90 and recentre the bubble using the
third foot screw. Return the bubble to its original position and repeat the
procedure until the bubble remains central in both positions. The bubble will
follow the direction of the left thumb. If the bubble is correctly set in its mounting,
it will remain central whatever its disposition. This can be checked by turning the
alidade through 180 from its first position. If the bubble moves off centre it
should be brought halfway back with the foot screws with further adjustments
made with all foot screws so that the bubble remains in this off-centre position.
Figure 3 shows the plate with the bubble in its various positions.
5. Precisely centre the theodolite
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until the theodolite remains levelled and centred
7. Sighting on a plain background rotate the eyepiece to focus the crosshairs.

3 Telescope positions

The telescope can be in two positions for observations. The vertical circle can be
either to the left of the telescope as seen by the surveyor (face left) or to the right
(face right). Usually one starts with face left readings, with repeat readings taken face
right.

4 Horizontal angle readings

Horizontal angles are those subtended by two distant stations. Horizontal circles of
theodolites are graduated in a clockwise sense in plan and measured angles are
generally quoted clockwise (ABC is the clockwise angle at B from A to C). It is also
usually convenient to swing the alidade clockwise from the first to the second station
for the first measurement of the angle. The value of the clockwise angle is the first
reading subtracted from the second. If the second reading is lower than the first add
360 to it.

6
The first station sighted is taken as the reference object (RO). Ideally it is the most
permanent, most distant and most sharply defined station.


Figure 4 Horizontal angles

Procedure

1. Ensure that the horizontal circle is clamped to the tribrach.
2. Release the horizontal and vertical clamps and swing the telescope to sight the
target.
3. Look through the telescope and focus it on the target. Lock the clamps and use
the tangent screws to bring the target into coincidence with the vertical cross hair.
Check that parallax is eliminated.
4. Read the horizontal circle and book the reading.
5. Release the clamps (be sure to keep the circle clamped to the tribrach) turn the
alidade and move the telescope in elevation to sight the second target. Repeat
the sighting, reading and booking procedure.

Target sighting

The target should be sighted as precisely as possible. Focus the telescope and
crosshairs so that there is no parallax between target and crosshair images. Lines of
sight should be at least 1m above ground level. If the target cannot be sighted
directly:

1. Get the chainman to hold a spirit level over it indicating which side is to be
sighted
2. Get the chainman to hold a plumb bob over the station
3. Set a tripod and plumb bob over it
4. Set a tripod and a surveying target over it

Angle reading

The smallest figured division on the circle of a theodolite is its least count, 20
seconds, 10 seconds, 5 seconds or 1 second in increasing order of precision. Three
systems of circle reading exist:

1. Direct: the circle is marked in degrees and the minute and 20 second intervals
are read off the index scale against the degree division.
2. Electronic: readings to the least count are automatically displayed.
3. Optical micrometer: the glass micrometer allows the reading of intervals smaller
than can be scribed in the circle or index. The ray of light from the circle divisions
can be moved sideways by passing through a plane sheet of glass which can be
rotated. The surveyor turns the micrometer screw until a division on the circle
7
coincides with the fixed index mark. The amount of rotation is proportional to the
sideways movement in minutes and seconds and is displayed on a micrometer
scale viewed trough the circle telescope.

Micrometer Operation

1. With reference to figure 5 turn the micrometer screw until the micrometer reads
zero.
2. Turn the screw until the circle scale shows coincidence of a division and the
index marker. On a one second instrument obtain coincidence of diametrically
opposite divisions (see figure 6). Read the circle and micrometer scales adding
values to get the angle values.

The horizontal and vertical scales usually appear close to each other so

Take care to read the correct value
Where the micrometer serves both circles reset it to read vertical angle after the
horizontal one

Figure 5 and Figure 6

Rounds of angles procedure and booking

Angles should be observed more than once so that:
8

1. Inconsistent values can be identified and rejected
2. A mean of several consistent values can be taken
3. For optical reading instruments both faces and different parts of the circle can be
used so providing compensation for some instrumental errors.

For an optical reading theodolite take a round of angles by commencing sighting the
RO on face left, swinging right (clockwise in plan) and sighting the other stations in
turn. At the final station transit the telescope to face right position without disturbing
the circle, observe the stations in reverse order swinging left finally sighting the RO.

Each subsequent round should be commenced at 180/n further clockwise around
the circle for a total of n rounds.

Table 1 shows booking and reduction

Table 1

Readings Calculations
Face Mean
direction
Reduced
Angle Inst at Sighting Left Right
I
Round 1
A 000342 1800344 000343 000000
B 672437 2472433 672435 672052
C 1162103 2962055 1162059 1161716
I
Round 2
A 904118 2704121 904120 000000
B 1580212 3380214 1580213 672053
C 2065830 265835 2065832 1161712


5 Angle readings vertical

Modern instruments have 360vertical circles with zero representing on face left a
vertical upward, a horizontal or a vertical downward sight depending on manufacture.
On modern instruments the first type known as zenith zero is the most common.
Electronic instruments generally allow switching between zenith angles, horizontal
angles and percentage grades. Figure 7 shows the most common figuring of vertical
angles.

9


Figure 7 vertical circle figuring

Indexing

Older instruments are fitted with a altitude bubble connected to the vertical circle. It is
located on one of the standards and is levelled by a clipping screw, this screw is
distinguished from the other screws by being fluted rather than knurled. Before
vertical angles are measured circle indexing must be undertaken by centring the
altitude bubble with the clipping screw, this gives greater precision than obtainable
with the plate bubble.

Modern optical instruments have automatic vertical indexing. Most electronic
instruments have automatic indexing.

Angle measurement

1. Note circle zero position and figuring
2. Index the vertical circle (if not automatic)
3. Accurately sight the target, read and book the angle.

Note

1. Micrometer is used as for horizontal circle readings
2. One second instruments give a mean of diametrically opposite readings
3. Take a mean of readings on both faces

5.1 Trigonometric heighting

Trigonometrical heighting or levelling can be undertaken using a theodolite. Over
long distances there will be error from the effects of earth curvature and refraction.
This is a convenient method if an EDM is attached to the theodolite to enable
distances to be measured.

10
Corrections can be evaluated as linear amounts as in precise levelling or as angular
amounts to be applied to vertical angles.


Figure 8 Trigonometrical heighting

Figure 8 shows such an exercise being conducted between station A with an
instrument height h
I
and station B with an instrument height h
T
. The zenith angle has
been measured as and the slope distance been determined as D. Angular
corrections of c (curvature) and kc (refraction taken as opposite in sign to c) are to be
applied, note k is the coefficient of refraction and R is the earths radius.

Rise AB = h
I
+ Dsin[90 - + c(1 k)] h
T


Rise AB = h
I
+ Dcos[ - c(1 k)] h
T


The curvature correction will be half the angle subtended at the earths centre by the
distance AB. The slope distance D may be approximated to an arc, so:

c (radians) = D/2R or c in seconds = 206265D/2R

Combined correction (seconds) = 206265D(1-k)/2R

A typical value for k is 0.14.

Reciprocal trigonometrical heighting can also be undertaken (see reciprocal levelling)

6 Instrument errors and permanent adjustments

For a discussion of these please refer to a standard surveying text book.

The following pages are taken from Schofield W (2001) Engineering Surveying:
Theory and examination problems for students, 5
th
ed, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford, ISBN 0 7506 4987 9.
11

12

13

14

1

Linear Measurement

1 Taping

Engineering surveys require steel tapes, the most popular being 30 metre tapes
made of mild steel with a protective covering. Two types of winder are in common
usage:

1. Open frame: reduces the build up of dirt on the tape
2. Closed or encased winder: more compact

Markings on tapes are every 5mm with 1mm divisions for the first and last metre or
1mm divisions throughout. Additionally a 3 m or 5m long spring loaded pocket tape is
also useful, especially in terms of setting out.

Fifty and 100 m tapes are also used, for longer measurements it is more convenient
to employ electromagnetic forms of measurements.

1.1 Using a Tape

a) Keep the tape taut so that it is straight in plan and elevation
b) Align the tape precisely with the points being measured. At times it can be difficult
to measure from the start point of the tape, this is especially so when tension is to
be applied. In these cases an additional handle with a spring clip can be used on
the tape to give a firm grip, or the 1m mark can be used as the zero mark (in this
case ensure 1m is deducted from the tape reading).
c) Apply the correct tension to the tape.
d) Distances of a greater length than the length of the tape need to be measured in
two or more bays. At the end of each bay a precise stable mark must be made,
examples include a peg with a nail or a sharp mark on concrete)

1.2 Tape care

Tapes need to be well looked after. In unwinding a tape care should be taken to
ensure that the tape is not pulled off the winder. When using a tape ensure that it
does not become kinked, scratched, stretched or broken. Winding in a tape should
be undertaken with care to avoid kinking, twisting and the ingress of dirt and moisture
into the winder.

Periodic maintenance includes removing the tape from the winder and cleaning the
tape. Tapes and winders should also be lightly oiled. Broken tapes can be repaired
by riveting connected strips across the break, however this is only a temporary repair
and broken tapes should be replaced.

1.3 Tape Corrections

1.3.1 Slope Reduction

A measurement can be taken on a slope where a horizontal distance is required, to
do this either the zenith angle (), or the difference in elevation V at the ends of the
tape need to be determined as shown in figure 1. The zenith angle can be
determined with a theodolite and the latter by leveling.
2

With reference to figure 1:

sin ) (D (H) Distance Horizontal
2 2
D V = =


Figure 1: Slope reduction

1.3.2 Standardization Correction

In some cases tapes can have a long enough lifetime to become permanently
stretched. If such stretching is suspected the tape needs to be compared with a
known length, e.g. a new tape. Then all measurements taken with the suspect tape
need to be corrected by:

length nominal Tape
length actual Tape


1.3.3 Tension Correction

The corrections that are applied for tension effects, temperature, sag and altitude are
small and can be neglected if the tape is used at a tension close to the standard
value and on the flat.

A spring balance connected to the tape is used to measure its tension. From a
measurement viewpoint it is convenient to attach the balance to the measuring end
to enable measurement of tension and distance at the same time. The balance can
be connected by roller grips. The simplest measurement is to set a standard tension,
for example 45 or 50 Newtons; this value should be marked close to the zero of the
tape. If non-standard tensions are used the thinning or thickening of the tape,
3
Youngs modulus of the tape and thickness will be required to calculate the true
value.

1.3.4 Sag correction

Tapes are standardised on the flat, thus, where possible measurements should be
made on flat or nearly flat surfaces. Where this is not possible tapes are suspended.
When suspended tapes take the form of a catenary and so the measurement will be
too long. To calculate the effect of the sag or catenary the tension and weight of the
tape per unit length need to be known, either from weighing the tape or from
manufacturers specifications.

1.3.5 Temperature

Tapes will expand or contract depending on the temperature at which the
measurements are taken compared to that at which they were standardised. To
determine this effect the temperature of the measurement needs to be determined
and the coefficient of linear expansion known.

1.3.6 Altitude Correction

Measurements need to be corrected to give the equivalent distance at sea level or
other datum level used.

Table 1 shows correction factors and formulae and typical values of tension, sag,
temperature and altitude corrections.

1.3.7 Compromise tension

Where a suspended steel tape is used a compromise tension can be applied such
that the effects of sag are balanced by a tension higher than the standard one.
Values are:

70 N for a 10mm wide tape
105 N for a 13mm wide tape

1.3.8 Accuracy of taping

Manufacturers quote a standard error of 3mm, in a 30m long tape for steel tapes.
4

Table 1

Tape Corrections
Typical physical data (note values should be checked for each tape)
P
s
= 50N, t
s
= 20C, = 0.0000112/C, E = 200000 N/mm
2
, R = 6370 km
Source of error Tension
variation
Sag Temperature
Variation
Altitude Effect
Correction
AE
D P P
s
) (

2
3 2
24P
D w

D t t
s
) (
R
Dh

Typical
correction
values for 30m
length with data
above
P = 70
A = 3.25
Correction =
+ 0.0009
P = 70
w = 0.240
Correction =
- 0.0132
t = 10C
Correction =
-0.0034
h = 1000m
Correction =
-0.0047

Symbols

P = Field tension (N)
P
s
=Standard tension (N)
D = measured distance (m)
A = cross sectional area (mm
2
)
E = Youngs Modulus (N/mm
2
)
w =weight/unit length (N/m)
t = field temperature (C)
t
s
= standard temperature (C)
= coefficient of linear expansion (/C)
h = height above sea level (km)
R = radius of earth (km)

The following pages are sourced from Schofield W (2001) Engineering Surveying:
Theory and examination problems for students, 5
th
ed, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford, ISBN 0 7506 4987 9 and deal with the subject of electromagnetic distance
measuring (edm).
5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

1


Map Projection Overview

Peter H. Dana


These materials were developed by Peter H. Dana, Department of Geography, University of
Texas at Austin, 1995. These materials may be used for study, research, and education in not-for-
profit applications. If you link to or cite these materials, please credit the author, Peter H. Dana,
The Geographer's Craft Project, Department of Geography, The University of Colorado at
Boulder. These materials may not be copied to or issued from another Web server without the
author's express permission.
Copyright 1999 Peter H. Dana. All commercial rights are reserved. If you have comments or
suggestions, please contact the author or Kenneth E. Foote at k.foote@colorado.edu.

Revised: 2000.10.3. KEF.

Introduction

Map projections are attempts to portray the surface of the earth or a portion of the earth on a
flat surface. Some distortions of conformality, distance, direction, scale, and area always result
from this process. Some projections minimize distortions in some of these properties at the
expense of maximizing errors in others. Some projections are attempts to only moderately distort
all of these properties.
Conformality
When the scale of a map at any point on the map is the same in any
direction, the projection is conformal. Meridians (lines of longitude) and
parallels (lines of latitude) intersect at right angles. Shape is preserved
locally on conformal maps.
Distance
A map is equidistant when it portrays distances from the center of the
projection to any other place on the map.
Direction
A map preserves direction when azimuths (angles from a point on a line to
another point) are portrayed correctly in all directions.
Scale
Scale is the relationship between a distance portrayed on a map and the
same distance on the Earth.
Area
When a map portrays areas over the entire map so that all mapped areas
have the same proportional relationship to the areas on the Earth that they
represent, the map is an equal-area map.

Different map projections result in different spatial relationships between regions.
2

Three Different Map Projections of the United States


Albers Equal Area and Lambert Conformal Conic Projections of North America

Map projections fall into four general classes.
3

Cylindrical projections result from projecting a spherical surface onto a cylinder.
When the cylinder is tangent to the sphere contact is along a great circle
(the circle formed on the surface of the Earth by a plane passing through
the center of the Earth)..

Projection of a Sphere onto a Cylinder (Tangent Case)
4

In the secant case, the cylinder touches the sphere along two lines, both
small circles (a circle formed on the surface of the Earth by a plane not
passing through the center of the Earth).


Projection of a Sphere onto a Cylinder (Secant Case)
5

When the cylinder upon which the sphere is projected is at right angles to
the poles, the cylinder and resulting projection are transverse.

Transverse Projection of a Sphere onto a Cylinder (Tangent
Case)
6

When the cylinder is at some other, non-orthogonal, angle with respect to
the poles, the cylinder and resulting projection is oblique.

Oblique Projection of a Sphere onto a Cylinder (Tangent
Case)
7

Conic projections result from projecting a spherical surface onto a cone.

When the cone is tangent to the sphere contact is along a small circle.

Projection of a Sphere onto a Cone (Tangent Case)
8

In the secant case, the cone touches the sphere along two lines, one a
great circle, the other a small circle.

Projection of a Sphere onto a Cone (Secant Case)
9

Azimuthal projections result from projecting a spherical surface onto a plane.
When the plane is tangent to the sphere contact is at a single point on the
surface of the Earth.

Projection of a Sphere onto a Plane (Tangent Case)
10

In the secant case, the plane touches the sphere along a small circle if the
plane does not pass through the center of the earth, when it will touch
along a great circle.

Projection of a Sphere onto a Plane (Secant Case)
11

Miscellaneous projections include unprojected ones such as rectangular latitude
and longitude grids and other examples of that do not fall into the cylindrical,
conic, or azimuthal categories

Selected Map Projections

Cylindrical Projections

Cylindrical Equal Area
Cylindrical Equal-Area projections have straight meridians and parallels, the
meridians are equally spaced, the parallels unequally spaced. There are normal,
transverse, and oblique cylindrical equal-area projections. Scale is true along the
central line (the equator for normal, the central meridian for transverse, and a
selected line for oblique) and along two lines equidistant from the central line.
Shape and scale distortions increase near points 90 degrees from the central line.

Behrmann Cylindrical Equal-Area
Behrmann's cylindrical equal-area projection uses 30:00 North as the
parallel of no distortion.


Behrmann Cylindrical Equal-Area

Gall's Stereographic Cylindrical
Gall's stereographic cylindrical projection results from projecting the
earth's surface from the equator onto a secant cylinder intersected by the
globe at 45 degrees north and 45 degrees south. This projection
moderately distorts distance, shape, direction, and area.
12

Gall's Sterographic Cylindrical

Peters
The Peters projection is a cylindrical equal-area projection that
de-emphasizes area exaggerations in high latitudes by shifting the standard
parallels to 45 or 47 degrees.

Peters

Mercator
The Mercator projection has straight meridians and parallels that intersect at right
angles. Scale is true at the equator or at two standard parallels equidistant from
13
the equator. The projection is often used for marine navigation because all
straight lines on the map are lines of constant azimuth.

Mercator

Miller Cylindrical
The Miller projection has straight meridians and parallels that meet at right
angles, but straight lines are not of constant azimuth. Shapes and areas are
distorted. Directions are true only along the equator. The projection avoids the
scale exaggerations of the Mercator map.

Miller Cylindrical
14
Oblique Mercator
Oblique Mercator projections are used to portray regions along great circles.
Distances are true along a great circle defined by the tangent line formed by the
sphere and the oblique cylinder, elsewhere distance, shape, and areas are
distorted. Once used to map Landsat images (now replaced by the Space
Oblique Mercator), this projection is used for areas that are long, thin zones at a
diagonal with respect to north, such as Alaska State Plane Zone 5001.

Oblique Mercator (Alaska State Plane Zone 5001)

Transverse Mercator
Transverse Mercator projections result from projecting the sphere onto a
cylinder tangent to a central meridian. Transverse Mercator maps are often used
to portray areas with larger north-south than east-west extent. Distortion of
scale, distance, direction and area increase away from the central meridian.

Many national grid systems are based on the Transverse Mercator projection

The British National Grid (BNG) is based on the National Grid System of
England, administered by the British Ordnance Survey. The true origin of
the system is at 49 degrees north latitude and 2 degrees west longitude.
The false origin is 400 km west and 100 km north. Scale at the central
meridian is 0.9996. The first BNG designator defines a 500 km square.
The second designator defines a 100 km square. The remaining numeric
characters define 10 km, 1 km, 100 m, 10 m, or 1 m eastings and
northings.
15

British National Grid 100 km Squares

The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection is used to define
horizontal, positions world-wide by dividing the surface of the Earth into 6
degree zones, each mapped by the Transverse Mercator projection with a
central meridian in the center of the zone. UTM zone numbers designate 6
degree longitudinal strips extending from 80 degrees South latitude to 84 degrees
North latitude. UTM zone characters designate 8 degree zones extending north
and south from the equator.
16

UTM Zones

Eastings are measured from the central meridian (with a 500km false
easting to insure positive coordinates). Northings are measured from the
equator (with a 10,000km false northing for positions south of the
equator).
17

UTM Zone 14

Pseudocylindrical Projections

Pseudocylindrical projections resemble cylindrical projections, with straight and parallel
latitude lines and equally spaced meridians, but the other meridians are curves.

Mollweide

The Mollweide projection, used for world maps, is pseudocylindrical and
equal-area. The central meridian is straight. The 90th meridians are circular arcs.
Parallels are straight, but unequally spaced. Scale is true only along the standard
parallels of 40:44 N and 40:44 S.
18

Mollweide Projection

Eckert Projections

Eckert IV Equal Area

The Eckert IV projection, used for world maps, is a pseudocylindrical
and equal-area. The central meridian is straight, the 180th meridians are
semi-circles, other meridians are elliptical. Scale is true along the parallel
at 40:30 North and South.

19
Eckert IV Equal Area

Eckert VI Equal Area
The Eckert VI projection , used for maps of the world, is
pseudocylindrical and equal area. The central meridian and all parallels are
at right angles, all other meridians are sinusoidal curves. Shape distortion
increases at the poles. Scale is correct at standard parallels of 49:16
North and South.


Eckert VI Equal Area

Robinson

The Robinson projection is based on tables of coordinates, not mathematical
formulas. The projection distorts shape, area, scale, and distance in an attempt
to balance the errors of projection properties.
20

Robinson

Sinusoidal Equal Area

Sinusoidal equal-area maps have straight parallels at right angles to a central
meridian. Other meridians are sinusoidal curves. Scale is true only on the central
meridian and the parallels. Often used in countries with a larger north-south than
east-west extent.


Sinusoidal Equal Area
21

Conic Projections

Albers Equal Area Conic

A conic projection that distorts scale and distance except along standard
parallels. Areas are proportional and directions are true in limited areas. Used in
the United States and other large countries with a larger east-west than
north-south extent.


Albers Equal-Area Conic

Equidistant Conic

Direction, area, and shape are distorted away from standard parallels. Used for
portrayals of areas near to, but on one side of, the equator.
22

Equidistant Conic

Lambert Conformal Conic

Area, and shape are distorted away from standard parallels. Directions are true
in limited areas. Used for maps of North America.

Lambert Conformal Conic (North America)

Polyconic
The polyconic projection was used for most of the earlier USGS topographic
23
quadrangles. The projection is based on an infinite number of cones tangent to an
infinite number of parallels. The central meridian is straight. Other meridians are
complex curves. The parallels are non-concentric circles. Scale is true along
each parallel and along the central meridian.

Polyconic (North America)

Azimuthal Projections

Azimuthal Equidistant

Azimuthal equidistant projections are sometimes used to show air-route
distances. Distances measured from the center are true. Distortion of other
properties increases away from the center point.
24

Azimuthal Equidistant
25

Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area

The Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection is sometimes used to map large
ocean areas. The central meridian is a straight line, others are curved. A straight
line drawn through the center point is on a great circle.

Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area
26

Orthographic

Orthographic projections are used for perspective views of hemispheres. Area
and shape are distorted. Distances are true along the equator and other parallels.

Oblique Aspect Orthographic Projection
27

Stereographic

Stereographic projections are used for navigation in polar regions. Directions are
true from the center point and scale increases away from the center point as
does distortion in area and shape.

North Polar Stereographic

28

Miscellaneous Projections

Unprojected Maps
Unprojected maps include those that are formed by considering longitude and
latitude as a simple rectangular coordinate system. Scale, distance, area, and
shape are all distorted with the distortion increasing toward the poles.


World: Unprojected Latitude and Longitude

North America: Unprojected Latitude and Longitude
29

Texas: Unprojected Latitude and Longitude

Texas State-Wide Projection

In 1992, the Cartographic Standards Working Group proposed a Texas
State-Wide Map Projection Standard for the GIS Standards Committee of the
GIS Planning Council for the Department of Information Sciences.
Earlier maps had often used projections designed for the continental United
States
30

Texas: Lambert Conformal Conic designed for the Continental United
States

The new projection was designed to allow state-wide mapping with a minimum
of scale distortion. A Lambert Conformal Conic Projection was proposed with
an origin at 31:10 North, 100:00 West and with standard parallels at 27:25
North and 34:55 North. For plane coordinate use a false Easting and Northing
of 1,000,000 meters were defined for the origin.
31

Texas: Texas State-Wide Map Projection
32

Space Oblique Mercator

The Space Oblique Mercator is a projection designed to show the curved
ground-track of Landsat images. There is little distortion along the ground-track
but only within the narrow band (about 15 degrees) of the Landsat image.

Space Oblique Mercator

References

Bugayevskiy, Lev M. and J ohn P. Snyder. 1995. Map Projections: A Reference
Manual. London: Taylor and Francis.

Muehrcke, Phillip C. and J uliana O. Muehrcke. 1998. Map Use:
Reading-Analysis-Interpretation, 4th ed. Madison, WI: J P Publications.

Snyder, J ohn P. 1987. Map projections: a working manual. USGS Professional
Paper 1395. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office.

Many of the maps on this page were produced using MapInfo's MapInfo and Golden
Software's MapViewer and Surfer for Windows.

Notes sourced from:

http://geography.about.com/science/geography/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fw
ww.colorado.Edu%2Fgeography%2Fgcraft%2Fnotes%2Fgps%2Fgps.html

1
Control Surveys

1 Introduction

In surveying and setting out, it is required to carry out a control survey of the area in
the early stages of the project. The objective is to establish of permanent or semi-
permanent points for plan control and levelling. This enables a unified, self checking
survey of the required precision to be produced.

It should be noted that whereas an error in detailing often has no effect on the
location of subsequent points and even if small may be insignificant, an error at the
control stage may affect the whole survey. Thus, most control surveys must be tied to
existing known points.

Traditionally control surveys have been carried out employing linear, angular and
levelling measurements, which connect the stations. Control surveys should
incorporate checks for closure at several stages. Large discrepancies indicate that
the work, either in part or in full, must be repeated. Small discrepancies, once
corrections of systematic errors have been accounted for, within specified tolerances
may either be left or as is more common mat be removed by the adjustment of the
observations to produce mathematical consistency.

Prior to the development of computer programs for survey adjustment, field methods
were employed allowing manual adjustment to be performed; these however
provided few redundant measures. Computer programs are now available that are
able to adjust highly complex networks, in three dimensions, with many redundant
measures.

Survey adjustment procedures are in no way designed to compensate for poor field
measurement.

Development of EDM techniques and total station theodolites has enabled the rapid
taking of extra measurements, these can provide further checks and if consistent
these can strengthen a survey.

Satellite surveying, commonly termed GPS, is now in use to establish control
stations. All surveying operations use two receivers. One must be at a point of known
coordinates to enable corrections to be determined and applied in the location of new
stations. Redundant measures can be obtained by receiving signals from more than
the minimum required of four satellites, and by the taking of paired observations from
opposite ends of lines forming a network.

1.1 Planning a control survey

1 A specification linking precision with permitted tolerances must be drawn up.
2 The whole area must be reconnoitred
3 Suitable survey methods must be selected
4 Equipment must be of the appropriate type and of adequate precision
5 Control stations must be suitably positioned
6 The survey must be self-checking so that its validity can be determined
7 Acceptably small errors of closure can be neglected or eliminated by adjustment,
as appropriate. Large errors will require part or all of the work to be repeated.
8 For complex projects an error analysis will indicate if the specified precision has
been achieved
2
9 Periodical checks must be made when the stations are in use over a long time

1.2 Station Selection (Plan Control)

1 Stations should define a control figure of a suitable shape
2 Stations should permit the convenient surveying of detail
3 Stations should be intervisible for linear and angular measurements
4 Stations should be accessible so that instruments can be set up over them
5 For GPS fixing stations should be in an open location (not next to a cliff face at
the base for example)
6 Stations should be free from the risk of disturbance
7 Stations should be easily referenced

1.3 Establishing bench marks

If no benchmark exists nearby, temporary benchmarks (TBM) need to be established
to exert levelling control. These TBMs must

Be centrally located
Free from the risk of subsidence or ground heave
Sharply defined so that a staff repeatedly held on one will be at the same level

Where GPS is to be used a number of points must be surveyed by satellite and by
spirit levelling to enable correspondence between the reference ellipsoid and geoid
(see later) to be achieved.

1.4 Linear Measurement

Follow the principles outlined in the distance measuring section of these notes. Note:

Equipment should be regularly calibrated
Apply all required corrections
Accurate indexing of tapes and centring of tripods at all stations should be
undertaken

1.5 Angular measurement

Follow the principles outlined in the angular measurement section of these notes,
particularly:

Theodolite permanent adjustments should be regularly checked
Instruments and targets should be accurately centred
Several rounds of angles should be taken on both face left and face right and
mean values calculated

1.6 Levelling

Follow the principles outlined in the levelling section of the notes, particularly noting:

Instrument should be free of collimation error
Closure checks and cross runs should be undertaken
Effects of errors from staff tilt, curvature and refraction should be eliminated

3
2 Coordinates

Rectangular coordinates (Cartesian coordinates) are used for the plotting of control
surveys for numerous reasons:

1 Coordinate plotting eliminates angle or bearing plotting, a source of error
2 Each point is plotted directly from the axes, so eliminating cumulative plotting
errors
3 The arithmetic for survey adjustments can be undertaken more readily on
coordinates than it can on field measurements
4 Information can be stored in coordinate form
5 Surveys can be tied into existing coordinate systems (and transposed between
systems)
6 Land areas within traverses can be easily calculated

The basis of the Cartesian coordinate system is illustrated in figures 1 and 2.


Figure 1: Cartesian Coordinates in a Plane.

4


Figure 2: Cartesian coordinates in a Plane with two points defining a line


In surveying the axes are taken north south and east west, the distances of a point
from them being easting (east positive) and northing (north positive). Eastings are
always quoted before the northing. A coordinate system may be purely local with
axes arbitrarily chosen or the state or national system may be used. It is customary
to position the origin south and west of the survey area to make all coordinates
positive. An example the UK national Grid is shown in Figure 3. Surveys in a limited
area can be taken assuming a plane, assuming a flat world. Surveys like these that
are related to the national or state grid and surveys of larger areas will need to be
corrected to allow for the earths curvature.

5


Figure 3: The UK National Grid, 100 km squares,

2.1 Bearings

The coordinates of a point can be found by determining the differences in easting
and northing from a point already coordinated. These differences are calculated from
the polar coordinates of the joining line. While the length can be measured in the field
the bearing must be deduced from angular measurements.

Bearings are measured clockwise from a meridian or north line (note the contrast
here compared to the mathematical notation). Bearings such as this were formerly
called Whole Circle Bearings or WCB.

A bearing refers to a line where a start and an end are specified. Alternatively it can
refer to a point (corresponding to line end) relating to another point (= line start).
Sometimes the term back bearing is used; this is the bearing of a line taking the
clockwise angle measured from the meridian at the end of the line.

When converting from polar to rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates it is useful to
know the quadrant of the line, see Table 1. The following figures provide details of
the polar coordinate system.

6

Figure 4: Polar Coordinates in a Plane

7



Figure 5: Polar coordinates in a plane and conversion from polar to Cartesian
Coordinates

8


Figure 6: Three dimensional Cartesian coordinates

9



Figure 7: Three dimensional polar coordinates

10



Figure 8: Conversion of three-dimensional polar coordinates to three-dimensional
Cartesian coordinates

11



Figure 9: Distance between three dimensional Cartesian coordinates

2.2 Orienting Bearing

Before any bearings can be evaluated an initial orienting bearing must be
determined. If a survey is to be tied into an existing coordinate system two known
points must be observed. The simplest method is to use one of the known points as a
control station and take observations of the other with a theodolite. The bearing of
the line can then be found by a rectangular to polar conversion.

If approximate orientation is sufficient the magnetic bearing of a line can be taken
employing a compass.

2.3 Coordinate Conversions

These can be simply undertaken; the basis is detailed in the preceding figures.
12

Table 1:

Bearing Quadrant Easting
Difference
Northing Difference
0 to 90 1 + +
90 to 180 2 + -
180 to 270 3 - -
270 to 360 4 - +

3 Traversing

Traversing is one of the traditional methods of undertaking a control survey in plan.
Stations are set out to define a series of traverse lines or legs, the plan lengths of
which can be measured as can the angles between pairs of lines at each station.
Three types of traverse survey exist, as illustrated in figure 10:

1 Closed loop traverse, where the legs form a closed polygon
2 Closed tied (also called connecting or linked) traverse, where the traverse runs
between two stations of known position.
3 Open traverse, where the lines, although starting from a known position do not
finish at one.


Figure 10: Traverse types.

Closed traverses provide a check on the validity and accuracy of field
measurements. The loop traverse is suited to many engineering applications,
however for road, railway and pipeline projects the tied traverse is often more
13
appropriate. Open traverses provide no check and are not recommended, however in
underground surveying no other option may be available.

Angles are measured by theodolite, distances by taping or EDM. The development of
the EDM has contributed to the dominance of traversing in modern surveying.
Coordinate plotting is used (less errors) with checks and adjustments made during
the calculation process.

3.1 Station Selection

In addition to the criteria listed previously the following additional requirements are
needed:

The stations should form a traverse of suitable shape
Only neighbouring stations along traverse lines need to be intervisible
Where traverse lines are to be taped the ground should be accessible
Traverse legs should be approximately equal in length
Existing stations and reference objects should be incorporated.

Stations should be firmly and clearly marked out and strongly referenced.

3.2 Angle measurement

Additional aspects to those covered previously include the following.

Ideally angles should be measured in sequence progressing around the traverse
from the start station. In a number of cases this may not be convenient and care
must be taken to measure all angles, importantly not forgetting the one at the closing
station. Angles should be properly recorded, so that one knows if the angle is internal
or external.

Three-tripod equipment is commonly employed. The theodolite can be detached from
its tribrach and exchanged with a target that is similarly detachable. While the
theodolite is set up at the instrument station B, at the back station A and forward
station C a tripod, tribrach, optical plummet and target are set up. Following
observation of angle ABC the complete target assembly at A is transferred to station
D, and the theodolite at station B and target at station C are detached and
exchanged. Angle BCD is then measured.

Three-tripod equipment is always used when measuring distance with an EDM. A
combined prism and target is set up at each station sighted. Three-tripod equipment
eliminates centring errors to the extent that at each station measurements are taken
to and from the same point in plan. Errors can still exist in station coordinates if the
targets have not been accurately plumbed over the stations.
14

3.3 Included Angles

For consistency and ease of bearing calculation the included angle should be
measured at all stations. This is the clockwise angle swept out when turning from the
back to the forward station, in other words at B sighting A then turning clockwise to
C.

In a loop traverse carried out in an anticlockwise sense the included angles will be
internal; a clockwise loop will produce external angles.

3.4 Angle closure checks

Once all the angles of a closed traverse have been measured, a check should be
conducted. This can usually be performed in the field.

Loop Traverse Check

Anticlockwise traverse:

Sum of internal angles should equal (n 2) x 180 (internal)

Clockwise traverse:

Sum of Internal angles should equal (n + 2) x 180 (external)

For a traverse round of n stations.

Tied traverse check

The sum of the internal angles should equal the final orienting bearing minus the first
plus

(n + 1) x 180 usually
(n 1) x 180 sometimes
(n + 3) x 180 infrequently

for a traverse of n stations.

As an alternative the bearings of the traverse legs can be successively calculated
from the unadjusted angles and the deduced value of the final orienting bearing
compared with the known value.

Acceptable closure

Closing errors will be affected by the precision of the equipment as well as the skill
and care of the surveyor. Acceptable errors will depend on the precision of the
survey as shown in table 2, second order precision is appropriate for many
engineering surveys, geodetic precision may be required in tunnelling work.
15

Table 2:

Precision of survey Acceptable angular
misclosure
Acceptable linear
misclosure
Geodetic 2n
1/2
1 in 20000
Secondary 10n
1/2
1 in 10000
Tertiary 20n
1/2
1 in 5000
Fourth order 60n
1/2
1 in 2000
n = number of stations

3.5 Bearing Calculation

The bearing of one line, preferably at the start section must be known. Taking the
lines in sequence (AB, BC, CD, etc):

Bearing of Line = Bearing of previous line + included angle

+ 180 if sum < 180
-180 if 180< sum< 540
-540 if sum > 540

In a closed traverse a check on the arithmetic should be undertaken. Bearings should
be successively calculated around the traverse. In a loop traverse the bearing of the
first line calculated successively should equal its initial value. In a tied traverse the
known and deduced values of the final orienting sight should be equal.

3.6 Station Coordinates

Station coordinates are calculated by successively adding the line coordinate
differences to the coordinates of the start station. In closed traverses the sums of the
easting differences and of the northing differences are first calculated to determine
the linear closing error (at best both equal to zero) if these are acceptably small it is
distributed by adjusting the coordinate differences. For an open traverse the station
coordinates can be calculated as soon as the coordinate differences have been
evaluated. The following example shows calculations for an open traverse, the
subsequent examples deal with how to adjust closed traverses.



3.7 Misclosure and adjustments: Bowditchs method

In a closed traverse a check is made on the linear misclosure when the coordinate
differences are determined. The misclosure in both the eastings e
E
and northings e
N

can be calculated. The linear misclosure e is determined using the Pythagorean
theorem as:

2 / 1 2 2
)] ( ) [(
N E
e e e + =

The fractional linear misclosure is = 1/H/e where H is the sum of the line lengths.

For a loop traverse E and N should equal zero, therefore:

16

=
=
N e
E e
N
E

for a tied traverse with start station coordinates (E
A
;N
A
) and end station coordinates
(E
z
;N
Z
)

=
=
) (
) (
A Z N
A Z E
N N N e
E E E e


Provided that the linear misclosure is within acceptable limits (Table 2) adjustments
can be applied to remove the error, making all derived coordinates consistent.

The best known traverse adjustment method is the Bowditch method for engineering
surveys. It is based on the assumption that the closing error has been generated at a
constant rate around the traverse. Thus, at any point the direction of adjustment will
have a bearing at 180 from the line of misclosure and the magnitude of the of the
adjustment will be in proportion to the distance around the traverse from the start.
The adjustment is applied to the coordinate differences in proportion to the respective
line lengths, the sign being opposite to that of the error, so:

=
=
H
H
e
H
H
e
AB
N
AB
E
AB
AB
N to adustment
E to adustment


where H
AB
is the horizontal length of the line AB

The total adjustments are e
E
and e
N
removing all closing error. An integral part of
the Bowditch method is the initial adjustment of angles as dealt with previously.

3.8 Other methods of Traverse adjustment

The Bowditch method evolved in the days of compass and chain surveys. It makes
the assumption that bearing and linear measurements have similar error effects. As a
method the angles are adjusted twice and problems can occur.

When closing errors are small the method of adjustment, so long as it has a logical
foundation, is often immaterial. Large errors indicate a mistake in the field or faulty
equipment.

If a more rigorous adjustment is needed the method of least squares as described
later in these notes should be employed.

Gross errors

If a large angular or linear misclosure is found in a traverse a gross error in the
fieldwork or calculations has occurred. Initially one would check the calculations
before retaking the measurements.

17
Gross angular errors

A single gross angular error can be located by calculating the coordinates in
anticlockwise and clockwise directions for a loop traverse and from each end of a tied
traverse. The station where the error has occurred will have the same coordinates.

Gross linear errors

If a single gross linear error has occurred the faulty line will be parallel to the linear
misclosure.

Two or more gross errors

These can be difficult to locate.

4 Intersection

A point can be located in plan by two intersecting sights by theodolite from the end
points of a baseline of accepted length. The triangle formed should be well
conditioned. The unmeasured angle is deduced so that the sine rule can be used to
determine one or both distances from the fixed stations at the end of the baseline. As
long as the coordinates of one station and the baseline bearing are known, then the
coordinates of the intersected point can be calculated, see figure 11 (a).

Using this method there is no check on the fieldwork; this implies that the horizontal
angles need to be measured carefully. A better method is illustrated in figure 11 (b).
This involves measuring the angles of intersecting sights from three or more stations.
Thus redundant measures are included; as such a variation of coordinate adjustment
should be carried out. Vertical angles from two stations also provide a redundant
measure.
Figure 11
18

5 Resection

An instrument station can be located by measuring angles subtended by three distant
stations whose positions are known. The method has been useful for relating a
station to triangulated points and for locating a station on an offshore structure.
Figure 12

If the four stations involved are concyclic, there can be no solution; if they are nearly
concyclic the fix of the instrument station will be weak. Therefore either the unknown
station needs to lie within the fixed stations or the three fixed stations should present
a convex formation to an unknown point.

With reference to figure 12 a stations A, B and C are three known stations observed
from point P. Lengths l
1
and l
2
and angle c will be known or can be deduced from
coordinates. Angles and are measured at P.

Denoting the unknown angle CAP as , then angle PBC = 360 - ( + + + c)
19

Then

| |
) cos( sin sin
) sin( sin
tan
Hence
sin ) cos( cos ) sin( sin ( sin sin
sin
) sin(
sin
sin
sin c) - - - - sin(360
CP
and
sin sin
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
1
c l l
c l
c c l l
c l l
CP l CP
+ + +
+ +
=
+ + + + + =
+ + +
=
= =




Thus triangle APC can be solved and P related to A , B and C.

6 Networks

A control network involves measurements of linear distance and angles between
stations. No restrictions exist on which distances and angles should be measured in
contrast with the methods of traversing, triangulation and trilateration. Provided
measurements can be taken to sufficient precision a control network can establish
the levels as well as the positions of all stations.

Prior to the development of computer based least squares adjustment processes,
control methods were geared to manual calculations and adjustments. Such
adjustments were often undertaken sequentially to satisfy geometric conditions in
turn and to adjust a small part of the whole survey at a time. Redundant
measurements provide additional checks, however with manual calculation increased
the complexity of the process. The adoption of EDM techniques for fieldwork and the
use of computer programs to undertake calculations, adjustment and strength
analysis have meant that a network process allows many more field observations to
be taken and incorporated in calculations than was possible with manual techniques.

Previously much control surveying work was undertaken employing triangulation.
This method and trilateration are discussed in the following two sections.

Triangulation

Stations are established that form a framework of linked triangles. Figure 13 shows
some examples. The side of one triangle and all angles of all triangles must be
measured. The sine rule is then applied successively to find the side lengths of all
triangles. As well as start station coordinates and orientation are known the
coordinates of all other stations can be calculated.

An angle check is provided at each station and for each triangle (both can be
undertaken in the field). A triangle covering a large area may require angle
corrections for spherical excess in order that calculations are performed for an
equivalent plane figure.


20

Figure 13

Trilateration

In trilateration stations again are established to form linking triangles but it is the side
lengths of the triangles that are measured. The angles of the triangles can then be
deduced from the cosine formula and station coordinates calculated.

Network Methods

For a network the measurement process can be imagined as a combined form of
triangulation and trilateration (sometimes termed triangulateration). It can also be
viewed as a loop traverse with extra linear and angular measurements between non-
adjacent stations and to additional stations within the perimeter.

A typical network is shown in figure 14. It consists of two fixed stations and ten to be
located in plan. Thus there are 10 x 2 = 20 independent unknowns. There are also 45
angles and 26 distances shown to be measured, this results in 45 + 26 20 = 51
redundant measures.

Typically the number of redundant measures can be reduced; however the minimum
is that all stations should have at least one redundant measure associated to them.

Typically the fieldwork would be undertaken by both a theodolite and EDM
combination or by a total station instrument. Calculations are normally undertaken by
computer program but checks should be undertaken on the field measurements to
check for gross errors.

Distance measurements may require corrections. For elevated or depressed EDM
sights of 500m or more the effects of normals to the ellipsoid at the stations none
being parallel becomes significant. To derive a correction to this consider figure 15.

21

Figure 14


Figure 15

To derive a correction it is required to consider a mean elevation angle for reciprocal
measurements.

At A the elevation angle BAB
1
= 90 - + c^ -kc^

At B the depression angle ABA
1
= - 90 -c^ + kc^

22
Note and are zenith angles.

t) measuremen angle discussing when
previously defined as refraction of t coefficien and angle correction curvature are k and (c^
2
-
A) (at angle elevation Mean

=
The horizontal distance component at the axis level at A is

|
.
|

\
|
=
2
cos
1

D AB

Because normals to the ellipsoid at A and B are not parallel a correction needs to be
subtracted.

R
D
D B
c BB B Correction

2
180
tan
2
sin B correction
error negligible with
degrees
R 2
180D
c^ and ^ tan B
2 1
1 2 1
|
.
|

\
|
=
= =

R = earths radius

Therefore the corrected horizontal distance

)/2 sin (sin as taken be may
2
-
cos
1 to es approximat therefore
2
sin and 90
2
2
sin
2
sin 2 cos cos
2
cos
2
sin 2 sin sin
2
180
tan
2
sin
2
cos







+ |
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
| +

+
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
| +
= +
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
and
Now
R
D
D


23
( )
R
H H V V H H
R
D
D
BA AB BA AB BA AB




4
180
tan
2 2
H ie
error negligable with
2
180
tan
2
cos cos
2
sin sin
H
Thus
)/2 cos - (cos as taken be may
2
-
sin and
MEAM
MEAN
+
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
|
.
|

\
|


Therefore the mean displayed H and V values from reciprocal observations can be
used. This approximation is only invalid is cases of extreme values of coefficient of
refraction, k, and long distances, 10 km or more. In these cases the mean elevation
angle, taken from the zenith angles, ( - )/2 and the slope distance D need to be
used.

The following pages detail the Bowditch method of correction by example.


Example of the Bowditch Method of Adjustment to a tied Traverse

Applying Bowditchs method of adjustment calculated the coordinates of stations H, J
and K forming a tied traverse between stations G and L, as illustrated in the diagram
below.


Figure 1: Survey layout, note not to scale.

Coordinates of G are (2675.320 mE, 3072.779 mN)

Coordinates of L are (3289.563 mE, 2936.421 mN)

Orienting Bearings:

GX 341 37 30 and LY 201 52 27

24
Included Angle Value Leg Horizontal length
(m)
XGH 88 52 29
GH 173.922
GHJ 206 52 57
HJ 179.531
HJK 149 44 05
JK 124.246
JKL 257 12 03
KL 270.540
KLY 237 33 50

Angle Check

Bearing GH = 341 27 30 + 88 52 29 360 = 70 29 59
Bearing HJ = 70 29 59 + 206 52 57 180 = 97 22 56
Bearing JK = 97 22 56 + 149 44 05 180 = 67 07 01
Bearing KL = 67 07 01 + 257 12 03 180 = 144 19 04
Bearing LY = 144 19 04 + 237 33 50 180 = 201 52 54

The calculated bearing LY is 201 52 54 from the included angles, however we
know the bearing LY is 201 52 27 therefore there is an error of 27, as such we
need to adjust the included angles by -5, -6, -5, -6, -5.


Calculate Coordinate Difference GL

Change in eastings is 3289.563 2675.320 = 614.243 m
Change in northings is 2936.421 3072.779 = -136.358 m

25
Included Angles
Coordinate
Difference Adjustment
Adjusted
Coordinate
difference Station Coordinates
Line
Plan
length
(m) measured adjusted Bearing E N E N E N station
GX 341 37' 30"

88 52'
29"
88 52'
24" 2675.32 3072.77 G
GH 173.922 70 29' 51" 163.944 58.064 -0.008 0.011 163.936 58.075

206 52'
57"
206 52'
51" 2839.256 3130.845 H
HJ 179.531 97 22' 45" 178.044 -23.058 -0.009 0.011 178.035 -23.047

149 44'
05"
149 44'
00" 3017.291 3107.798 J
JK 124.246 67 06' 45" 114.464 48.322 -0.006 0.008 114.458 48.33

257 12'
03"
257 11'
57" 3131.749 3156.128 K
KL 270.54 144 18' 42" 157.827
-
219.733 -0.013 0.017 157.814
-
219.716

237 33'
50"
237 33'
45" 3289.563 2936.412 L
201 52' 27"
748.239
940 33'
45" 614.279
-
136.405 -0.036 0.047 614.243
-
136.358 3289.563 2936.412
checks 614.243
-
136.358 614.243
-
136.358
0.036 -0.047 0 0 0 0
check check check check


Table 1: Calculation for traverse

26
Line
Plan
length (m) measured adjusted Bearing E N E N E N station
GX 341 37' 30"
88 52' 29" 88 52' 24" 2675.32 3072.77 G
GH 173.922 70 29' 51" 163.944 58.064 -0.008 0.011 163.936 58.075
206 52' 57" 206 52' 51" 2839.256 3130.845 H
HJ 179.531 97 22' 45" 178.044 -23.058 -0.009 0.011 178.035 -23.047
149 44' 05" 149 44' 00" 3017.291 3107.798 J
JK 124.246 67 06' 45" 114.464 48.322 -0.006 0.008 114.458 48.33
257 12' 03" 257 11' 57" 3131.749 3156.128 K
KL 270.54 144 18' 42" 157.827 -219.733 -0.013 0.017 157.814 -219.716
237 33' 50" 237 33' 45" 3289.563 2936.412 L
201 52' 27"
748.239 940 33' 45" 614.279 -136.405 -0.036 0.047 614.243 -136.358 3289.563 2936.412
checks 614.243 -136.358 614.243 -136.358
0.036 -0.047 0 0 0 0
check check check check
Station Coordinates Included Angles Coordinate Difference Adjustment
Adjusted Coordinate
difference
Mtuck:
plan length x sine of
bearing
Mtuck:
difference in eastings GL
Mtuck:
linear misclosure in
eastings
Mtuck:
northing coord difference
GL
Mtuck:
-(misclosure) x line
length/total traverse length
Mtuck:
-(misclosure) x line
length/total traverse length
Mtuck:
difference in eastings GL
Mtuck:
northing coord difference
GL
Mtuck:
linear misclosure in
eastings
Mtuck:
easting of L
Mtuck:
nothing of L

Table 2: Table 1 showing excel comments
27
The following pages have been sourced from Schofield W (2001) Engineering Surveying:
Theory and examination problems for students, 5
th
ed, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, ISBN
0 7506 4987 9 and further illustrates the principles of control surveys and gives some worked
examples.

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

Detail Surveying 1
Detail Surveying

Detail surveys are undertaken within areas covered by control surveys and are tied in
to the control stations that have been established. Detailing often follows control
work, however with electronic methods of surveying the two stages can be
undertaken concurrently.

Objectives of a detail survey

1. To produce a plan to scale of an area of land showing all the natural and man
made detail.
2. To produce a contoured plan with detail
3. To provide a record in coordinate form of detail within the area
4. To produce a longitudinal ground section
5. To produce ground cross-sections
6. To take measurements to allow earthwork areas and volumes to be
calculated.

Principles

The objective of the survey determines the precision to which the survey needs to be
undertaken. For example if the survey is to be used for subsequent setting out of
construction, particularly the extending or connection to existing works an accurate
plan will be required. It is however unlikely that natural features such as vegetation
and watercourses can or need to be accurately plotted. The greatest problem in
detail surveying is the large volume of information that requires to be measured and
recorded. Therefore a systematic method of booking is essential.

Factors that require to be considered in planning a detail survey are:

1. Frequency of measurements
2. Precision of measurements
3. Booking method
4. Time available
5. Equipment available
6. Cost

Of these factors number 3 through to 6 may suggest a particular method.

Frequency of Measurement

This will be dictated by the amount and accuracy of detail required, the shape and
nature of the detail and the scale of plotting.

Precision of Measurement

Many construction drawings bear an inscription that reads, Do not scale as
drawings can expand or shrink with age. Despite this it is desirable to record
construction detail reasonably precisely. In addition to a plan, dimensions for
designing may be required; measurements should be taken to the nearest 5mm and
care taken to prevent accumulation of errors.
Detail Surveying 2
When data is required purely for plotting an awareness of the plotting accuracy will
help to determine the level of field precision. 0.1 m on the ground will become 1mm
at 1:100 scale and 0.1mm at 1:1000 scale.

Linear Surveying

An old time consuming method that is now obsolete, the interested reader is directed
to surveying texts to obtain more detail.

EDM detailing

A large amount of detail surveying today uses this method. A theodolite/EDM
combination or a total station instrument is used as illustrated in Figure 1 (Bannister
A., Raymond S. and Baker R. (1998) Surveying, Longman). The instrument is set up
over a control station and can be used to determine the horizontal distance, bearing
and rise or fall to a detail point. It should be noted that a second fixed station is
required to give a reference bearing. A hand held pole mounted prism is used at
each detail point.

EDM detailing is quick and accurate, when combined with a data logger, information
can be recorded automatically and plotted using computer aided drawing.

However because of the sheer volume of information and variety of detail problems
can be caused. In some cases it may be convenient to use the EDM to determine the
location and plotting of the features but to use a steel tape to determine the sizes and
to measure fine detail.

The theodolite/EDM or total station measures horizontal angle, zenith angle and
slope distance. Modern instruments will also display the calculated plan or horizontal
distance and the rise/fall. Some can also display the three-dimensional coordinates
(easting, nothing and RL) of surveyed points provided that sufficient information is
entered at the start in the form of the 3D coordinates of the instrument station,
bearing of the reference object and heights of the instrument and the prism.

The field procedure is as follows:

1. Set up the theodolite mounted EDM or total station instrument over a control
station or at a convenient location. An atmospheric correction can be entered
at this stage, it should be noted that for detailing such a correction is usually
negligible. The prism constant value should also be checked.
2. A known reference object should be sighted to enable the horizontal circle to
be zeroed or set to some other value. If the equipment is not over a station
EDM measurements should be taken to two known station. As a check a
second reference object should be used, or an extra distance or angle should
be measured. Data logging software will display the effects of a check.

Detail Surveying 3

Figure 1: Theodolite/EDM combination and Total station (After Bannister A.,
Raymond S. and Baker R. (1998) Surveying, Longman)
Detail Surveying 4

3. Level calculations will be simplified if the length of the prism pole is adjusted
so that the height of the prism above the ground will equal the height of the
theodolite trunnion axis above the station. Also prisms to match the
instrument should be used so that for a non-coaxial optics outfit the
target/prism vertical separation equals that of the theodolite/EDM and there is
no tilt error.

If the prism height is not set to match that of the instrument both heights
should be measured and recorded. In some cases obstacles to visibility may
require the prism height to be changed.

For accurate heighting in detail surveys the errors incurred in taping or
staffing an instrument height may be excessive, the collimation level should
be deduced from readings to a detail point of known level.

4. If coordinates are to be displayed or if automatic data logging is to be used,
ensure that enough current information is entered. The danger is that control
information relating to a previous station or even a previous survey may still
be registered.

5. Direct the staff person to the first point to be detailed. The pole should be held
vertically, this could be checked employing a bullseye bubble. The target and
prism should be pointed towards the EDM

6. Point the telescope/distancer towards the target prism.

7. Follow the manufacturers instructions for taking measurements and obtaining
the required display. Usually only readings on one face are taken except
where levelling to an accuracy of a few millimetres is required. In the latter
case vertical indexing and collimation errors have to be eliminated, the
easiest way of doing this is to use double face readings, and curvature and
refraction corrections must be applied.

8. A sketch is essential for manual bookings and is also recommended for
automatic booking.

9. Record any change in prism height.

10. Direct staff person to next point

Before undertaking an EDM detail survey the staff undertaking the project need to
carefully plan the work. In particular distinctions must be made between the points to
be surveyed and those requiring taping. Spacing of the points to be surveyed must
be agreed, this will be influenced by the irregularity of the features in the plan area,
irregularity of ground conditions and the scale to which the plan is to be plotted.

Booking, calculations and plotting

Figure 2 (Muskett, J. (1995), Site Surveying, Blackwell) shows an elevation of EDM
detailing. Note if the equipment is not set up over a station the coordinates of the
temporary station should be determined from measurements to two reference object
stations.

Detail Surveying 5

Figure 2 EDM detailing (After Muskett, J. (1995), Site Surveying, Blackwell)

1. For an EDM on an optical theodolite reading zenith vertical angles.

Use Face Left
Read and book horizontal angle, D and .

Calculate

Detail Surveying 6
H = Dsin
V = Dcos
Rise = h
1
+ V - h
T

Bearing

Plotting may be by protractor and scale, or for more precision by rectangular
coordinates calculated from H and the bearing.

2. EDM connected to electronic theodolite

Either:

Read horizontal angle, H and V

Calculate:

Rise = h
1
+ V - h
T

Bearing

Plotting may be by protractor and scale, or for more precision by rectangular
coordinates calculated from H and the bearing.

Or:

Enter initial bearing, station level, h
1
and h
T

Read bearing, H and RL

Plotting may be by protractor and scale, or for more precision by rectangular
coordinates calculated from H and the bearing.

Or:

Enter station 3D coordinates, initial bearing, h
1
and h
T

Read 3D coordinates
Plot by rectangular coordinates

Or:

Enter station 3D coordinates, initial bearing, h
1
and h
T
(on instrument or data logger)
Record data on logger
Plot by rectangular coordinates, or automatically by computer.

3. Integral EDM/theodolite of total station type

All display formats for an EDM added to an electronic theodolite are normally
available. Using the full coordinate display or automatic data logging saves time and
eliminates calculation errors.

For all plotting the general principles for the plotting of linear surveys should be
followed.

In terms of accuracy EDM detailing in tracking mode typically has a distance error of
10mm. To this error centring errors at the instrument and prism must be added. For
pole mounted prisms errors within 30mm may occur. For precise detailing 1
Detail Surveying 7
angular resolution, 3mm 3ppm distance error equipment and a tripod mounted
prism should be used.


The following is an example calculation for EDM surveying from Muskett, J. (1995),
Site Surveying, Blackwell.



Detail Surveying 8

Detail Surveying 9

Detail Surveying 10


Optical Tacheometry

This is a method of measuring distances indirectly using either a level or a theodolite.
At one end of the distance to be measured a staff or bar is set up and either the
angle that a fixed length bar subtends is measured or the staff length subtending a
fixed angle at the instrument is observed. Numerous methods have been developed
over the years, however the advent and development of the EDM and total station
instruments have generally made the methods obsolete as the EDM method is
generally faster and more accurate. The method does however give totally adequate
detailing with contours when a theodolite and levelling staff is used.

In the fixed hair stadia system the diaphragm glasses of levels and theodolites are
marked with short horizontal hairs above and below the central crosshair. These are
termed the stadia hairs and are set such that a constant angle is subtended at the
instrument by distant points with which they coincide as illustrated in figures 3 and 4.

Detail Surveying 11


Figure 3: Fixed hair stadia tacheometry (After Muskett, J. (1995), Site Surveying,
Blackwell).



Figure 4: View through telescope illustrating stadia hairs (After Bannister A.,
Raymond S. and Baker R. (1998) Surveying, Longman)

If a vertical levelling staff at one end of a line is observed through a theodolite at the
other end, the staff readings against the stadia hairs combined with the zenith angle
can be used to determine the horizontal distance. The difference between the
upper and lower stadia hairs is termed the stadia intercept S. For height
determination the middle crosshair value m is also taken. As a cross check m should
be close, normally to within 5mm, to the mean of the two stadia readings.
Detail Surveying 12

Then

H = KSsin
2


And

V = KSsincos

Modern instruments are constructed such that K the multiplying constant = 100 so

H = 100Ssin
2


V = 100Ssincos = 50Ssin2

And

Rise A to B = h + 50Ssin2 - m

So long as face left is used the correct sign of V is automatically given. If the
instrument reads vertical angles of elevation then

H = 100Scos
2


The field procedure is as follows:

1. Set up theodolite over the control station. Measure the height of the trunnion
axis above the station with either a tape or staff. Sight a known reference
object and set the horizontal axis to zero or other required value. As an
alternative the theodolite is set at a convenient position and tacheometric
observations are made to two known reference points enabling the
coordinates of the instrument station to be determined and the trunnion axis
level deduced.
2. The staff is held vertically at the first detail point. The theodolite is turned so
staff readings against the middle cross hair and stadia hairs can be taken.
Note calculations will be simplified if the telescope is tilted either to give an
integral reading or to arrange for the staff mid-reading to be equal to the
instrument height.
3. Take and book the three readings.
4. Read the horizontal and vertical circles and note the disposition of the vertical
circle reading. Readings to the nearest minute of arc are usually precise
enough.
5. Compile a clear sketch of the survey area and detail points
6. Go to the next detail point with the staff

As far as calculations and plotting are concerned the following is recommended:

1. Calculate H and V
2. Calculate the RL at each staff position
3. Calculate the bearing of each detail point
4. Plot the points either using a protractor and scale or by use of rectangular
coordinates
5. Write the RL by each point
6. Interpolate the contours as detailed later
Detail Surveying 13

Possible sources of error in stadia tacheometry include:

1. Non-vertical staff
2. Staff reading error
3. Vertical angle measurement

Variable stadia systems

Variable stadia tacheometer is a theodolite with a moveable diaphragm on which
curving stadia lines are engraved, as such the intercept value varies with vertical
angle. No improvement of accuracy over fixed stadia instruments.

GPS detailing

Used increasingly for detailing see the GPS chapter for more details

Contouring

A contour line is a line drawn on a plan connecting points of equal altitude or RL.
Suitable vertical intervals for contours are determined from the irregularity of the
ground and the plan scale.

Contour lines are continuous and should form closed loops. The spacing of contour
lines indicates the steepness of slopes and the shape of grouped lines indicates
recognisable features. Height values for contours are shown at intervals along the
lines. Some typical features identifiable from contour lines are shown in figure 5.

Detail Surveying 14

Figure 5: Contour features (After Muskett, J. (1995), Site Surveying, Blackwell).


Contouring undertaken from a ground survey involves interpolation between points
levelled. Contours can be interpolated from a grid of levels ( the grid size selected to
give an adequate indication of topography) or from points forming a random pattern
which can be formed into a triangular network. The assumption is that the gradient
between points is constant. Figures 6, 7, 8 and 9 show methods of contouring.

Detail Surveying 15

Figure 6: Contour interpolation (After Muskett, J. (1995), Site Surveying, Blackwell).

Detail Surveying 16

Figure 7: Contour plotting (After Muskett, J. (1995), Site Surveying, Blackwell).
Detail Surveying 17

Figure 8: Contours drawn (After Muskett, J. (1995), Site Surveying, Blackwell).


Figure 9: Contouring Impossibilities (After Muskett, J. (1995), Site Surveying,
Blackwell).

Detail Surveying 18
Photogrammetry

Detail surveys over large areas can be undertaken by aerial photogrammetry. The
survey area is photographed vertically from the air so that all parts appear on at least
two photographs and stereoscopic interpretation of pairs of overlapping prints is
employed to produce a plan and contours.

References

Muskett, J. (1995), Site Surveying, Blackwell

Bannister A., Raymond S. and Baker R. (1998) Surveying, Longman

The following pages are taken from Schofield W (2001) Engineering Surveying:
Theory and examination problems for students, 5
th
ed, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford, ISBN 0 7506 4987 9 and illustrate detail surveying.

Detail Surveying 19

Detail Surveying 20

Detail Surveying 21

Detail Surveying 22

Detail Surveying 23

Detail Surveying 24

Detail Surveying 25

1
Areas and Volumes

The following notes are sourced from Schofield W (2001) Engineering Surveying:
Theory and examination problems for students, 5
th
ed, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford, ISBN 0 7506 4987 9

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

1


Global Positioning System Overview
http://geography.about.com/science/geography/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorad
o.Edu%2Fgeography%2Fgcraft%2Fnotes%2Fgps%2Fgps.html

Peter H. Dana
These materials were developed by Peter H. Dana, Department of Geography, University of Texas at Austin,
1994. These materials may be used for study, research, and education in not-for-profit applications. If you
link to or cite these materials, please credit the author, Peter H. Dana, The Geographer's Craft Project,
Department of Geography, The University of Colorado at Boulder. These materials may not be copied to or
issued from another Web server without the author's express permission. Copyright 1999 Peter H. Dana.
All commercial rights are reserved. If you have comments or suggestions, please contact the author or
Kenneth E. Foote at k.foote@colorado.edu.


Revised: 05/01/2000 (first published in September, 1994)

GPS is a Satellite Navigation System

GPS is funded by and controlled by the U. S. Department of Defense (DOD). While there are many
thousands of civil users of GPS world-wide, the system was designed for and is operated by the U. S.
military. GPS provides specially coded satellite signals that can be processed in a GPS receiver, enabling the
receiver to compute position, velocity and time.
Four GPS satellite signals are used to compute positions in three dimensions and the time offset in the
receiver clock.
2

Position and Time from Four GPS Satellite Signals

Space Segment

The Space Segment of the system consists of the GPS satellites. These space vehicles (SVs) send radio
signals from space.

3

GPS Satellite
The nominal GPS Operational Constellation consists of 24 satellites that orbit the earth in 12 hours. There
are often more than 24 operational satellites as new ones are launched to replace older satellites. The satellite
orbits repeat almost the same ground track (as the earth turns beneath them) once each day. The orbit altitude
is such that the satellites repeat the same track and configuration over any point approximately each 24 hours
(4 minutes earlier each day). There are six orbital planes (with nominally four SVs in each), equally spaced
(60 degrees apart), and inclined at about fifty-five degrees with respect to the equatorial plane. This
constellation provides the user with between five and eight SVs visible from any point on the earth.

4

GPS Constellation

5

GPS Satellites and Ground Tracks

6

GPS Nominal Orbit Planes
7

Control Segment

The Control Segment consists of a system of tracking stations located around the world.


GPS Master Control and Monitor Network

The Master Control facility is located at Schriever Air Force Base (formerly Falcon AFB) in Colorado.
These monitor stations measure signals from the SVs which are incorporated into orbital models for each
satellites. The models compute precise orbital data (ephemeris) and SV clock corrections for each satellite.
The Master Control station uploads ephemeris and clock data to the SVs. The SVs then send subsets of the
orbital ephemeris data to GPS receivers over radio signals.

8

GPS Control Monitor

User Segment

The GPS User Segment consists of the GPS receivers and the user community. GPS receivers convert SV
signals into position, velocity, and time estimates. Four satellites are required to compute the four
dimensions of X, Y, Z (position) and Time. GPS receivers are used for navigation, positioning, time
dissemination, and other research. Navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of GPS.
Navigation receivers are made for aircraft, ships, ground vehicles, and for hand carrying by individuals.

9

GPS Navigation
Precise positioning is possible using GPS receivers at reference locations providing corrections and
relative positioning data for remote receivers. Surveying, geodetic control, and plate tectonic studies are
examples. Time and frequency dissemination, based on the precise clocks on board the SVs and controlled
by the monitor stations, is another use for GPS. Astronomical observatories, telecommunications facilities,
and laboratory standards can be set to precise time signals or controlled to accurate frequencies by special
purpose GPS receivers. Research projects have used GPS signals to measure atmospheric parameters.

GPS Positioning Services Specified In The Federal Radionavigation Plan

Precise Positioning Service (PPS)

Authorized users with cryptographic equipment and keys and specially equipped receivers use the Precise
Positioning System. U. S. and Allied military, certain U. S. Government agencies, and selected civil users
specifically approved by the U. S. Government, can use the PPS.

PPS Predictable Accuracy
22 meter Horizontal accuracy
27.7 meter vertical accuracy
10
200 nanosecond time (UTC) accuracy

Standard Positioning Service (SPS)

Civil users worldwide use the SPS without charge or restrictions. Most receivers are capable of receiving
and using the SPS signal. The SPS accuracy is intentionally degraded by the DOD by the use of Selective
Availability.

SPS Predictable Accuracy
100 meter horizontal accuracy
156 meter vertical accuracy
340 nanoseconds time accuracy
These GPS accuracy figures are from the 1999 Federal Radionavigation Plan. The figures are 95%
accuracies, and express the value of two standard deviations of radial error from the actual antenna position
to an ensemble of position estimates made under specified satellite elevation angle (five degrees) and PDOP
(less than six) conditions.

For horizontal accuracy figures 95% is the equivalent of 2drms (two-distance root-mean-squared), or
twice the radial error standard deviation. For vertical and time errors 95% is the value of two-standard
deviations of vertical error or time error.
Receiver manufacturers may use other accuracy measures. Root-mean-square (RMS) error is the value of
one standard deviation (68%) of the error in one, two or three dimensions. Circular Error Probable (CEP) is
the value of the radius of a circle, centered at the actual position that contains 50% of the position estimates.
Spherical Error Probable (SEP) is the spherical equivalent of CEP, that is the radius of a sphere, centered at
the actual position, that contains 50% of the three dimension position estimates. As opposed to 2drms, drms,
or RMS figures, CEP and SEP are not affected by large blunder errors making them an overly optimistic
accuracy measure.
Some receiver specification sheets list horizontal accuracy in RMS or CEP and without Selective
Availability, making those receivers appear more accurate than those specified by more responsible vendors
using more conservative error measures.

GPS Satellite Signals

The SVs transmit two microwave carrier signals. The L1 frequency (1575.42 MHz) carries the navigation
message and the SPS code signals. The L2 frequency (1227.60 MHz) is used to measure the ionospheric
delay by PPS equipped receivers.

Three binary codes shift the L1 and/or L2 carrier phase.
The C/A Code (Coarse Acquisition) modulates the L1 carrier phase. The C/A code is a repeating 1
MHz Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) Code. This noise-like code modulates the L1 carrier signal,
"spreading" the spectrum over a 1 MHz bandwidth. The C/A code repeats every 1023 bits (one
millisecond). There is a different C/A code PRN for each SV. GPS satellites are often identified by
their PRN number, the unique identifier for each pseudo-random-noise code. The C/A code
that modulates the L1 carrier is the basis for the civil SPS.
The P-Code (Precise) modulates both the L1 and L2 carrier phases. The P-Code is a very long (seven
days) 10 MHz PRN code. In the Anti-Spoofing (AS) mode of operation, the P-Code is encrypted into
11
the Y-Code. The encrypted Y-Code requires a classified AS Module for each receiver channel
and is for use only by authorized users with cryptographic keys. The P (Y)-Code is the basis
for the PPS.
The Navigation Message also modulates the L1-C/A code signal. The Navigation Message is a 50 Hz
signal consisting of data bits that describe the GPS satellite orbits, clock corrections, and other system
parameters.


GPS Signals

GPS Data

The GPS Navigation Message consists of time-tagged data bits marking the time of transmission
of each subframe at the time they are transmitted by the SV. A data bit frame consists of 1500 bits
divided into five 300-bit subframes. A data frame is transmitted every thirty seconds. Three six-
second subframes contain orbital and clock data. SV Clock corrections are sent in subframe one
and precise SV orbital data sets (ephemeris data parameters) for the transmitting SV are sent in
subframes two and three. Subframes four and five are used to transmit different pages of system
data. An entire set of twenty-five frames (125 subframes) makes up the complete Navigation
Message that is sent over a 12.5 minute period.

12
Data frames (1500 bits) are sent every thirty seconds. Each frame consists of five subframes.
Data bit subframes (300 bits transmitted over six seconds) contain parity bits that allow for data
checking and limited error correction.


Navigation Data Bits
Clock data parameters describe the SV clock and its relationship to GPS time.
Ephemeris data parameters describe SV orbits for short sections of the satellite orbits. Normally, a
receiver gathers new ephemeris data each hour, but can use old data for up to four hours without
much error. The ephemeris parameters are used with an algorithm that computes the SV position
for any time within the period of the orbit described by the ephemeris parameter set.

Almanacs are approximate orbital data parameters for all SVs. The ten-parameter almanacs
describe SV orbits over extended periods of time (useful for months in some cases) and a set for
all SVs is sent by each SV over a period of 12.5 minutes (at least). Signal acquisition time on
receiver start-up can be significantly aided by the availability of current almanacs. The
approximate orbital data is used to preset the receiver with the approximate position and carrier
Doppler frequency (the frequency shift caused by the rate of change in range to the moving SV) of
each SV in the constellation.

Each complete SV data set includes an ionospheric model that is used in the receiver to
approximates the phase delay through the ionosphere at any location and time.
13
Each SV sends the amount to which GPS Time is offset from Universal Coordinated Time. This
correction can be used by the receiver to set UTC to within 100 ns.

Other system parameters and flags are sent that characterize details of the system.

Position, and Time from GPS

Code Phase Tracking (Navigation)

The GPS receiver produces replicas of the C/A and/or P (Y)-Code. Each PRN code is a noise-like,
but pre-determined, unique series of bits.

The receiver produces the C/A code sequence for a specific SV with some form of a C/A code
generator. Modern receivers usually store a complete set of precomputed C/A code chips in memory,
but a hardware, shift register, implementation can also be used.

C/A Code Generator
The C/A code generator produces a different 1023 chip sequence for each phase tap setting. In a
shift register implementation the code chips are shifted in time by slewing the clock that controls
the shift registers. In a memory lookup scheme the required code chips are retrieved from
memory.
14

C/A Code Phase Assignments

The C/A code generator repeats the same 1023-chip PRN-code sequence every millisecond. PRN
codes are defined for 32 satellite identification numbers.


C/A Code PRN Chips
The receiver slides a replica of the code in time until there is correlation with the SV code.
Correlation Animation (250k) can be seen at
http://geography.about.com/science/geography/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorad
o.Edu%2Fgeography%2Fgcraft%2Fnotes%2Fgps%2Fgps.html
15

Short PRN Code Segment
If the receiver applies a different PRN code to an SV signal there is no correlation.
No PRN Correlation
When the receiver uses the same code as the SV and the codes begin to line up, some signal power
is detected.

Partial PRN Correlation
16
As the SV and receiver codes line up completely, the spread-spectrum carrier signal is de-spread
and full signal power is detected.

Full PRN Correlation
A GPS receiver uses the detected signal power in the correlated signal to align the C/A code in the
receiver with the code in the SV signal. Usually a late version of the code is compared with an
early version to insure that the correlation peak is tracked.

Simplified GPS Receiver Block Diagram
A phase locked loop that can lock to either a positive or negative half-cycle (a bi-phase lock loop)
is used to demodulate the 50 HZ navigation message from the GPS carrier signal. The same loop
can be used to measure and track the carrier frequency (Doppler shift) and by keeping track of the
changes to the numerically controlled oscillator, carrier frequency phase can be tracked and
measured.

17


Data Bit Demodulation and C/A Code Control
The receiver PRN code start position at the time of full correlation is the time of arrival (TOA) of
the SV PRN at receiver. This TOA is a measure of the range to SV offset by the amount to which
the receiver clock is offset from GPS time. This TOA is called the pseudo-range.

Pseudo-Range Navigation
The position of the receiver is where the pseudo-ranges from a set of SVs intersect.
18


Intersection of Range Spheres
Position is determined from multiple pseudo-range measurements at a single measurement epoch.
The pseudo range measurements are used together with SV position estimates based on the precise
orbital elements (the ephemeris data) sent by each SV. This orbital data allows the receiver to
compute the SV positions in three dimensions at the instant that they sent their respective signals.
Four satellites (normal navigation) can be used to determine three position dimensions and time.
Position dimensions are computed by the receiver in Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed X, Y, Z (ECEF
XYZ) coordinates.
19

ECEF X, Y, and Z
Time is used to correct the offset in the receiver clock, allowing the use of an inexpensive receiver
clock.
SV Position in XYZ is computed from four SV pseudo-ranges and the clock correction and
ephemeris data.
20

GPS SV and Receiver XYZ
Receiver position is computed from the SV positions, the measured pseudo-ranges (corrected for
SV clock offsets, ionospheric delays, and relativistic effects), and a receiver position estimate
(usually the last computed receiver position).
21


Pseudo-Range Navigation Solution Example

22

Ephemeris Data Set Used in Pseudo-Range Navigation Solution Example
Three satellites could be used determine three position dimensions with a perfect receiver clock.
In practice this is rarely possible and three SVs are used to compute a two-dimensional, horizontal
fix (in latitude and longitude) given an assumed height. This is often possible at sea or in altimeter
equipped aircraft.
Five or more satellites can provide position, time and redundancy. More SVs can provide extra
position fix certainty and can allow detection of out-of-tolerance signals under certain
circumstances.

Receiver Position, Velocity, and Time
Position in XYZ is converted within the receiver to geodetic latitude, longitude and height above
the ellipsoid.

23

Geodetic Coordinates
24

ECEF XYZ to Geodetic Coordinate Conversion

25

Geodetic to ECEF XYZ Coordinate Conversion
Latitude and longitude are usually provided in the geodetic datum on which GPS is based (WGS-
84). Receivers can often be set to convert to other user-required datums. Position offsets of
hundreds of meters can result from using the wrong datum.

Velocity is computed from change in position over time, the SV Doppler frequencies, or both.
Time is computed in SV Time, GPS Time, and UTC.
SV Time is the time maintained by each satellite. Each SV contains four atomic clocks (two
cesium and two rubidium). SV clocks are monitored by ground control stations and occasionally
reset to maintain time to within one-millisecond of GPS time. Clock correction data bits reflect the
offset of each SV from GPS time.

SV Time is set in the receiver from the GPS signals. Data bit subframes occur every six seconds
and contain bits that resolve the Time of Week to within six seconds. The 50 Hz data bit stream is
aligned with the C/A code transitions so that the arrival time of a data bit edge (on a 20
millisecond interval) resolves the pseudo-range to the nearest millisecond. Approximate range to
the SV resolves the twenty millisecond ambiguity, and the C/A code measurement represents time
to fractional milliseconds. Multiple SVs and a navigation solution (or a known position for a
timing receiver) permit SV Time to be set to an accuracy limited by the position error and the
pseudo-range error for each SV.
SV Time is converted to GPS Time in the receiver.
26

SV Time to GPS Time Data Bits
GPS Time is a "paper clock" ensemble of the Master Control Clock and the SV clocks. GPS Time
is measured in weeks and seconds from 24:00:00, J anuary 5, 1980 and is steered to within one
microsecond of UTC. GPS Time has no leap seconds and is ahead of UTC by several seconds.

Time in Universal Coordinated Time (UTC) is computed from GPS Time using the UTC
correction parameters sent as part of the navigation data bits.
At the transition between 23:59:59 UTC on December 31, 1998 and 00:00:00 UTC on J anuary 1,
1999, UTC was retarded by one-second. GPS Time is now ahead of UTC by 13 seconds.
27

UTC from GPS Time

Carrier Phase Tracking (Surveying)
Carrier-phase tracking of GPS signals has resulted in a revolution in land surveying. A line of
sight along the ground is no longer necessary for precise positioning. Positions can be measured
up to 30 km from reference point without intermediate points. This use of GPS requires specially
equipped carrier tracking receivers.
The L1 and/or L2 carrier signals are used in carrier phase surveying. L1 carrier cycles have a
wavelength of 19 centimeters. If tracked and measured these carrier signals can provide ranging
measurements with relative accuracies of millimeters under special circumstances.
Tracking carrier phase signals provides no time of transmission information. The carrier signals,
while modulated with time tagged binary codes, carry no time-tags that distinguish one cycle from
another. The measurements used in carrier phase tracking are differences in carrier phase cycles
and fractions of cycles over time. At least two receivers track carrier signals at the same time.
Ionospheric delay differences at the two receivers must be small enough to insure that carrier
phase cycles are properly accounted for. This usually requires that the two receivers be within
about 30 km of each other.
Carrier phase is tracked at both receivers and the changes in tracked phase are recorded over time
in both
receivers.
28

Carrier Phase Tracking
All carrier-phase tracking is differential, requiring both a reference and remote receiver tracking
carrier phases at the same time.
Unless the reference and remote receivers use L1-L2 differences to measure the ionospheric delay,
they must be close enough to insure that the ionospheric delay difference is less than a carrier
wavelength.
Using L1-L2 ionospheric measurements and long measurement averaging periods, relative positions
of fixed sites can be determined over baselines of hundreds of kilometers.
Phase difference changes in the two receivers are reduced using software to differences in three
position
dimensions between the reference station and the remote receiver. High accuracy range difference
measurements with sub-centimeter accuracy are possible. Problems result from the difficulty of
tracking carrier signals in noise or while the receiver moves.
Two receivers and one SV over time result in single differences.
29


Single Difference Survey
Two receivers and two SVs over time provide double differences.
Post processed static carrier-phase surveying can provide 1-5 cm relative positioning within 30 km
of the reference receiver with measurement time of 15 minutes for short baselines (10 km) and one
hour for long baselines (30 km).
Rapid static or fast static surveying can provide 4-10 cm accuracies with 1 kilometer baselines and
15 minutes of recording time.
Real-Time-Kinematic (RTK) surveying techniques can provide centimeter measurements in real
time over 10 km baselines tracking five or more satellites and real-time radio links between the
reference and remote receivers.

GPS Error Sources

GPS errors are a combination of noise, bias, blunders.
30

Noise, Bias, and Blunders
Noise errors are the combined effect of PRN code noise (around 1 meter) and noise within the
receiver
noise (around 1 meter).
Bias errors result from Selective Availability and other factors
Selective Availability (SA)
o SA is the intentional degradation of the SPS signals by a time varying bias. SA is controlled by
theDOD to limit accuracy for non-U. S. military and government users. The potential accuracy of
the C/A code of around 30 meters is reduced to 100 meters (two standard deviations).
o The SA bias on each satellite signal is different, and so the resulting position solution is a function
of the combined SA bias from each SV used in the navigation solution. Because SA is a changing
bias with low frequency terms in excess of a few hours, position solutions or individual SV
pseudo-ranges cannot be effectively averaged over periods shorter than a few hours. Differential
corrections must be updated at a rate less than the correlation time of SA (and other bias errors).
Other Bias Error sources;
o SV clock errors uncorrected by Control Segment can result in one meter errors.
o Ephemeris data errors: 1 meter
o Tropospheric delays: 1 meter. The troposphere is the lower part (ground level to from 8 to 13 km)
of the atmosphere that experiences the changes in temperature, pressure, and humidity associated
with weather changes. Complex models of tropospheric delay require estimates or measurements
of these parameters.
o Unmodeled ionosphere delays: 10 meters. The ionosphere is the layer of the atmosphere from 50
to 500 km that consists of ionized air. The transmitted model can only remove about half of the
possible 70 ns of delay leaving a ten meter un-modeled residual.
o Multipath: 0.5 meters. Multipath is caused by reflected signals from surfaces near the receiver that
31
can either interfere with or be mistaken for the signal that follows the straight line path from the
satellite. Multipath is difficult to detect and sometime hard to avoid.
Blunders can result in errors of hundred of kilometers.
o Control segment mistakes due to computer or human error can cause errors from one meter to
hundreds of kilometers.
o User mistakes, including incorrect geodetic datum selection, can cause errors from 1 to hundreds
of meters.
o Receiver errors from software or hardware failures can cause blunder errors of any size.

Noise and bias errors combine, resulting in typical ranging errors of around fifteen meters for each satellite
used in the position solution.

Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP) and Visibility
GPS ranging errors are magnified by the range vector differences between the receiver and the
SVs. The volume of the shape described by the unit-vectors from the receiver to the SVs used in a
position fix is inversely proportional to GDOP.
o Poor GDOP, a large value representing a small unit vector-volume, results when angles from
receiver to the set of SVs used are similar.

Poor GDOP
32
o Good GDOP, a small value representing a large unit-vector-volume, results when angles from
receiver to SVs are different.

Good GDOP
o GDOP is computed from the geometric relationships between the receiver position and the
positions of the satellites the receiver is using for navigation. For planning purposes GDOP is
often computed from Almanacs and an estimated position. Estimated GDOP does not take
into account obstacles that block the line-of-sight from the position to the satellites.
Estimated GDOP may not be realizable in the field.
33

Good Computed GDOP and Bad Visibility Equals Poor GDOP
o GDOP terms are usually computed using parameters from the navigation solution process.
34

Pseudo-Range Navigation Solution Example

35

GDOP Computation Example
o In general, ranging errors from the SV signals are multiplied by the appropriate GDOP term to
estimate the resulting position or time error. Various GDOP terms can be computed from the
navigation covariance matrix. ECEF XYZ DOP terms can be rotated into a North-East Down
(NED) system to produce local horizontal and vertical DOP terms.
o GDOP Components
PDOP =Position Dilution of Precision (3-D), sometimes the Spherical DOP.
HDOP =Horizontal Dilution of Precision (Latitude, Longitude).
VDOP =Vertical Dilution of Precision (Height).
TDOP =Time Dilution of Precision (Time).

While each of these GDOP terms can be individually computed, they are formed from covariances and so
are not independent of each other. A high TDOP (time dilution of precision), for example, will cause
receiver clock errors which will eventually result in increased position errors.
36

Differential GPS (DGPS) Techniques

The idea behind all-differential positioning is to correct bias errors at one location with measured bias
errors at a known position. A reference receiver, or base station, computes corrections for each satellite
signal.
Because individual pseudo-ranges must be corrected prior to the formation of a navigation solution,
DGPS implementations require software in the reference receiver that can track all SVs in view and form
individual pseudo-range corrections for each SV. These corrections are passed to the remote, or rover,
receiver, which must be capable of applying these individual pseudo-range corrections to each SV used in
the navigation solution. Applying a simple position correction from the reference receiver to the remote
receiver has limited effect at useful ranges because both receivers would have to be using the same set of
SVs in their navigation solutions and have identical GDOP terms (not possible at different locations) to be
identically affected by bias errors.

Differential Code GPS (Navigation)
Differential corrections may be used in real-time or later, with post-processing techniques.

o Real-time corrections can be transmitted by radio link. The U. S. Coast Guard maintains a
network of differential monitors and transmits DGPS corrections over radiobeacons covering
much of the U.S. coastline. DGPS corrections are often transmitted in a standard format
specified by the Radio Technical Commission Marine (RTCM).
o Corrections can be recorded for post processing. Many public and private agencies record
DGPS corrections for distribution by electronic means.
o Private DGPS services use leased FM sub-carrier broadcasts, satellite links, or private radio-
beacons for real-time applications.
o To remove Selective Availability (and other bias errors), differential corrections should be
computed at the reference station and applied at the remote receiver at an update rate that is
less than the correlation time of SA. Suggested DGPS update rates are usually less than
twenty seconds.
DGPS removes common-mode errors, those errors common to both the reference and remote
receivers (not multipath or receiver noise). Errors are more often common when receivers are
close together less than 100 km). Differential position accuracies of 1-10 meters are possible
with DGPS based on C/A code SPS signals.
37

Differential Code-Phase Navigation

38

Errors Reduced by Differential Corrections

Differential Carrier GPS (Survey)
All carrier-phase tracking is differential, requiring both a reference and remote receiver
tracking carrier phases at the same time.
In order to correctly estimate the number of carrier wavelengths at the reference and remote
receivers, they must be close enough to insure that the ionospheric delay difference is less
than a carrier wavelength. This usually means that carrier-phase GPS measurements must be
taken with a remote and reference station within about 30 kilometers of each other.
Special software is required to process carrier-phase differential measurements. Newer
techniques such as Real-Time-Kinematic (RTK) processing allow for centimeter relative
positioning with a moving remote receiver.
39

Differential Carrier-Phase Positioning

Common Mode Time Transfer
When time information is transferred from one site to another, differential techniques can result
in time transfers of around 10 ns over baselines as long as 2000 km.

40

Common-Mode Time Transfer

GPS Techniques and Project Costs

Receiver costs vary depending on capabilities. Small civil SPS receivers can be purchased for
under $200, some can accept differential corrections. Receivers that can store files for post-
procesing with base station files cost more ($2000-5000). Receivers that can act as DGPS
reference receivers (computing and providing correction data) and carrier phase tracking
receivers (and two are often required) can cost many thousands of dollars ($5,000 to $40,000).
Military PPS receivers may cost more or be difficult to obtain.
Other costs include the cost of multiple receivers when needed, post-processing software, and
the cost of specially trained personnel.
Project tasks can often be categorized by required accuracies which will determine equipment
cost.
o Low-cost, single-receiver SPS projects (100 meter accuracy)
o Medium-cost, differential SPS code Positioning (1-10 meter accuracy)
o High-cost, single-receiver PPS projects (20 meter accuracy)
o High-cost, differential carrier phase surveys (1 mm to 1 cm accuracy)
41

GPS Applications, Costs, and Signals

Reference List

o 1999 Federal Radionavigation Plan, February 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Transportation and Department of Defense. Available on line from United States Coast Guard
Navigation Center
o Global Positioning System Standard Positioning Service Specification, 2nd Edition, J une2, 1995.
Available on line from United States Coast Guard Navigation Center
o NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction. 1996. Available on line from United States Coast
Guard Navigation Center
o GPS J oint Program Office. 1997. ICD-GPS-200: GPS Interface Control Document. ARINC
Research.Available on line from United States Coast Guard Navigation Center
o Hoffmann-Wellenhof, B. H. Lichtenegger, and J . Collins. 1994. GPS: Theory and Practice. 3rd
ed.New York: Springer-Verlag.
o Institute of Navigation. 1980, 1884, 1986, 1993. Global Positioning System monographs.
Washington, DC: The Institute of Navigation.
o Kaplan, Elliott D. ed. 1996. Understanding GPS: Principles and Applications. Boston: Artech House
Publishers.
o Leick, Alfred. 1995. GPS Satellite Surveying. 2nd. ed. New York: J ohn Wiley & Sons.
o National Imagery and Mapping Agency. 1997. Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1984:
Its Definition and Relationship with Local Geodetic Systems. NIMA TR8350.2 Third Edition. 4 J uly
1997. Bethesda, MD: National Imagery and Mapping Agency. Available on line from National
Imagery and Mapping Agency
o Parkinson, Bradford W. and J ames J . Spilker. eds. 1996. Global Positioning System: Theory and
Practice. Volumes I and II. Washington, DC: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Inc.
42
o Wells, David, ed. 1989. Guide to GPS positioning. Fredericton, NB, Canada: Canadian GPS
Associates. (These and other references are available from Navtech Seminars and GPS Supply, 6121
Lincolnia Rd. Suite 400, Arlington, VA 22312-2707 USA - (800) 628-0885 or (703) 256-8900). Fax:
(703) 256-8988 Navtech Seminars and GPS Supply





Introduction to Mine Surveying

Notes in this section are sourced from Anon (1987) Engineering Surveying III, Unit
77405 study book 1 and 2, Darling Downs Institute of Advanced Education, School of
Engineering, Toowoomba.






















1
Drill hole Surveys

Notes in this section are sourced from Anon (1987) Engineering Surveying III, Unit
77405 study book 1 and 2, Darling Downs Institute of Advanced Education, School of
Engineering, Toowoomba.

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

Surface Mine Surveying

Notes in this section are sourced from Anon (1987) Engineering Surveying III, Unit
77405 study book 1 and 2, Darling Downs Institute of Advanced Education, School of
Engineering, Toowoomba.



















Underground Mine Surveying

Notes in this section are sourced from Anon (1987) Engineering Surveying III, Unit
77405 study book 1 and 2, Darling Downs Institute of Advanced Education, School of
Engineering, Toowoomba.

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