Children Notes

1. Notions of children Perceived to be miniature adults Perceived to be pure, angelic and nearest to God Puritans: Asserted that they were not only conceived in sin, but born in utter corruption. ithout strict controls, they would get out of hand. !homas "obbes #1$%%&1'()* & Parents were deemed to have absolute rights over their children, where they would be freed from their parents upon their death. +ohn ,oc-e #1'./&1(01* & 2iewed the human mind as a 3tabula rasa4 or 3blan- slate4 at birth. ith time, it would be 3tarnished4 by e5perience. & !his view was present in the Age of 6eason, where the hope that human-ind could be improved upon was perpetuated. & 7hildren, viewed as wea- willed and lac-ing reason are best educated by being placed in situations which discourage the manifestation of bad character traits and -ept far away from situations which encourage them. & Parents decide on behalf of their children. & 8iscipline is to be meted accordingly in the form of beatings to ma-e children learn their lesson. +ean +ac9ues 6ousseau #1(1/&1((%* & :elieved children were born 3naturally good4. & !hey became evil and were corrupted by the family and poor education. & Asserted in ;mile: <n ;ducation #1()/* that children need to be nurtured by education in order to maintain their innocence and freedom. & rote: 3;verything is good as it leave the hands of the Author of things, everything degenerates in the hands of man.4 2iew of children as vicious , for e5ample in illiam Golding=s ,ord of the >lies

7hildren featured prominently in ;nglish ,iterature after 1()0. !he 6omantics? especially :la-e and ordsworth wrote in praise of the original innocence of childhood. & 7hildren displayed a curiosity about Nature and en@oyed it for its beauty. & 7haracterised by innate sensibility and imagination & 3,ost innocence4 with adulthood 2ictorian age & 7hildren were seen as frail and vulnerable and e5ploited in order to e5pose and highlight the particular inhumanities of the 1)th century such as corruption and poverty. & 7harles 8ic-ens was adept at portraying the child as a victim of a brutal environment

8o such notions of childhood e5ist in the presentA Generally, children are essentially playful, often happy and oblivious to their surroundings. As pillars of tomorrow=s world, is it imperative to ta-e care of their well&being and protect their freedomA hat implications would there be for the rest of the world if children -now only suffering in their childhoodA hat benefits can society reap when it ensures the freedom and dignity of childrenA /. Bome perspectives on the rights of children here there is a conflict of rights, if one person has the right, the other is absolutely denied the right. >or e5ample, if a child lac-s a right, the parent has sole dominion of the right over the child till it ceases with death. <ne can have all the rights normally possessed by an adult or none at all. Cf children are deemed as miniature adults, they would automatically be accorded rights. 3People either have rights of self&determination or they do not.4 ;ven if they possess welfare rights, they are entitled to certain forms of treatment, not that they are entitled to ma-e important choices about how to lead their lives. 7hildren lac-ing the rights of self&determination have no freedom to choose, and their own choices count for nothing. Are the above three perspectives acceptableA & >rom a moral or legal perspective, whether one is deemed capable or not depends on the age of their being held responsible for their deeds. here is the line between childhood and adulthoodA & Cf children are deemed as immature, or lac-ing in reason and -nowledge, would they be given the same rights as adultsA &Bhould children=s rights be distinguished from those of adultsA .. A 9uic- glance at some factsD#source: http:EEwww.unicef.org* !otal number of children: /./ billion. 7hildren in poverty: over 1 billion. 7hildren in developing countries without toilets at home: 1 in .? without safe water: 1 in $? and without health care: 1 in (. 7hildren under five who die of mostly preventable deaths each day: /),1$%. !otal child deaths in /00.: 10.' million. ,ife e5pectancy for a child born in +apan : %/. Cn Fambia, ... Percentage of infants with low birth weight in Budan: .1. Cn the 6epublic of Gorea: 1. 7hildren born in 7anada in /00.: .1),000. 7hildren -illed in 6wanda in )0 days in 1))1: .00,000. Proportion of child deaths -illed in conflict since 1))0: 1$ per cent. ;stimated rise in under&five death rate during 3typical4 five&year war: 1. per cent. 7hildren in :elgium: / million. 7hildren e5ploited in commercial se5 industry: / million. 7ost of producing a landmine: as low as HBI.. 7ost of clearing a landmine: up to HBI1,000. ;stimated new "C2 infections in /00.: $ million. Cnfections among under&/$s: over /.$ million. Number of children orphaned by "C2EAC8B: 1$ million. <f them, proportion who live in sub& Baharan Africa: % out of 10. Proportion of people with "C2EAC8B living in developing countries: over )0 per cent. <f them, proportion who need A62 treatment but do not have access: ). per cent. !elephones per 100 people in Bweden : 1'/. Cn :angladesh: 1

Percentage of central government spending on health in industrialiJed countries: 1$. Cn ;ast Asia and the Pacific: 1 per cent. Global military spending /00.: I)$' billion. ;stimated additional annual cost for financing the K8Gs: I10& I(0 billion. 7ountries that have ratified the 7onvention on the 6ights of the 7hild: 1)/. 7ountries that have not: /. 1. 7hildren in the Global 7onte5t #some hits and misses* L Hnprecedented global prosperity and unparalleled access to information & :ut persistent poverty and widening disparities e5ist both between rich and poor countries and within them . billion people subsist on less than I/ a day and 1./ billion&half of them children suffer absolute poverty, with less than I1 a day to survive on. According to a new report by <5fam, 1$ million children will die in the ne5t decade due to rich countries= miserliness.. G( countries #Germany, >rance, Ctaly, +apan, :ritain, the Hnited Btates, 7anada* are more well&off but only 10 M is spent on poor countries. !he debt ridden countries are serving their debts rather than on health services. !he G( countries have been urged to cancel all poor countries= debt and double development aid to attain the Killennium 8evelopment Goals #K8Gs* to reduce poverty. hat are the K8Gs to be attained by /01$A & Achieving universal primary education & "alving the number of people living in hunger and on less than the e9uivalent of I1 a day & 6educe by two&thirds the mortality rate of children under five & 6educe by three 9uarters the maternal mortality rate & "alve the spread of "C2 and other deadly diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis ;conomic sanctions or coercive measures ta-en against countries or political leaders through the deliberate withdrawal or threat of withdrawal, of customary trade or financial relations compound poverty. ;5ists in the form of trade embargoes, restrictions on e5ports or imports, denial of foreign assistance, loans and investments and constraints on foreign assets and economic transactions. ith shortage of food, medical supplies, deterioration of infrastructure essential for clean water, ade9uate sanitation and electrical power, children are most heavily impacted along with the elderly and the poor. L >ollowing the orld Bummit for 7hildren, stronger international partnerships have been forged with successful action to reduce ma@or childhood diseases Polio has been almost wiped out National immuniJation campaigns in the developing world has provided mass supplements on 2itamin A, reducing child deaths and cases of irreversible blindness. ith more access to iodiJed salt, there has been dramatic progress in preventing iodine deficiency disorders, which could have led to mental retardation.

Net, .0 million children remain unimmuniJed because of lac- of vaccines, poor or inaccessible health services or lac- of information and misinformation on where immuniJation is carried out. Cn ;astern ;urope and the 7ommonwealth of Cndependent Btates, immuniJation rates declined dramatically with political and economic upheaval as a result of independence from the Boviet Hnion. !hus, more than / million children die unnecessarily each year. & but unimaginable devastation by "C2EAC8B, especially in sub&Baharan Africa Bub&Baharan Africa has @ust 10M of the world=s population, but (0M of the world=s people with "C2EAC8s. ) out of 10 children affected are African. Killions have been orphaned with the loss of parents to the disease, ma-ing them more prone to e5ploitation. !he global picture: by end /00/, 1/ million people were living with "C2E AC8B, with more than . million children under 1$. !he disease is now increasingly affecting the young, girls and women and those illiterate and poor. Cn the most affected countries, the ratio is five or si5 girls #aged 1$ to 1)* for every boy infected in that age group. ;astern ;urope and 7entral Asia have the fastest growing "C2EAC8B epidemic, fuelled significantly by in@ecting drug use. ;very day, almost /,000 babies are infected with "C2 during pregnancy, at birth or through breastfeeding. Girl=s education can be an effective tool in the prevention of "C2E AC8B as it could help reduce the spread of the disease by helping females become independent, delay marriage and comprehend the measures ta-en to prevent the disease. L Bome gains for women, including greater legal recognition of their rights in many countries !he 7onvention on the ;limination of All >orms of 8iscrimination against omen has become the second most ratified international convention. !here are also more women in the labour force. & but continuing gender ine9uity and gender discrimination. Nearly 1/0 million are still out of school, of which $.M are girls. Gender based violence still happens daily, such as se5&selective abortion, female infanticide? female genital mutilation? 3honour -illings4, domestic violence and abuse ? se5ual slavery, prostitution and traffic-ing? and the use of rape as a weapon of war. About 1 million children are e5ploited yearly in the multi&billion dollar se5 industry. 7ommercial se5ual abuse of children is fuelled by a demand for the se5ual tourism. 7hild pornography 8iffering legislative standards in countries & !he actual age for legal participation varies with countries setting different age re9uirements for hardcore vs softcore pornography. & Production and sale of child pornography is generally illegal in most developed countries. Bome countries, including the Hnited Btates, the Hnited Gingdom and !he Netherlands outlaw mere possession. Cn 6ussia, there is no special legislation on

distribution of pornography and child porn. & Bome prohibit all depictions of nudity of minors, regardless of whether the minor is depicted in an erotic pose or engaging in a se5 act. & <thers disallow written wor-s that e5plicitly describe se5ual activities of minors. & Bimulated child pornography such as paintings, drawings, or computer& generated images, has recently been included in some countries= definition of child porn. & Cn most countries, materials dealing with underage se5 are usually e5empt from prosecution when deemed to have artistic merit. & !he internet has made it difficult to stop dissemination of some images which constitutes legal in some @urisdictions, and deemed as child pornography in others. >or e5ample, in Great :ritain, females as young as 1' can pose topless for mainstream newspapers and adult magaJines. Net for them to pose for American magaJines, they have to be at least 1%. ith the differing standards, how can children be ade9uately protectedA 8oes the e5istence of the Cnternet compound the situationA Arguments for less restrictions on child pornography & Bimulated child pornography does not involve real children. & !he non&commercial trade and sharing of child porn can serve as a substitute for new materials and bring about a decrease in production. & Pedophiles are given an outlet such that the ris- of committing abuse is lowered. & ,iberalistion of conventional porn in many countries shows that the availability of porn reduces the number of se5 crimes. Arguments against child pornography & !he trade in child porn precipitates a greater proliferation of the child porn mar-et. & Pedophilia might increase and lower one=s threshold to engage in se5 with a child. & Kight encourage child molesters & Kay give the impression that the depicted pornographic acts are normal. O ,egalising simulated child pornography could ma-e prosecution of true child pornography much harder. 7hild traffic-ing orldwide, an estimated 1./ million children are traffic-ed each year. &Koreover, families are often unaware of its dangers, believing that their children might have the chance for a better life outside their own country. &Girls as young as 1. #mainly from Asia and ;astern ;urope* are traffic-ed as Pmail& order brides=. Hp to 10,000 women and girls from poorer neighbouring countries have been lured into commercial se5 establishments in one Bouth&;ast Asian nation. L Cncreasing recognition of children=s rights and attention to violations of these rights Non&governmental <rganisations and the media have been increasingly active in highlighting special protection issues. 7hildren=s rights are now priorities on the global agenda and individual countries= political agenda.

Bome milestonesD 1)%)& 7onvention on the 6ights of the 7hild 1))0& orld Bummit for 7hildren (( heads of state and government ad %% other senior delegates met and put children=s interests as top priority ,eaders committed themselves to a orld 8eclaration on the Burvival, Protection and 8evelopment of 7hildren and a Plan of Action /( specific goals that included their survival, health, nutrition, education and protection and to be to be attained by /000 & but there e5ists the proliferating of armed conflicts that disproportionately -illed and in@ured children, the persistence of other forms of violence against children and continued widespread e5ploitation of their bodies and labour. 7onflicts -illed more than / million children in the 1))0s and left many millions disabled and psychologically scarred with displacement, insecurity, destruction of social infrastructure and @udicial systems !rade in arms and illicit drugs worth an estimated I%00 billion and I100 billion yearly result in increased proliferation of conflicts and violence. ,andmines Kore than 10000 children are -illed or maimed by landmines every year. 7hildren are more vulnerable because they may not be able to recogniJe or be able to read warning signs. Bome landmines are hidden and difficult to spot. :esides, children are innately curious and li-ely to pic- up strange ob@ects. Burvivors of mines tend to be concentrated among the poor who are e5posed when cultivating their fields, herding their animals or searching for firewood. !hose who labour in fields and forests and who fetch water are most at ris-. Cn 7ambodia, civilians use mines and other devices to fish, to guard property sometimes for domestic violence. 7hildren may be so accustomed to them that they become immune to dangers. Bome even use mine casings for wheels for toy truc-s. 7hildren who are maimed would place their families in greater debt. ,andmines prevent rural people from growing food or earning a living. 7hild Boldiers At any one time over .00,000 child soldiers, some as young as eight, are e5ploited in armed conflicts in more than .0 countries around the world. Kore than / million children are estimated to have died as a direct result of armed conflict over the last decade. At least ' million children have been seriously in@ured or permanently disabled. Cn Kay /000, the Hnited Nations General Assembly adopted an <ptional Protocol to the 7onvention on the 6ights of the 7hild on the involvement of children in armed conflict. 6aised the minimum age for conscription from 1$ to 1% and forbids anyone under 1% from participating in hostilities.

Bmall Arms and ,ight eapons 8evelopment of light, ine5pensive weapons has impacted the number of children recruited as child soldiers and traffic-ing of arms and drugs. !hey main and -ill thousands of children year. 7hildren witnessed or suffered direct attac-s by light weapons in their homes, schools and committees. 7hild ,abour According to the Cnternational ,abour <rganisation #C,<*, /1' million are engaged in e5ploitative labour. !hree 9uarters wor- in haJardous environments such as mines or factories, or with dangerous substances such as chemicals and agricultural pesticides. Bome $.( million of these children wor- under slavery of bonded labour. 8epravation of primary caregivers Primary caregivers and the family forms children=s first source of protection. !heir overall well&being and development is compromised with temporary or permanent depravation which comes about when they are separated during war, orphaned by "C2EAC8B, or placed in hospitals, orphanages, psychiatric units, prisons and detention centres. Bometimes this increases a child=s ris- of e5posure to violence, physical abuse and even death. Burvivors often face malnutrition, illness, physical and mental trauma, and stunted cognitive and emotional development. 7hild abduction 8ramatic increase in child abductions and child -idnappings by custodial and non& custodial parents. Political and legislation differences ma-e child abduction cases difficult to solve. 7ountries have adopted a treaty to e5pedite the return of children wrongfully removed to their home country. !he "ague 7onvention Hnder the treaty, each state which has subscribed establishes a P7entral Authority4 to serve as a liaison with the other 7ontracting Btates. & !he parent files the application with the 7entral Authority #the child=s home country or where the child is located* & !he 7entral Authority has to locate, protect and secure the voluntary return of the child. & Cf a @udicial proceeding is initiated, the court must act 9uic-ly. L New opportunities for popular participation created by the spread of democratic governance and increased decentraliJation, and a greater role in development for civil society, NG<B ad the private sector Kove towards political democratiJation? for e5ample, ;ritrea and Namibia achieved independence. Kany countries have initiated programmes of decentraliJation and made efforts to empower local authorities. & but continued poor environmental management, placing more children at ris- of

disease and natural disasters. environmental degradation has been aggravated by rapid growth of cities, poor management of urbaniJation, unregulated urbaniJation, unregulated industrialiJation, wasteful consumption, neglect of urban poverty and population displacement. hy have the above goals for the orld Bummit for 7hildren not been metA &Needed investments for children were not made. &8eveloping countries spend only 1/M to 11 M of their national budgets to basic social services. &8onors allocate only 10 to 11M of aid budgets. ..$ Bolutions for children=s protection and civil rights 6ole of the family & Btrengthen programmes to support families with child rearing responsibilities & ;nsure the development of comprehensive national programmes for the prevention, detection and treatment of neglect and physical or se5ual abuse of children & ;nsure that all children deprived of a family environment have access to appropriate forms of alternative care where their rights are fully safeguarded. 7ivil rights and freedom & ,aws to protect children from discrimination, especially in access to education in the ac9uisition of citiJenship and nationality & ,aws to care for children separated from parents, regulating and intercountry adoption & Actions to counter harmful traditional practices, including female genital mutilation #>GK* and early and non&consensual marriages & New laws to prohibit child prostitution, child traffic-ing and child pornography & ,abour laws for minimum age for employment , prohibiting the worst forms of child labour. & Bpecialised @uvenile @ustice systems, setting minimum ages for criminal responsibility and ensuring the separation of @uveniles from adults in detention centres. & Btrengthen strategies and mechanisms to ensure children=s participation in decision ma-ing for to their family and society & Promote awareness of child rights among children and adults, and foster changes in attitudes and values that undermine respect for the rights of children O:etter collaboration between law&enforcement agencies and @udicial authorities & 7ontinued efforts to build broad based partnerships at the local, national, regional and international levels Cn the local conte5t, comprehensive laws have been implemented to protect the child. 7hildren and Noung Persons Act #revised /001* http:EEstatutes.agc.gov.sgEnonQversionEcgi&binEcgiQgetdata.plAactnoR/001&6;2;8&.%SD hat are the limitations of these solutionsA ..' A different set of challenges

7hildhood obesity Possibility of a global epidemic of obesity which threatens to eradicate other improvements in children=s health and safety for the past .0 years. Cn America: & According to the 7entre for 8isease 7ontrol and Prevention. about 1$.'M of American children between 1/ and 1) were obese in /00/ , from '.1M in 1)(1. "ow does this compare with statistics for violent crime and illegal drug useA & 11.$M of every 1000 people between 1/ and 1$ were li-ely to be victims of violent crime in /00/, drown from ((.$ M per 1000 in 1)(1. & .)..M of 1/th graders used illegal drugs? down from $..%M in 1)(%. Cn Bcotland: & Bcots children are among the fattest in the developed world, according to Bcottish ;5ecutive figures. <nly Ctaly and Kalta have a higher number of overweight youngsters. & !his compares with ;ngland and ales and in America, where 1 in ( 1$ year olds are obese. !he Cnternational <besity !as- >orce #C<>!* see-s to increase the awareness of the condition as a serious medical one with huge economic costs and to come with policies and strategies to deal with it. Cn Bingapore, the P!rim and >it= programme has helped to improve fitness and reduce obesity with increased e5ercise and monitored eating habits. Net will the global epidemic be effectively curbedA 7hildren and stress Bome possible factors: 6ise in e5pectations to perform 8ifficulties forming good relationships with peers, "igher trend of children having thoughts on suicide. Arguments with parents ,oss of parents 8ivorce :rea-&ups Poor grades :oredom ;ating disorders 8epression Cn conclusion, Are all children locally and globally in a dire situationA 8o children learn any lessons while being mired in adversityA Are some so well ta-en care of and protected that they have become spoilt A Are the laws in place inade9uateA

Tuestion for discussion 8iscuss the plight of children in the world today. #B6+7 P;)) T1* 3Not enough to protection is given to children in many parts of the world.4 8iscuss. #A+7 P;)( T)*

Ethics and Morals lecture

C. hat is ethicsA Ct is a branch of philosophy aimed at clarifying the nature of right and wrong, good and bad Ct concerns 3moral rules or principles of behaviour for deciding what is right and wrong4 #,ongman dictionary* !here is no significant difference between the terms 3ethics4 and 3morality4. !he two terms are often used interchangeably. According to the ,ongman dictionary, 3morality4 is defined as a system of beliefs or ideas about what is right and wrong and how people should behave Ct is common to distinguish between personal ethics and social ethics, especially in estern societies. Personal ethics deals with what is wrong or right about particular actions of an individual while social ethics is concerned with the morality of social policies. Bome thin-ers believe that ethics mainly concerns what one=s individual conscience tells one to do. <thers thin- that ethics primarily concerns deciding what is best for the society at large. "owever, none of these approaches e5clude the other. !a-e environmental ethics for e5ample. Ct involves a set of issues that ultimately re9uire collective action, yet it also involves issues that individuals face every day when they decide about personal matters such as whether to use a recycling bin or to ta-e another plastic bag. All issues in ethics have a personal dimension in that they have an effect on individual lives and re9uire some -ind of @udgement on the individual=s part. "owever, most ethical issues have a social dimension in that for their resolution, some sort of group action by the community at large is re9uired. ;thical issues do not always involve issues of life and death such as abortion, euthanasia and stem&cell research. <ur every day life is infused with issues and dilemmas of a moral nature. ;g. 1. Bhould C tell a lie about why C was lateA /. C saw my friend cheating during the test. Bhould C report him to the teacherA .. "as the brand of cosmetics C am using been tested on animalsA CC. "ow are ethical E moral @udgements madeA Cn estern philosophy, there are three standard ways of ma-ing moral @udgements: & 7onse9uentialism E Htilitarianism & 8eontological theory & 2irtue theory

7onse9uentialism E Htilitarianism +udgements about whether an action is morally right should be made based on an assessment of the probable effects or conse9uences. An act is morally right as long as it ma5imiJes the best results for everyone. Kotives are unimportant, only conse9uences count. >or e5ample, if a brain surgeon and a beggar were on a raft that could only support one person, the surgeon is 3allowed4 to push the beggar off as with his medical s-ills, the surgeon will save more lives and bring about more happiness than the beggar will ever be able to do so in the near future. !he value of an act is determined by e5amining the act in light of moral principles. <ne common principle is 3treat people the way you would want to be treated4. !he founders of utilitarianism are +eremy :entham #1(1/&1%./* and +.B. Kill #1%0'&1%(.* 8eontological !heory A moral action is one that is performed out of a sense of duty. Ct is concerned with what a person intends to do, rather than the actual results of what the person does. Ct advocates that we should perform acts that conform to duties and rights, 9uite independently of the conse9uences. >or instance, if a government denies the fundamental right of free speech to one of its citiJens, it fails to respect the dignity of the person and therefore undermines the idea of e9uality. !he Hnited Nations Hniversal 8eclaration of "uman 6ights embrace this perspective. Bupporters of this theory include Cmmanuel Gant #1(1/ O 1%01* and 6onald 8wor-in. 2irtue theory +udgements about what is morally right should be made in terms of promoting good character or other natural ends. !he 2irtue theory shares much in common with the Natural ,aw theory which states that morality is grounded in something larger than our human circumstances, namely in a natural #in many cases God&given* order. !he Natural ,aw theory assumes that there is a universal moral nature common to human beings and it can be -nown through reason or common sense, faculties common to every adult, no matter what society they live in. Ct is usually associated with Aristotle. CCC. Korality E ;thics and 6eligion Kany people base their ethical beliefs and behaviour on their religion. !hey thin- of ethics as a series of religious rules and laws that they should adhere by. Bomething is good or right because God commands it and something is bad or wrong because God condemns it. Possible problemA >anatical believers may use their religious beliefs to carry out acts of horror and terror. Hsing religion to guide us in ethical decision&ma-ing leaves open the possibility that immoral acts might not be wrong, if God is perceived as saying they are not. Bome people decide on their own what they thin- is right or wrong and then loo- for isolated sections in scriptures to support their views. C2. Nature vs Nurture Are human beings essentially good or essentially badA

 Cs it possible to define or generaliJe about the human species which includes Kahatma Ghandi and Adolf "itlerA 8o our genes play a part determining how good or evil we areA Are we simply products of our social and cultural environmentA Are we blan- sheets of paper gradually written on by our parents, teachers, peers and the mediaA !o what e5tent does society shape our moral personalitiesA !otallyA 2. Koral 6elativism S Absolutism Koral relativism refers to the e5istence of a wide variety of ethical beliefs and practices. 8ifferences in ethical beliefs e5ist between different countries and tribes, as well as between different subcultures within a society or between different classes. >or instance, some societies allow polygamy while others ma-e it illegal. 7annibalism is tolerated in some tribes but not in modern societies. Bome regard abortion as murder while others maintain that it is a woman=s right to choose what to do with the foetus. "istory has also demonstrated how time alters moral beliefs. e would be appalled and horrified by the idea of having public e5ecutions as entertainment, but this was not the case to medieval ;uropeans. Cs there a set of universal moral rulesA Absolutists believe that there is. !hey believe that there are universal moral rules that are always true wherever you are such as: & it is wrong to murder innocent human beings & it is wrong to cause sentient beings unnecessary pain & it is always wrong to sacrifice babies !he danger of ethical absolutism is that one powerful culture can impose its own moral values on all others, thus monopoliJing what is -nown as the moral 3truth4. esterners, for instance, have caused the destruction of uni9ue cultures with their own ethical beliefs when they attempt to 3convert4 other cultures. 2C. Tuestion for discussion 3!he first duty of a doctor has always been to preserve life.4 Bhould this principle still be maintainedA Geywords: 3first4 O most important 3duty4 O something which you have to do because it is morally and legally right to do so 3always4 O an absolute word which suggests that in all circumstances, a doctor=s most important tas- is to preserve life

3preserve life4 O to -eep a person alive? to prevent a life from being destroyed 3maintained4 O to continue to -eep to something or do something 3should4 O @ustify that something is the best particular policy, practice or principle because it is morally right, fair etc. Cn other words, you are e5pected to provide sound reasons for ta-ing your stand Possible stands: Nes, the principle of preserving life should always be maintained No, the principle of preserving life should never be maintained hen it should be maintained depends on several factors and the circumstances in which the doctor is re9uired to ma-e the decision. Bome 9uestions to as- yourself before ta-ing a stand: hat are the implications of maintaining the principleA ould always ma-ing it a point to preserve life improve or worsen the situation we are consideringA Cs the principle wor-able E morally soundA Cs always ma-ing it a point to preserve life the best thing to doA Cf you agree with the proposition: ;5amine the implications of maintaining the principle by considering various factor and covering a range of different conte5ts. Bhow that the principle improves or brings about positive outcomes rather than worsen the e5isting situation or bring about negative outcomes. Bhow that the principle is morally sound E practical Bhow that the principle is the best available Cf you disagree with the proposition: Bhow that maintaining the principle will always worsen the e5isting situation or bring about negative outcomes. Bhow that the principle is not wor-able E morally sound Bhow that the principle is not the best available by discussing the following: #a* it needs to be modified for it to be wor-able or morally sound #b* there are better principles available <6 3 hether preserving life should be the first duty is dependent on certain factors4 Btate that there are no clear cut answers because the issue is highly controversial and views are divergent. 8o a 7A> #consider all factors* S 7A, #consider all levels* to determine the circumstances when the principle should be maintained ;5amine also the circumstances which render the given proposition ineffective Buggested thesis: hile we cannot deny that the primary duty of a doctor is to save lives, in today=s society, it is

not practical for a doctor to insist on doing so due to divergent personal, moral and religious views. !he range of possible social conse9uences also ma-es it difficult for a doctor to consistently maintain that he wants to preserve life. Possible points of discussion #1* >rom a secular view, the given principle should be maintained because in a world of moral uncertainty and flu5, we need a clear set of principles to anchor ourselves. e need to hold on to the principle that there is sanctity to life. !here is a universal legal prohibition against ta-ing another life #moral absolutism*. 4!hou shall not -ill4 is also a cornerstone of secular civiliJed society. ;uthanasia & Ct cannot be permitted because it involves deliberately -illing a person, an act which violates the sanctity of life. & Patients fulfill a greater good when they are pro&life. !hey gain dignity upholding the sanctity of life and become inspirational role models who do not bow to suffering. hat is euthanasia E mercy -illingA Ct refers to the -illing of a person to stop him from suffering, typically one who is very ill. !he person who is -illed is generally a -in, friend or medical patient of the -iller. Physician assisted suicide or voluntary passive euthanasia #using large doses of drugs which have the effect of relieving pain and hastening death* is forbidden in most countries. !here are a few e5ceptions to the rule though. >or instance, euthanasia has been commonplace in the Netherlands E "olland for more than /$ years. Ct can be performed under very tightly controlled conditions. Cn /001, the 8utch Hpper "ouse passed the ;uthanasia :ill, named !ermination of ,ife on 6e9uest and Assisted Buicide #6eview Procedures* Act. :riefly, doctors will not be prosecuted for euthanasia if a* the patient is in intolerable pain and the clinical outloo- of his condition is hopeless b* the patient has repeatedly and lucidly as-ed to die c* relatives have been consulted d* the death is reported :esides "olland, :elgium, BwitJerland S the state of <regon have laws permitting euthanasia S assisted suicide. Bingapore and some American states recogniJe Advance Kedical 8irectives #AK8*. !he National Kedical ;thics 7ommittee in Bingapore felt that a doctor has a duty to sustain life. :ut he has no duty O legal, moral or ethical O to prolong the distress of a dying patient. "ence, there is a need to allow patients to ma-e advance medical directives to instruct their doctors to withhold or withdraw life sustaining treatment when they are terminally and incurably ill. !he AK8 allows the patient to continue to e5ercise autonomy when they are unable to e5press their

wish. Ct is a formal and legal document which states the patient=s wish to die naturally and with dignity. active euthanasia is tantamount to murder and is forbidden by all countries. Abortion & A doctor should not perform an abortion because life begins at conception. Any process that terminates a pregnancy after a sperm has fertiliJed an egg is arguably murder. !herefore, abortion at any stage -ills a human child and fails to observe the sanctity of life. &Note that varied perspectives on when life begins further complicate the ethical issues concerning abortion. Bcientists have more solid information on the development of the foetus than those in the past. Net, they still cannot come to definite conclusions. !heir thin-ing is based on a combination of their -nowledge, what they have seen, and what they personally believe in. !heir varied views: 1* "uman life begins at conception. !he fertiliJed egg is a product of / human beings and therefore must be human too. /* "uman life begins a wee- or so after conception when the fertiliJed egg has implanted itself in the wall of the uterus. .* ,ife does not begin until the embryo=s heart begins to beat in the 1th wee1* Ct begins at wee- % when the foetus develops into a foetus O hands, arms, legs, internal organs ta-ing shape $* Ct only begins when the foetus becomes viable and is able to live outside the mother=s body. !his usually ta-es place between the /1th to /%th wee-. Btem 7ell 6esearch E Cn 2itro >ertilisation #C2>* & C2> involves putting together sperm and egg in a Petri dish and allowing fertilisation to ta-e place outside the woman=s body. !he 3strong4 embryos are implanted in the woman=s uterus while the 3wea-4 ones are thrown out. 8octors freeJe the e5tra 3strong4 embryos in case the woman does not get pregnant on the first try. Bince many contend that embryos are living human beings, such a practice poses moral problems. !he same issues arise here as in the abortion debate. !he doctor should not dispose or freeJe embryos as this violates the sanctity of life. & Btem cells have the potential to mitigate or treat diseases and conditions #eg spinal cord in@ury, multiple sclerosis, Par-inson=s disease, diabetes* and to generate replacement tissues for dysfunctioning cells or organs #eg brain, pancreas*. !here are three widely recognised categories of stem cells, one of which is embryonic stem cells which originate from early human embryos created by in vitro fertilisation #C2>* for assisted reproduction or fertility treatment. Cn order to derive or e5tract the stem cells found within the embryo, the embryo is destroyed in the removal process. Bome researchers even claim that the best stem cells come from fresh embryos as freeJing may affect the usefulness of the embryo. 8octors thus cannot be allowed to e5periment with embryonic stem cells as the process involves -illing of a human being.

#/* Not maintaining the principle promotes immorality and creates more problems for society. ;uthanasia & Ct creates the potential for the misuse S abuse of euthanasia. #1* !he patient may simply ta-e the convenient way out without e5ploring other options #/* !he patient=s -in may deliberately choose euthanasia because they stand to gain financially or save on medical e5penses. 8eath protects their vested interests. #.* Hnscrupulous or incompetent medical careta-ers may arbitrarily sentence their patients to an early death, claiming that they are doing their patients S society a favour. & Ct devalues life, ma-ing it readily disposable. Cf we shift our values and start to regard human life as dispensable and cheap, then civiliJed moral values are in great danger. >or instance, would it lead to involuntary euthanasia by the state for the old, sic- S infirm so as not to drain the country=s resourcesA Abortion & Adults and young people will become se5ually promiscuous if they -now that there is an easy and legal way to get an abortion should the woman become pregnant. >or e5ample, in 1)%0, over a million teenagers became pregnant and .%M of them had abortions. Btem 7ell 6esearch & !here are also concerns that embryonic stem cell research may set an unwelcome precedent, leading the way for future moral compromises. !o prevent this from happening, doctors and researchers thus should ma-e it their first duty to preserve life. Bingapore=s :ioethics Advisory 7ommittee=s ta-e on stem cell research & a human embryo has a special status as a potential human being, but it is not of the same status as a living child or adult. ;mbryos must be less than 11 days and be originally created for C2>. & research is supported only when there is great scientific merit and potential medical benefit #.* >rom a religious perspective, -illing is wrong and the pious should not commit this sin ;uthanasia & ,ife is the gift of God and thus can only be ta-en by God. God decides life and death. Kan has no right playing God. &"ow one lives and dies determine one=s afterlife E reincarnation. Abortion

& Cn order not to violate religious teachings, the principle has to be maintained when conception ta-es place or when a pregnancy reaches a certain stage. hen this stage is depends on one=s religion. !here are different views on the morality of abortion and the circumstances under which it may or may not be permitted. 6oman 7atholic 7hurch O ,ife begins at conception. !he foetus is a human being with human rights. Cnterference with the human reproductive process is sinful. "owever, it does not oppose indirect -illing, that is, the coincidental death of the foetus brought by medication or medical help given to the mother to save her life. Buch situations are seen as tragic incidents, not sins. Anglicans S Kethodists O ,ife does not begin until the baby has a chance to survive independently from the mother. Cn Cslam, the soul enters the foetus 1/0 days after conception and abortion is murder if it ta-es place after 1/0 days. Ct is tolerant of abortion before this time. :uddhism prohibits the ta-ing of life. "owever, it is usually left to the individual to decide what should be done. Btem 7ell 6esearch E C2> 6efer to the arguments for abortion #1* >rom a medical perspective, a doctor has to honour the "ippocratic oath and restore his patient to health, not -ill him: 3C shall give no deadly medicine to anyone if as-ed, nor suggest any such counsel4 Net, it is also the role of a doctor to relieve the patient=s pain. hat happens then if pain relief implies euthanasiaA 7an euthanasia be seen as an e5tension of the present principle of alleviating a patient=s painA #$* Preserving life need not be the top priority if not doing so brings about more desirable social, moral and emotional conse9uences than doing so. ;uthanasia & People do not want to e5pend e5orbitant amounts on a 3lost cause4. Cf there are no -nown cure, they are @ust postponing death & People believe they deserve immediate release from their misery. "ow would denying them merciful means of ending their misery benefit themA & People also believe in valuing 9uality of life. !hey do not believe in living out their days drugged or comatose. <f what use is 9uantity of life thenA & People want to spare their loved ones the agony of watching them die in pain. 8eath from a lethal in@ection is often deemed less traumatic.

& ;uthanasia may be more humane than the torment of illnesses. 7ompassion @ustifies a case&by& case consideration for their use. & People may resort to euthanasia secretly if it is not legally permitted. Anecdotal evidence shows euthanasia is provided secretly. hy not legally control the situation to reduce errors and abuseA & Baving money, time S effort via euthanasia would mean that more resources could be channeled to other needy patients. !hey may get more medical subsidies or receive the much needed organ transplants. Abortion & Given proposition implies that abortion should be made illegal. "owever, to gain social and economic e9uality with men, feminists, together with abortion rights supporters, insist that a woman=s right to privacy and bodily control must prevail over a foetus=s right to life. "ence, a doctor should not preserve the life of a foetus if the woman prefers otherwise. & ;ven if abortion is illegal, women will resort to unsafe 3bac-&alley4 abortions to end their pregnancies and endanger their own lives, especially when & they become pregnant as a result of pre&marital se5, rape or incest & tests conducted show that the child suffers from grave mental or physical defects and they are not financially and emotionally ready to ta-e on this responsibility & Ka-ing abortion illegal would also result in global population pressures and would e5acerbate problems such as starvation, overcrowding and environmental degradation & An increase of unwanted children born in single orEand impoverished families could result in an increase in social ills, such as an increase in crime, an increase in the number of people living below the poverty line and the ballooning of the state welfare rolls. Btem 7ell 6esearch E C2> & Cf cures to currently debilitating diseases could be found via embryonic stem cell research, millions of people worldwide wide would benefit. Buffering and pain would be greatly reduced. "ence, in this aspect, it is not necessary to ma-e preserving life the top priority of doctors. & C2> has enabled couples who are unable to conceive naturally to have children who are biologically related to them. Cf a couple wants desperately to have a child of their own and has pinned all their hopes on C2> and is not disturbed by the disposal of unwanted embryos, why should a doctor deprive them of the opportunity simply because he has to preserve lifeA Advocates of C2> would argue that the happiness and emotional satisfaction of a couple override the given principle. #'* Kaintaining the principle undermines an individual=s right to choose S freedom ;uthanasia

& People believe that it is their right and choice to decide to die. 8emocracy gives them the liberty S freedom to act according to their beliefs. & A state that professes to uphold the rights and freedom of its people has to respect the views of its citiJens. !he individual should have the freedom of choice to live and die on his own terms. Cf a representative number calls for euthanasia, it should be condoned. & Bome people do not want to be shac-led by social and religious e5pectations. Bince they do not subscribe to these codes of behaviour, they do not want to live by them. Abortion & Pro&abortionists believe that a woman=s rights supercede those of a foetus, because the foetus is a mass of cells and not yet a human being. !herefore, it does not have the same rights as a human being. Kaintaining the principle thus violates the woman right to choose. & Advocates of abortion also argue that a woman has the right to control what happens to her body. !hey stress that a woman=s decision to control her reproduction is a private and personal issue that does not concern the government. Kaintaining that a doctor=s first duty is to preserve life would then ma-e it impossible for a woman to choose abortion.

Why is it so difficult to eradicate poverty in developing countries?

hy is it so difficult to eradicate poverty in developing countriesA Poverty in developing countries has always been a global problem, even in this century. !o eradicate poverty means to improve the standard of living of all the people to a level, where they can meet their basic needs of having clean water, electricity supply and proper housing. !his will be very hard to accomplish and developing countries find it hard to eradicate poverty mainly due to a few reasons. !hey are bad governance, foreign aid coming with strings attached, heavy debts, and the vicious cycle of poverty. "owever, e5ternal reasons li-e natural disasters, which cannot be controlled by man-ind, can also worsen the poverty situation. 7orrupt governments in developing countries are very rampant. !hey are not only corrupt, but they also practise nepotism and cronyism. Cnternational aid is given to the developing countries to help the poor people, yet the money seldom reaches them. !hat e5plains why developing countries will never get out of poverty with such governments. <ne good e5ample is Cndonesia. !heir e5&president, Buharto, misappropriated foreign aid and that is why little has been done to restructure the country despite the heavy investments in the country. 8onor countries that have given aid to the developing countries usually have vested interests. Kan-ind can never be so altruistic as to help people without any prior motive. 8onor countries will want something bac- in return after giving foreign aid to the poorer countries. >or e5ample, Poland has helped Argentina through providing loans and aid. Cn return, Poland demands that

Argentina lower the tariffs against Poland=s goods. Cn this way, Polish goods floods the economy of Argentina, ma-ing Argentina worse off in the balance of payment. !his -ind of foreign aid with strings attached, instead of helping, will only ma-e the country suffer more. ,oans that the developing countries have borrowed from the orld :an- or Cnternational Konetary >und #CK>* or other countries that they have no way to return, will bring very heavy conse9uences. 7ountries li-e Bouth Gorea, !hailand and :raJil are in such heavy debts that no other country or non&governmental organisation will dare to lend them any more money. ithout money, !hailand and Bouth Gorea are unable to restructure their countries and assist the poor people. Cnfrastructure cannot be built and in this way, few investors will want to invest in their countries. !he problem of poverty will remain unless some other countries offer a helping hand. Ct ta-es two hands to clap. Cn the same way, when there is a good government that is willing to help to train the people and educate the children, the people must also have the heart to learn. <therwise, no matter how hard the government tries, it will all be fruitless. >or e5ample, Genya has come up with retraining programmes that will e9uip its people with the s-ills to operate machines. "owever, the lu-ewarm response and the falling attendance have set this programme bac-. !herefore, if the people do not want to help themselves to improve their lifestyle, nobody can help them to get out of poverty. !he vicious cycle of poverty is also an important reason why the developing countries are still suffering from poverty. 2icious cycle means that the poor people get poorer because they cannot improve on the current lifestyle, while the rich gets richer. Btatistics have shown that at least /0M of the children in developing countries are child labourers. !hey do not have education as their parents feel that getting money and filling stomachs are more important than reading boo-s. !his -ind of thin-ing has made this vicious cycle continue for a lot of generations. hen the children grow up, they will not have any idea of how a -nowledge&based economy functions and they will, therefore, be unable to wor- in value&added industries. !hey will still be stuc- in poverty. ;ducating the children now while they are still young will benefit them. hen they grow up, they will be able to get better @obs that will give them better pay. <ften, e5ternal factors may affect the developing countries too. >or e5ample, natural disasters and economic recession are very harmful to these countries. !heir economies will be affected adversely if they are already tottering from debts and economic stagnation. Cn my opinion, C feel that eradicating poverty in developing countries is indeed difficult. "owever, there are ways to solve the problem of poverty. Kore developed countries can actually come together to help the developing countries. !hey can analyse the problems that are hindering the developing countries from getting out of poverty and suggest ways of eliminating them. !hey may also lend money to the developing countries to help them eliminate the root cause if these can provide assurance that the money will be appropriately utilised. !hey can also educate the children and train the people to wor- in a -nowledge&based economy. All in all, C feel that poverty is a big problem that the world is facing. <n humanitarian grounds, we have the moral obligation to help those who are suffering in poverty. e have to try our best to help them in all ways that we can, even though eradicating poverty may seem to be

impossible. !eaching them how to fish instead of giving them the fish should be the policy that we have to follow.

Brains are what count in ones career." To what e tent is this true
3:rains are what count in one=s career.4 !o what e5tent is this trueA Cn this modern age, it is no longer possible to depend on Pbrains= alone to be successful in one=s career. !he degree one receives after graduating from a university cannot guarantee one a place in the @ob mar-et, not to mention if the economy is facing a downturn. !here are several other factors that have to be considered. !he degree @ust reflects that one has the certified ability in a particular field of -nowledge. "owever, such -nowledge, often treated as the e9uivalent to having Pbrains=, is not the focus of career development anymore. "aving Pbrains= is important because it is one of the basic re9uirements for entering the @ob mar-et, but it is not what counts in one=s career. "ence, it is true only to a relatively small e5tent that brains are an important factor in one=s career. hat firms and corporations loo- for nowadays is emotional intelligence #;T*. !he ability of a wor-er to cooperate and relate well with his colleagues is very important. "e has to communicate well with fellow wor-ers, learn to -eep an open mind to accept feedbac- and comments for self&improvement and share s-ills with them. 7ompanies appreciate such wor-ers because they would not be faced with strained wor- relations which may in turn lead to a great deal of unhappiness. Good interpersonal s-ills also ma-e things easier during teamwor- because everyone is able to communicate effectively. Gone are the days when success depends on an individual=s efforts. "ence, communication barriers have to be eliminated before the team can succeed and this is important in one=s career because having a good and strong relationship with colleagues brings about many benefits. A positive attitude towards one=s career is another factor. Cmagine a wor-er who comes to woreveryday sighing, hoping that time will pass by faster and that there will be less assignments for the day. "ow far can this wor-er, with a negative attitude, go in his career compared to another employee who comes to wor- smiling, is willing to wor- overtime and hopes that there will be more challenging assignments on hand to stretch and improve himselfA Cn times of recession, which wor-er will be retrenched firstA hich wor-er will be able to establish a career fasterA C am 9uite sure even if the former wor-er is e9uipped with a higher educational level, his poor wor- attitude will get him nowhere. <ne=s character or personality also counts in one=s career today. 7haracteristics such as perseverance, determination and optimism may be the -ey to a successful career. ;ntrepreneurs have to persevere through difficult times to get to where they are today. !hey have to learn to accept failure and setbac-s along the way, to pic- themselves up and continue running the arduous race. 6is-&ta-ing is also necessary because they have to e5plore new areas and ma-e important decisions based on their foresight. !hey also have to be optimistic about their

investments and businesses and be bac-ed by strong determination so as not to give up. !hese three 9ualities also apply to other careers. 7reativity is another important factor. 7ompanies constantly want fresh and new ideas for proposals and reports. <ffice wor-ers have to improve on this aspect if they want to climb the corporate ladder. ;ven the self&employed have to be creative in their mar-eting techni9ues to -eep up with the ever&changing tactics employed by other firms. !he people in the advertising industry constantly come up with new concepts because creativity determines their success. C would not deny that the image that one pro@ects and one=s physical appearance are also important factors. <ne has to loo- presentable and professional to leave a good impression on customers and bosses. "ow can a wor-er in a sloppy outfit e5pect to leave a good impressionA "ence, image can be important, especially when wor-ing for big corporations. +ob devotion is another significant point. ,i-ing your @ob and putting your heart and soul into each assignment represents your enthusiasm in what you do. !he more enthusiastic you are and the more attached you feel to the @ob, the higher the chances of wor-ing well with others and being successful in your career. ,astly, C would consider linguistic abilities to be an important factor. !he ability to spea- well and being bilingual help especially when 7hina=s mar-ets and economy are opening up fast. :eing able to converse in different languages and dialects will help e5pand one=s career as one is able to communicate effectively and to networ- with partners in foreign countries. :rains are certainly not all that count in one=s career. <f course, C am not implying that they are not necessary, but they have become a pre&re9uisite for entering a @ob mar-et and are no longer a bonus. <ne has to learn to cultivate the right 9ualities to succeed in a career with a brighter future.