Wildlife and Traditional Chinese Medicine: Supply and Demand for Wildlife Species Author(s): Susan A.

Mainka and Judy A. Mills Source: Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, Vol. 26, No. 2 (Jun., 1995), pp. 193-200 Published by: American Association of Zoo Veterinarians Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20095462 . Accessed: 30/09/2013 05:35
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Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 26(2): 193-200, 1995 Copyright 1995 by American Association of Zoo Veterinarians

EDITORIAL WILDLIFE AND TRADITIONAL CHINESE AND DEMAND FOR MEDICINE-SUPPLY WILDLIFE SPECIES
Susan A. Mainka, D.V.M., and Judy A. Mills, M.S.

Abstract: Traditional Chinese medicine dates back more than 5,000 years and many animal treatments. The use of wildlife in these medications is products are included in recommended In particular, wild populations of creating a drain on already declining free-ranging populations. tigers, bears, rhinos, and swiftlets are under threat due to their use in traditional medications. Where possible, farming of some of these species has been attempted to provide a steady source of materials for medical use. Although substitutes and alternatives for these medicines are being sought, other solutions to this problem must be pursued, including improved protection of species in their habitats, strict legislation controlling domestic and international trade and enforcement of these laws, and increasing public awareness of the threats to wildlife. Key words: Traditional medicine, tiger, bear, rhino, swiftlet.

HISTORY
An ancient Chinese legend tells of a farm er in Yunnan in southwest China Province who found a snake near his home and beat it with a hoe. Several days later he found and the same snake, with wounds healed, to the kill tried it. snake ap again Again peared in a few days and again the farmer the farm tried to kill it. This time, however, er observed the snake slithering away into some weeds and beginning to eat them. The weeds were Panax and today notoginseng their styptic properties have been well doc umented. Much of traditional Chinese med in legends such as icine (TCM) is steeped as the powder such and many drugs, this, have been proven from Panax notoginseng, to be clinically useful. is thought Traditional Chinese medicine to date back to the time of the emperor Shen

He tested many of these herbs and, for the next 2,000 years, his findings were passed to generation from generation by word of
mouth.

Published

references

to TCM

in China

did not occur until theZhou dynasty (1122

B.C.), and by the Han period (206-220 B.C.) record keeping was organized and phar had been compiled.35 "Book macopoeias lets" of bamboo strips with prescriptions and recommended for various ill dosages nesses were available to the citizens of the illness they might day to help treat whatever contract. One bamboo strip contained a pre scription for treating a horse and, thus, vet erinary science was born in China.35 of information between Chi Exchange nese and Western medicine began during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), in large part due to the efforts of Dr. Li Shizhen (1517 1593), who took 27 years to write the de text on herbal medicine.35 finitive Dr. Li described in use at the time 1,892 medicines and his works were translated into many languages. influences from theWest were Continuing traditional medical in challenging practice In 1929 Chinese China. doctors who had been trained overseas in Western medical foreign

Nong (3494 B.C.), who was intrigued by the

apparent healing qualities of many plants.35

World Wide Fund forNature, 1196Gland, From the Switzerland (Mainka); and TRAFFIC East Asia, c/o WWF Hong Kong, GPO 12721, Central, Hong Kong
(Mills). Address correspondence to J. A. Mills.

193

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194

MEDICINE OF ZOOAND WILDLIFE JOURNAL

to demand the returned home techniques their demands abolition of TCM. However, were met with outrage by all classes of Chi nese society and TCM maintained its po sition as an important part of medical prac
tice.

an Even today in most Asian countries, resource an exploitable imals are considered In con with values based on their utility. on basic zo textbooks temporary Chinese species are described ology, many by their in medicines," for "usefulness especially members of the ursid, felid, and cervid IUCN Red Data groups.24 The Vietnam Book lists bears as an important species due to their use in TCM.

in the in China Mao Zedong's policies increased use of 1950s and 1960s promoted TCM and thereby many Chinese species' the loss of 3,000 ti destruction, including de gers {Panthern tigris).13 In 1958 Mao clared the "Four Pests" campaign and a na tional effort to eliminate sparrows, flies, a and rats was begun. Within mosquitoes, conceded of Agriculture year the Ministry that "the war against sparrows had been a as millions of insects normally mistake," were invading all birds consumed these by the Great homes.16 Next, during told his people to "Or Leap Forward, Mao to change their channels; make der rivers that the mountains give way,"11 and with on a continuing Chinese people embarked Chinese "Se destruction. program of environmental vere damage was done to all kinds of forests Smil.38 concludes throughout China," The traditions of Chinese medicine spread as mi of China the Asia peoples throughout the continent, particu grated throughout when of Mao's the reign, days larly during fled the Communist thousands regime. took with them their atti These migrants and their belief in the tude toward wildlife newfound affluence efficacy of TCM. With in their new homelands, they were able to continue products at an consuming wildlife
ever-increasing rate.

Although the demand forwildlife inTCM

of years, recent has occurred for thousands in human population growth and increases income have had a noticeable disposable effect on wildlife. By 1985, the Xinhua News that of China officially recognized Agency en many wildlife species were becoming that farms of the and announced dangered most valuable species, namely tigers, bears, leopards, snakes, and deer, would be estab lished.31 Trade Records na in Commerce officials estimate annually.4 traditional Analysis of Hora and Fau International (TRAFFIC) that the annual illegal trade

in wildlife may be worth US$5-10

billion

major are 2,200 traditional medicine factories and the industry 460,000 employs people.10 There were 2,297 TCM hospitals in China

Part of this illegal trade involves a medicines made from wildlife, in In Asia. China there alone, industry

in 1992 and 200 million were outpatients to 2.7 million cases ad treated in addition mitted.3 In almost all cases, the nations from which wildlife are taken to supply the TCM market are poor while are the consuming nations to rectify this difference may rich. Helping lessen the threat to wildlife at the source, sources of income if alternative especially can be derived from keep (e.g., ecotourism) ing animals alive.

Following

the establishment

of the Peo large was

ple's Republic of China (1949),Mao Zedong

the Chinese people to have encouraged the growing population families. While

destroying the habitat in which wildlife

the integra lived, Mao was also promoting The medicine. tion of TCM with Western was human population rapidly increasing medi the wildlife resources?for depleting the same time cines, food, and income?at they were destroying of those same wildlife the habitat species. for many

SPECIES BEING UTILIZED

Carnivores

Tiger (Panthera tigris sp.) Status and trade: As of 1994 there were es individuals from the timated to be 5,000-7,400 five remaining tiger subspecies left in the wild.13

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MAINKA AND MILLS-TCM AND WILDLIFE 195

Their use in TCM represents the most serious threat to their survival in the wild. Countries which still have wild tigers are generally poor and the temptation is great to supply the demand and improve their own standard of living. In addition, the break up of the former U.S.S.R. into smaller states with undeveloped protection systems for habitat contianing tigers has led to increased exploitation of tigers in these areas.7 (U.S.$/kg Tiger bone is a valuable commodity 12-375) and one skeleton can provide more than
the annual gross national product for one person

in the Collection of Commentaries on the Classic of theMateria Medica.5 Almost all parts and products of the tiger, from whiskers (used to treat toothaches) to feces (used to treat piles), are used
for medicines. 133? The most popular is tiger bone,

inmost countries which have free-ranging tigers. The major exporter of tiger bone and other medicines containing tiger derivatives is China, with reported annual trade (data from 1990 to 1993)30'33 amounting to 604 kg of bone and 6.75+ million derivatives (including at least 71,014 kg of bone).1330 Major importing nations include South Korea (average 374 kg/yr during the last 20 years) and Japan, the United States, and Tai wan. It is interesting that the Chinese scientists report that there are likely less than 80 wild tigers remaining in the wild, yet export data for bone alone is equivalent to 300 tigers and they are not
among the major importers.30

which is valued for treatment of conditions such as rheumatism. Of all the bones, the hum?rus is said to be the most effective. The recommended daily dose of tiger bone is 3-6 g,5 and since the average adult tiger has a skeleton weighing only ?20 kg, one animal would only be an annual supply for 9-18 rheumatism sufferers. It is estimated that if only 0.1% of Chi na's population used tiger bone products, the world's tigers would disappear within a year.30 Use of tigers in medications is not restricted to TCM. Traditional medicine practiced in India prescribes tiger fat for rheumatism and as a cure for leprosy. Traditional Vietnamese medicine advises use of tiger bones for relief of rheumatism and stewed tiger bone soup as a general tonic for
convalescents.32

Clinical
animals,

research has shown that, in laboratory

tiger bone has anti-inflammatory, an

A tiger farm has been established inChina with the help of the government but have been the subject of recent controversy. In May 1993, when China's government agreed to U.S. demands to place a domestic ban on tiger trade, banks sup porting tiger farms terminated funding.40 This left farms with no cash flow and no market for their product, but a captive group of tigers to
maintain.

algesic, and calming effects.5 In Hong Kong, fur ther research is under way to determine if there are any unique properties in tiger bone that are not present in other species' bone. Many substi tutes for tiger bone have been suggested. Clinical research using dog bone shows that it works but
may have excessive effects.5 Bones of other spe

cies such as mole

too are threatened

(Parascaptor sp.) and leopard (Panthern pardus) may also be useful, but they
species.

Tigers are listed under the Convention on In ternational Trade of Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix I. At the most recent Conference of the Parties (COP) held in Florida in 1994, a resolution regarding tigers was introduced by a consortium of 10 range and consumer countries. The resolution, which passed
unanimously, called on all Parties and non-Par

Other felids the only felids Tigers are by no means used in medicines. For example, the jaw of a clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) or do cat teeth or claws are used as a sed mestic ative and as a treatment for dog bites.26 Bear (Ursus spp., Selenarctos Status the world, thibetanus)

ties to work with traditional medicine commu nities to eliminate the use of tiger bone. InMarch 1995, the governments of China and India signed an unprecedented joint protocol calling for a crackdown on illegal trafficking in tiger products and the launch of a worldwide campaign to dis courage the use of tiger parts in traditional med
icine.

and trade: Of the bear species in all but two (American black bear and polar bear [Ursus [Ursus americanus] are thought to be in decline.37 maritimius] A 1991 report estimated that the Soviet Far East had only 4,000 Selenarctos and 9,000 Ursus arctos.34 During year Chinese scientists estimated thibetanus the same that there

uses: The first references to tiger Medicinal use in traditional medicine date back to 500 A.D.

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196

OF ZOOAND WILDLIFE MEDICINE JOURNAL

were With

no more

than

20,000

wild

bears

in

China.9 for medicinal demand increasing a further made from 10,000 bears, products for the pur animals were kept in captivity pose of bear farming.29 One captive bear can in 1 year as produce as much bile product a harvest of 40-50 wild bears.9 Surgery is on bears that have reached adult performed the size (usually >100 kg) to marsupialize can so off be milked that bile gall bladder just prior to each meal. The remaining bears are either allocated to a breeding program are or and too young to be used juveniles for bile milking.1 Current Chinese statistics report that one farm bear will produce an average of 70 ml bear can of bile per day.914 One milking produce 2.2 kg of bile powder during a 5-year to the harvest from life compared production a wild bear (47-52 g). Therefore, each farm to spare the harvest of 220 bear is estimated wild bears.10 bear farming has its prob Unfortunately, is not successful and lems. Captive breeding are prone to amyriad bears used for milking common of which the most of diseases,2739 are a Pseudomonas infection at aeruginosa the marsupialization site1 and cholecystitis (an 80% incidence at one farm42). Milk bears bile pro that are ill have greatly decreased use ductivity.43 The net result is continued source as a for the medical of wild bears of bear products States, India, In and China.29 South donesia, Hong Kong, Korea, perhaps the largest consumer of bear in the world, imported more gall bladders ingredients. Major exporting nations include Japan, the United

American black bear ( Ursus americanus) was II in an attempt to listed under Appendix curtail trade due to the fact that gall bladders from all bear species look alike. uses: Almost all species Medicinal of bears can be used in TCM; however, the Chinese pharmaceutical industry uses pri the Asiatic black marily the brown and betanus)
tos).10

(Selenarctos bear (Ursus

thi arc

from their bile to their feet, are Bears, used in more than 74 different medicinal The active ingredient in bear preparations.41 acid (UDCA), bile, tauro-ursodeoxycholic has been shown to have a therapeutic effect in the treatment of liver disease and is used to dissolve inWestern medicine gall stones can also without UDCA be syn surgery.36 but most Orientals thetically manufactured believe that product derived from the live animal to be more efficacious and that de rived from wild bears the most effective of all. Substitutes for bear bile which have been include bile from domestic suggested pig, and shark, some of which eagle, elephant, are more efficacious than bear bile in treat ing certain disease conditions.12 Bear gall bladder is used as an analgesic in doses of 400-1,100 and antipyretic mg per treatment.18 Bear bile can cost as much as U.S.$210/g in but averages U.S.$15/g Hong Kong.21

Ungulates Rhino (Diceros bicornis, Ceratotherium simum, Rhinoceros spp.)

than 4,000 kg of bear bile (the equivalent

bears per year) from 1970-1993.29 it is these figures are interesting, Although to remember that this includes important only those shipments which were reported to CITES or customs officials and any items smuggled are not represented. in me The major bear species involved or en dicinal trade are listed as threatened of 2,867

to Status and trade: There are estimated be < 12,000 rhinos of five different species remaining in the wild.17 South Africa is home

to 60% of the remaining rhinos (6,375 white

[Ceratotherium simum] and ~900 black

[Diceros bicornis]), while India (13%) and

and Nepal Indonesia (~5% each) also have in wild rhino populations totaling >300 dividuals. Although many parts of the rhino are used the horn ismost valued. From inmedicines, 1949 to 1976, East African export data show a total of 56,694 kg of rhino horn (average

dangered under CITES. At the CITES COP

held in Kyoto, Japan in 1992, the North

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MAINKA

AND MILLS-TCM

AND WILDLIFE

197

black white

rhino horn weighs 2.88 kg, average rhino horn weighs 4.00 kg).23 Assum ing equal parts black and white rhino horn in those shipments, that 16,500 this means

ta?ed) horn may stitute.

Other

also be an effective

sub

ungulates

rhinos provided horn during this period, of to Hong Kong. which 40% was exported East African However, export data for this is up to four times lower than cor period for receiv import information responding as nations such This Japan. ing discrepancy of exports was indicates that underreporting in nations the horn. widespread supplying call for rhi Numerous Chinese medicines no horn but only five are commonly pre rhi of sale of scribed. The economic impact no horn products is huge. In South Korea, common the market for the most rhino Woo Hwang Chung Shim Won, medication, It should be is U.S.$19 million annually.28 noted that the use of rhino horn in this med and is no ication is illegal in South Korea pharmaceutical longer used by licensed firms. recent CITES COP, South At the most Africa presented a proposal to downlist their I to white rhino population from Appendix II and this proposal was accepted, but only to for purposes of transporting live animals less robust wild augment populations. uses: Use in Medicinal of rhino horn re TCM dates back to 200 B.C.6 Chinese search shows that rhino horn does have an effect on rats but only at high antipyretic doses.6 Horn from Asian species is thought to be more effective than that from African species, and prices reflect this belief. For the period 1982-1986 average prices of African to China was U.S.$538/kg horn imported while the price for Asian U.S.$10,998/kg.23 Although have attributed the demand for rhino horn to aphrodisiac there is no clinical properties, research to support this and this use is not noted in TCM texts. as a cardiotonic Rhino horn is prescribed or antipyretic with average doses of 1-2 g for rhino suggested, including water buffalo horn,1935 but larger doses (up to 10 g) are required. Saiga antelope (Saiga tar per treatment.18 horn have been Some substitutes horn was in the West we

of deer products is one of the best and most popularly ani employed mal-based TCMs. In China alone, more than 300,000 deer are farmed for antlers and oth er products.9 Antlers of deer (Cervus sp.) are Use known to treat everything from anemia and to The most impotence.35 potent lumbago medicine is said to come from freshly cut antlers in velvet. Epidermal growth factor has been isolated from deer (C. elaphus) antlers in velvet.19 Red deer (C. elaphus) antler in fresh vel vet can cost up to U.S.S 1,000 per kg (pers. used obs.). Fetal deer extract is used to treat "fe male" problems. Musk deer (Moschus mos a cardio chiferus) secretions are considered
tonic.35

Serow (Capricornis kg) or blood (U.S.$4 used for rheumatism ga (Saiga saiga was

tart?rica) added to Appendix

sp.) antlers (U.S.S83/ per small bottle) are relief. Demand for sai horn is so great that II of CITES

at the 1994 COP.

demand for ornamental Although ivory is a major cause of elephant (Loxodonta af ele ricana, Elephas maximus) poaching, of the demands of phants are also victims the TCM markets. in Laos have Markets to sell elephant been reported trunks for treatment of kidney stones, respiratory and as an aphrodisiac.26 problems, Elephant hide, used to treat heart disease, can sell for as much as U.S.S 110/kg.26
Other mammals

are used to treat kidney skeletons and sell for U.S.$370/kg, while pan cir golin (Manis sp.) scales help promote culation and lactation.35 Bat stones

Birds Swiftlet (Collocalia spp.)

Status and trade: The swiftlet genus Col localia has 30 species of birds which make

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OF ZOOAND WILDLIFE MEDICINE 19 8 JOURNAL

secretion their nests using a mucilaginous as Nests of cement.25 of sublingual glands for human four species have been harvested use, but the most prized are those of the and Ger swiftlet (C.fuciphaga) Edible-nest both of which main's swiftlet (C. germani), are comprised entirely of saliva.22 Both of these species are distributed along coasts in 8 g southeast Asia. An average nest weighs and 1991 imports to Hong Kong alone

that may be of compounds value, epidermal therapeutic including growth factor20 as well as a potent "co-mi index of togen that can enhance the mitotic A Con stimulated lympho maximally contain several
cytes."19

Other birds Raptor claws have been sold as a sedative while red junglefowl (Gallus sp.) claws are owls used to treat swollen throats.25 Whole are used to treat migraines and convul
sions.19

amounted to 124,093 kg (992,744 nests). At

cost of U.S.$700-4,000 per kg, the annual import value of these nests is in of dollars.22 the millions alternative which is be One conservation nest The Malaysian is used "farming." ing to har licensed collectors has government vest existing nests.22 Ideally, the nest can be taken after fledging but prior to the next egg laying so that each pair has time to build a the current new one prior to incubation. Timing is crit success is reduced ical. Immediate breeding when nests with eggs and/or young are taken, and future breeding output may be affected limits egg pro due to lipid stress, which collec licensed duction.15 Unfortunately, tors do not necessarily take this timing issue and in 1989 the Malaysian into account a 3 was forced to announce government to on to nest ban collection attempt year to recover.22 allow wild swiftlet populations pressure has increased inmany Harvesting areas and has resulted in marked declines a of several swiftlet populations including swiftlets in black-nest decrease (C. in between Niah Sarawak, Cave, maxima) in Ed 1935 and 1987, and a 43% decrease 48% in Baram, swiftlets (C. fuciphaga) over to list 17 A resolution Sarawak, years.8 II was the swiftlet under CITES Appendix recent COP. at the most defeated uses: The first records of the Medicinal use of swiftlet nests are from the Tang dy ible-nest are used to Nests nasty (A.D. 618-907).22 from chronic dis assist with recuperation eases such as TB, dysentery, and malaria. In addition, swiftlet used smokers opium nests to refresh themselves. Research has shown that swiftlets' nests

Reptiles

and Amphibians

are used in TCM extensively. Reptiles Entire bodies of Viperidae (minus the head) are steeped in alcohol and used as sedatives or antirhuematics.35 The plastron of turtles or the carapace of tortoises are used to treat are used to treat kidney diseases.35 Geckos impotence.19
Invertebrates

as an from cicada are employed Moltings Earth and antispasmodics.35 tipyretics worms spp.) are used to treat (Lumbricus or stroke paralysis, while cen convulsions to treat fright, tipedes are used in remedies shock.35 traumatic and tetanus,

CONSERVING THEWILDLIFE RESOURCES FOR TCM

to assume that a culture It is unreasonable of years that has used TCM for thousands this form of history will suddenly abandon use of of therapy. Continued long-term

wildlife in TCM will not be possible unless

are taken to conserve these species measures and to work toward sustainable yields. efforts to At the local level, intensified combat poaching and protect the habitat are for protec conditions necessary. Improved in tion guards, including programs training reserve and basic management, ecology of in and provision supply of equipment,

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MAINKA AND MILLS-TCM AND WILDLIFE 199 are needed. Local education cam centivies, paigns to inform residents about the status resources and how to con of their wildlife serve them are critical. Public education about the problems facing wildlife species that are used and about alternatives which are needed. may be available must National governments to promote enforce legislation use of habitats and discourage and sustainable create

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