Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
vot,
APRIL*JUU 1977
NQS.
1*2
KBA'P'vfr'
I* WIN
CIN
"
L,
Prabhaka?
Science Towards Jainism
St K* Sharma
On
in
Vamana's
Kavyalankara-sutra-vrtti
Blswanath Bhattacharya
J. Erishnamwrt!
R, K, Sfiringy
Prepositions in Asvaghosa
Satya "Vrat
Rajas and
.
.
Karman
Shah
Nagin
J,
Prakrit Studies
N* Qhosal
the PaisacI Origin of
On
Kannada Language
R..K Kh'adabadi
Bhatta Nayaka's Blunde?
T* S. Nandl
Padmasundara ! Jnlnacaadrodayanitaka
11
M.
Asher
fn 1873-74, when Alexander Cunningham visited Tigowa, 2 miles north of Bahuriband in Jabalpur District, the foundations of at least 36 temples
site.
commonly
However, only one temple, a flat roofed shrine Devi Temple, 1 (Plate 1) remained intact.
in excellent condition,
is
remains
usually identified
among
below
Gupta
it
shown
425
A.D.,
although
was
restored
sometime
after its
construction.
Oriented toward the east, a the temple is almost identical in size and plan with Temple XVII at Sanchi. It is elevated on a plinth ( jagatl-pltha) 472"x375'', the exact height of which properly cannot be determined because of the uneven ground
level. s
At
is
ground.
The adhisthana
consists of
.a
low rectangular
taller
high
with a
cyma
recta
curve at the top. The plain walls, unrelieved by any sculptural decoration, are 71" high and composed of seven courses of ashlar masonry, each stone
being approximately I2"x24". The superstructure, to be discussed in considerably greater detail below, consists of a projecting moulding 13.5" high,
two courses of masonry 20" high in the same plane as the walls, a projecting, cornice 6" high, and enormous flat slabs 6" thick covering the entire temple.
1
An
was known
as the Sitabhadi-a~.Y//w
8th century,
when the
inscription
was
carved. Alexander
Cunninghams Archaeological
of the
IX, p. 46,
publishes
an
accurate transliteration
.
Cunningham, ibid,, p. 44, notes that, in fact, this temple is -north of east and comments tli at, on the average, Gupta temples deviate 13 from the true directions. He makes the intriguing suggestion that this may bs an intentional
'
'.tilpa
literature
is
nowhere in the
For a ground plan, see ibid., plate X. I have no explanation for between Cunningham's measurements and' mine.
the discrepancy
Frederick
M, A slier
was originally an open portico with four more or less evenly spaced columns* supporting the three large stone slabs which form the roof. Similar in form to the columns of the may da pa of
enclosed,
Temple XVII
at Sanchi, the columns of the Tigowa temple have very tall square bases followed by much shorter octagonal and then 16-sided sections below the capital. The capitals of the Tigowa columns, however, are of the
purna-ghata type, used so frequently during the Gupta period, for example at Deogarh, while the Sanchi temple columns use the much older bell capital, apparently in imitation of the capital form used on the Great Stupa toranf/s or
the
Asokan
pillar
which was located just a few yards away. More significant in form of the capitals is the more elaborate decoration of
relatively elaborate decoration, such as the floral figural motifs carved on the octagonal sections of the columns, suggests a development somewhat more advanced than that represented by the Sanchi columns.
and
The mouldings of
than the
the
doorway
temple.
Plate
2)
also
XVII
at Sanchi,
They
consist
around, the opening, a plain course of moulding, another band of rosettes, and a pilaster as the outermost doorway moulding. Above the pilasters are the figures of the River Goddesses, Jamuiia to the viewer's right and Gangs to the left. A row of dentils, apparently the vestige of wooden rafter ends, is above the doorway. This form of doorway has its closest association with doorways of monuments dateable to the very beginning of the fifth century such as the rock-cut sanctuary at Udayag.ri associated wi'h the inscription of 401/02 A.D.e and the doorway of the Sanchi temple. Nevertheless, two
features of the Tigowa doorway suggest that the temple advanced than the shrines of Udayagiri and
style
is
somewhat more
to
two bands of rosettes at Tigowa, while on the doorways' of the Sanchi and Udayagiri temples there is only one, and also the pilasters are substantially more ornate, both features anticipating the decoration of subsequent G.upta temples. Second, the figures of the River Goddesses are clearlv differentiated by their mhanas, the makara and
tortoise,
Sanchi, although closer to the temples dating after the mid-fifth century
an,invari-
^Jfea^o^
4
subsequent Gupta temples, while at Udayagiri S..K. Saraawti, "Temple Architecture in the Gupta Age," Journal of
the two
,
of
ha
Sc^ty columns
>.
Oriental Art, *
s-hghtiy
,
fmlian
h, -Jy
^
(1940),
in the
p.
,50,
comment.. "The
sides,
I8
distance between
this
greater
temples of the type, Cunningham appears to be ,t as one of the minor marks of the Gupta siyle." While (! s Temple XVI! a't Sanchi, it does not pertain to the TigoJa temp* J 0h " arshaJ andAlftedF e r, The Mo mmeHts
uvan.blc
and as
01 the
rtu
is
regarding
fnl If f
'
f 6
Impend Guptus
female figures in the position of the River Goddesses both stand on makarax, suggesting that in 401/02 A.D. Ganga and Jamuna were not yet a canonical feature
date
somewhat
cannot be dated as
later date,
of the temple.' Thus the Tigowa temple must be assigned a later than the beginning of the fifth century, although it laic as the second half of the century. Temples of this
at
Nachna,9 and the Siiva Temple at Bhumara, lo invariably have elaborately carved lotus rhyzome motifs around the doorway and faces carved on the projecting dentils above the doorway. Hence a date of ca. 425 seems most
appropriate for the Ka^kali Devi Temple at Tigowa.
ries after
There can be no doubt that the temple was modified several centuit was built. Both the enclosure of the mandapa and the style of
sculptured
the three
panels on the
mandapa
walls
give clear
indication
of
this.
The mouldings at the base of the walls enclosing the mandapa are bolh taller and more elaborate than the base mouldings of the walls encloundoubtedly more advanced than the adhislfinna mould'rigs of the Deogarh Visnu Temple which may be ascribed to the early sixth century and appear closer to the form of the adhisthana mouldings of the Siva Temple on Mundesvari Hill which is associated with an of 636 A.D. 11 and the Laksmana at
inscription
Temple
i
may be
Above
to enclose the
mandapa. On the north side, the mandapa wall extends beyond the columns. This extension consists only of a base moulding with a single large projecting slab.
later additions.
7
Three sculptured panels of rather awkward appearance adorn these Two, one above the other, are on the south wall of the
Ganga
ct Yamuns,, Paris, ^,1964,
pp.
14-35,
doorway as among the very Tigowa River Goddesses is considerably more mature, grouping them with those of the Deograh doorway. The figures of the
and suggests
that the form of the
it
is
impossible to
determine
whether
at Marhifi and
10.
XXXII
(1970), plate
Iiic/inn
Bombay,
10
11
R. IX
Baru'r.ji op.
n't.,
plale IV.
K. C. Panigrahi,
Rexcarcli Society,
Mijmlesvan'
pp.
in
Shfilifibnd,"
Journal
of ihe
Bihar
14-21,
12
India,
New
5,
p.
II
form
the
banbhana section
evidence gives no
relief
indication of
flat
roofed
and because
sculpture
of the
Gupta period
and
illustrate no flat- roofed shrines while frequently illustrating multi-storied buildings, 14 many scholars have wondered what her the flatroofed temples which remain in modern times represent the vestige of
who
"....mais
an enornnus number of flat-roofed shrines in Madhyadesa, asks, sommes-nous en presence de temples intacts ou dont la la toiture a etc' in partie ruinfce? 15 (But are we dealing with intact temples or temples of which the roof has been partly ruined?) And Praniod Chandra miles of has made excellent use of the temple at Marhia, just about 20
1
'
Tigowa, to demonstrate convincingly that the well known Siva Temple at Bhumara was not originally flat-roofed but had a superstructure consisting
of mouldings forming a sort of stepped pyramid. 10
Such early Puranas as the Matsya and Agni appear to presume that is an integral and invariable component of the temple. That is, these texts refer to no temples without superstructures and by reference to the proportional measurement of the sikhara and to the names of its parts, thay seem not to consider the xikhctra an optional feature of the temple. But, then, the Puranas and the various silpa
the sikhara, called in these texts the manjari,
texts
seem to acknowledge few options which the builder might have, although
obviously indicates that the silpin
would have
theless,
was not bound by prescription to every feature. At the same time, one to admit that the sikhara is no small decorative feature. Neverit is possible, although admittedly not probable, that the texts do not acknowledge flat-roofed temples because later emendations of the texts when it was no longer current.
and
its
To
flat roofed,
itself.
demonstrate that the Tigowa temple and others of its class were I may cite two facts. First is the nature of the roofs
always
surface
My own
temple's roof
has revealed
no
place
where a superstructure once could have been. Neither are there holes into which metal or masonry clamps could have been set, nor is there any sort
14
15
for example, among the reliefs of .Bharhut and Sanchi. Odette Viennot, "Le problems des temples a toit plat dans I' Inde cfu Nord," Arts
(
1968), p. 27
16
Pramod Chandra,
op.
cit.,
pp.
130-43.
Fredtrick
M. Asher
mitulapa.
(Plate
.1)
illustrates
to follow the
this scene is
this,
although
considerably
directly
that
is
more abbreviated than the Deogarh one. Above of the Brahms seated on the lotus
issuing
Kali. Its
from the navel of Visnu, is a panel which appears to illustrate placement above the Anantasay? suggests the juxtaposition and
third panel, illustrating
an unusual and especially austere form of Visnu seated as if in meditation while attended by standing figures at either side and flying figures above the head, is carved on the north wal! extension beyond the columns.
The asymmetry of the mandapa enclosure is unusual and thus merits comment. One would expect to see sculptured panels opposite those illustrating
Visnu AnantasSyi and Kali as well as a comparable extension with a sculptured panel beyond the columns on the southern side of the temple. The arran-
gement of the sculptures appears unusually haphazard for an Indian. temple and raises suspicions which are confirmed by a careful study of the mouldings at the base of the
enclosure (Plate 4) are similar but not identical to those of the south side enclosure, but the mouldings of th.2 south side enclosure are identical to
of the north wall. Thus the two walls with sculptured panels each have identical base mouldings. This suggests that the walls which today enclose the mandapa as well as the extension on the north side were not built expressly for the KankSli Devi Temple. Rather, they must have been taken from two different temples, no doubt, two of the 36
those of the sculptured extension
at the site.
The
that
as the style of the mouldings mandapa walls were made during the seventh century, but by no means an indication that they were added to the KankalT
Devi Temple at that time. In fact, they probably were not added to the Kaftkali Devi Temple until the temples of which they were originally part had fallen to ruin. Then all 0112 can say is that they were put in place
before 1873-74
when Cunningham
visited the
site.
to
The very low superstructure of the temple corresponds more or less the bmdhana mouldings of sikhara temples. Thus above the undecorated
is
waits, there
a single
projecting
moulding,
sort
of architrave, above
in the same plane as the walls. projecting cornice moulding carved in cyma recta fashion surmounted by enormous fiat slabs serve as the ultimate superstructure of the temple. This is virtually identical to the superstructure of XVJI at
Temple
Sanchi
13
R. D. BanerjJ, op.
cit.,
plate
XXXVII.
Frederick
M.
Aslier
of discoloration which might imply that thereof slabs were partially covered by a superstructure and parlially exposed to the elements. This also
applies to Temple
XVH
at Simclii.
Second
is
of temple
shown, early century. Slightly more developed temples such as the Vamana Temple at Marhia show a dentil motif, perhaps derived from rafter ends, below the lower projecting mouldings of (he superstructure and also with
plaques
figural
relief on the area which is between (he lower and upper projecting mould, ings of the superstructure, while this area on the Tigowa temple is undccorated. In keeping with the relative ornaleness, the Marhia temple shows the beginnings of a towering superstructure in the form of a stepped pyramid consisting of two tiers. This stepped pyramid is simply a, rednplicat-on of the Hat roof of shrines such as the Tigowa temple whose relative simplicity clearly indicates that it was built before the Marhia temple. Still later temples, which show a far taller and more ornate Sikhara,
archiiecure during the fifth and sixth centuries. Clearly the Tigowa temple the others of its class are the simplest in the conception, standing at beginning of the evolution and datiiu, as i have to the fifth
and
such
as the
to ca.
525
A.D
also
show
than
considerably
more elaborate
Tigowa temples. Thus there can be little doubt that as all parts of the temple are elaborated and reduplicated, so the superstructure is embellished and made taller. Since this is the
case,
Figowa temple
superstructure
fact, in
,ts
is
the least
is
developed of those
cited,
it
must
which
less
Marhia,
present form represents other than its original form. form that was short-lived, but that is no reason to
o>t
3,11,
.
Marhia In Tigowa temple's superstructure is less developed and so there is no reason to doubt that its
at
It
developed even
than the
one
may
have
it
seen a
existe
doubt that
Plate
Plate 2
Plate 3
Plate
VEDIC MITR.4*
C. L. Prabhakar
Vedic MStra
attention even
viz.,
is
who
in
received continuous
after
is
known
people.
the other
mythologies
faithfulness
Indo-Jranian,
Avestan
In
A vesta
JVliora is a
god of
thus
while in
RV, he
is
known
for regulating
He
is
described as
Character
to
in
the
Mitra
in
the
definite.
There are
many
1-9
)
solitary
hymn
3.56,
fully
addressed to Mitra
further
famous
3.62. 10),
because of this
ViSvsmitra seems to be uniquely blessed by Savitr, Mitra Vedic Mitra impels men for work and activity. This feature througuout the Veda.
maintained
viz.,
Agni
or
Indra,
Mitra
was
not
accorded an
independent status in the RV. Mostly this deity is known for bunefic character and supervisory functions. But Mitra joined with Vanma, occupied a significantposition in the RV. There arsmany refernces to Mi'trE -Vanina, a devats-dvandva in the RV. This
Varuna indicate a power, Fulfilling the entirity of action connected to Day as well as Night, Probably with Mitri-Varuna aspect of Aditya, Aditya's hold on the life of devotees as a whole
is
itself,
MitrS-
revealed.
Mitra
solar
is
deity.
He
He
is
thus a
god of
light.
He belonged
to
celestial
although Veda refers his intimacy and indebtedness to earth. Vedic Mitra inRV is worshipped for want of rain and successful operations in Agriculture Further he is a Law-Maker. All abide by his laws. Anyone who violated them was regarded as a sinner.
region
* Paper submitted
I
to the Irt^uational
thank Prof. E. D.
FRANCis U.S.A.
,
USA
whkh "}
1<>74
me
this topic
in'
wa-
Conference.
"
Vedic Reader
",
.-
MACDONELL,
2
3.
Vedic Mythology
.GiiyatrJmantra
:
".
1972.
C. L.
Prabhakar
sis
attempting to with other mythologies of WorJd. In such vast scope, a specific analyregarding his personality with reference to YV particularly SYV seems to be expedient, In that connection an of Vedic Mitra
analysis
of study. Many scholars* have discussed Mitra find out Mirra's nature and character even on a comparative
a subject
may
be
made
As for a separate study epic Mi Ira or Puraiiic Mitra could be discussed. Also a few remarks on Mitra of are incorporated here and there. It appears Mitra has no much individual in the
hereunder.
AV
importance
YV
and
sacrifice]-
in
the
YV. In
is
and
already
OQ SYVi. He
regarded under
YV
elaborate references
compared
in the Vajasaneyl Sarhhita (VS) for about forty six times spread into several Kmdikns. Among them, Mitra is mentioned further a ong with Varuna for about fifteen times. In the satapatha Brahmana only Mm-a is combined with Bfbaspati and functioned in the capacity of another Devalrtrmdva vir., Mitra-Brhaspati. This is unique to YV. Mitra is not mentioned about fourteen chapters of the VS which originally contains forty itCreStin8 t0 n te that Mitra * mentioned in each sacrifice of the SYV !!; There is no Milra in the last chapter (nopanisad) of the VS Thi. ascertain! M.tra's purview to limit to sacrificial portion of the VS
Mitra
is
referred to
telYV
and offerins
tobe adeity
are
made
to
him
YV
also.
Mitra
Vedic Mitra
*>
aspect of Aditya, a discussion on Mitra might, in otlier words, mean Aditya's mahat only. Mitra finds importance in YV as an independent deity. But that stature is not as emphatic as Rudra or Prajapati in (hat Veda.
fi
He
is
harmless.
He
is
sought in each
1
sacrifice in
)
YV.
Even
and
in
the
optional rites
rites,
in
the
Taittinya
Satnhita
invoiced.
addition
to
the
major
Mitra
is
AV
recognised
and
attributes praises
and functions
in
to
him. Mitra
AV
in
although
composed However, nutshell, it be said that Mitra's quality viz. benevolance received repeated mention in the other sarhhitas of Veda. In YV, specifically Mitra's looks (caksus) are benignant and hence proverbial. There is an exclusive rite* in after
may
YV
is designed after the suggestion of Prajapati for obtaining Mitra's grace. Mitra, by definition is a friend, an envoy to the devotees. Its etymological 8 sense also amounts to the same,
the
In
YV
Mitra
is
regarded
with
Prthivi to a strongfold
The meaning of
this reference
as Earth (Prthivi). Mitra ascended along wherewith he extends protection to devotee. seems to be subtle. But it may be that, on
account of the sacrifices performed on earth, Mitra receives strength staying in celestial region and as a result, he becomes strong to protect. It may be
so beacuse
true for a
after all
sacrificer.
sacrifice
is it
'the very
is
sap of
all
deities.
The
same
is
king,
said in
YV,
is
who performs
rises
a sacrifice
There
is
Mitra as he
and appears
Mitra
in the dawn
(AV
13.3.13).
That
is
is,
the
sun in the
dawn
represents the
ended
a deity for day (alwh). Mitra's upasthana (worship) at in the Kalpn texts. As such Varima stands in
dawn
is
recommto
contradistinction"
Mitra even
in YV. Varuna is revered in the '2 Varuria stands for evennight. ing and night. The combination Mitra- Varuna seems to be potential enough
6 7
S
"Rudra
in
is
the
1969.
One who
form
longevity,
2.1.7,
8,
9,
wealth
etc.
rites titled
;
2.3.8, 11
etc. ).
Mitraviiukfii
9 JO
11
8 J.
RV
3.59.6 in
12
"Religion and Mythology of Briihmaiias", G. V. DEVASTHAU, Poona pp. 67, Likewise he reveres Varuna with RV. 1.25.19 (VS 21.1) in the Ssyam Sandhyop&ana.
10
C. L.
Prabhakar
to
obviate
respectively.
to
YV
drink
etc.,
Mitra.
cam, ghrta
dedicated
sacrifices
and
rites
could be regarded as
his food. Among them, YV seems to point out preferences to Mitra. Satapatha Brahmailu points out (hat all that is natural and that is cooked with steam need be offered to Milra. While coloured animals and watery birds (jcilakakas) are dedicated to Mitra in the sacrifices. That is
Martina, Sayunthika,
to
Kulipaya
etc,
Mitra in Asvamedha. A brick as a share separately is put in the Agnicayana. The type of animals mentioned indicate Mitra's liking for
things
that are pure
third
bone
to
and that belonged to waters. Further in the Asvamedha, the is offered to Mitra. Some
offered to
Mitra
4"
in
Agnjstonia.
Such an idea of
offerings might indicate the subsistence warranted for the deity viz., Mitra.
Mitra
is
deities
RV. Identifications, as a
deity's
enhance the
importance
is
reckoned on the basis of the degree of mahat that the is described in Veda. Vedic Mitra in RV (Mitram .....
Varunam) is identical with all other deities to emphasise a theory which proclaimed of Monism. Aditya, Agni, Soma, Sarya, Savit r , etc., are the other Vedic deities with whom Mitra is identified. There ara mantras in the YV too that sang the mahat of Mitra
accordingly.
Mitra
further
etc.
is
identified with
earth
(prthiM],
that,
vital air
(praaa), vayu,
osadhi
The
Satapatha
Brahmana adds
Mitra
is
Brahma
characteristic of
itself. Mitra thus is Brahma, the Supreme. Here it out that tendency of identifying a deity under description to Brahma is a' YV-Mythology (For more : See 'Mythology of YV, 1968
JUB,
to
tyDr.N.J.Shende). For example, even Agni, elsewhere with Brahnia," YV, thus, seems to conceive each
in
YV,
is
identified
rise
is
deity to tend
>,
14
YV
is
samhita of
unto
a
desires.
When Mitra
becomes
thus
Mitra's obligation
sacrificer
fortified.
further
Satapatha
Crahmana
,,
connects,
is
Mitra with
Moon
and identified
Mitra thus
known
YV
VS VS
4.37
(Mi.tra=Soma="Aditya)
I).
Yv D " C
Vedic Mitra
,i
YV
few of them
may
be noted
!o
below. The
sacrifice
1
any other deity. qualities here again, seem to be and sacrificer unlike RV. No Vedic
deity
independent of sacrifice
its
".
Mitra is respected in view of his pleasing appearance and personality. Mitra is a desire of the sacrificer and therefore the latter wishes that Mitra should be prosperous by virtue of sacrifice (VS 18.17). Such fi desire referring to the prosperity of Mitra is frequently mentioned in YV.
(deva)
known
AV
comparison (upama). t7
Mitra has eye and with that graceful eye, the priest at the sacrifice is to eye the sacrifieer. Herein the Mitra s worth the comparison'"
i
asked
in the
YV.
is
Mitra
YV points out
adhipatih),
He
is
a star (awradlia
(Rtavnlh).
TS
9)
He
is
a suslaincr of
to
is
Law
The BrBhmana
(5.3.2.4)
Mitra
represent
Varuna
royalty (kjatra).
Brahma
known
is
in
intelligence
allied crafts
in
and
priesthood
sacrifice.
Ksatra stood
for
in
administration
rajs) as
and
of the society.
Varuna
king
(//
described
Veda.
turists.
capable of cU-storying enemies. He obviates sins. He cures diseases even. These traits of Mitra are commonly mentioned in as well as AV. M.tra controls rain (AV 5.24.5). Thus he is indispensable Cor agriculis
Mitra
YV
Mitra
YV
even as
in
commend
the devotees of
sacrifices
unfailingly.
obliged perform certain functions in favour of the worshippers. He has mainly sacrificial and protective functions JVhlra is capable of F erforming certain such Unctions that a: e common with other deities even.
16 17
Having been
praised, Mitra
to
AV
VS
Dr. N.
18 19
DBVASTHAM "Religion and Philosopay of Bmbniauas", Poona TV. Griffith Voi. Also -Kavi and Kilvya in the It) AV"
caksiisa iksinllmnn)
5.34
ma
11
^^is'liV found,
Ksatia
,
^- 10110 '""
"
1 '
11
"".ween Brahma
and
uHimalcly tends
speak interdependence.
j2
C. L. PrabSiakar
Mitra
is
the sacrifice (VS3. 31). Essentially Mitra destroys protetion was sought for in useful friends obstacles on the way if any, for the sacrificer. He grants
sacrificer
who was
of
4.19).
temporarily
want of
successful completion
sacrifice.
He
protects the
soma-cow
also.
that goes as
deity
price for
Soma (VS
He
This
that no
harm or
loss
of the
cow
in his hands might ensue to it. The Ukha in the Agnicayana is entrusted so that it would not break but remain safe (11.64). This would mean with Varima, the Mitra for Ulcha of the Along (fire-pan). blessings invoking
he
firm in the
Kingdom and
protects the
Law and
order.
He
for
them
is the guardian of people (carsani dhrtah). He inspires and impels work. Mitra's role, however, is significantly portrayed in the YV.
YV
AV
Mitra
in the
is
shows a change in the phase of functions of RV deities in general. not an exception therein. Many Vedic deities underwent changes is denoted by the nature of utility to which
at the
various
rites
of the
AV.
It
is
still
a need
Myothology of
AV
is
is
to be
worked out
exclusively in order to
deities. 20
mark
one of the
deities'
who
is
charm
in
AV (1.1. 2).
Essentially,
Mitra removes the unlucky marks (alaksini nUsanairi) on a woman (AV 1.19.3). He destroys sins and blesses the devotees. Mitra is invoked even in certain optional
is
Mitra's nobility
maintained
AV
also.
rites that
AV
described.
at
Further a glance
deities
mentioned in the YVaud AV Mitra was obliged to perform. Mitra is one of the
longein the
blessings are sought for certain desires like fine eyes, vity, health, food etc., by a sacrificer. He protects Mahnvir (pot)
whose
Pravargya ceremony (VS, 35. 5-6). Mitra bestows strength on the sacrificer (VS 33-48) and r jspects his desires ( VS 33-42 ). He purifies the sacrificer making him free from sins. Mitra is called, therefore, the
by
'putadakfcim* in
20
epithet
the^SYV.
(VS
33.57) in
the
instance of Pitrinedha.
by Late Dr. N.
such a need.
Vijaya
J.
He
We
AV"
fulfil
SiiENDE(my
See
FN
and
in
AV
the
rites
mutramocanam
(1.1.2),
Prartliana (1.9. J)
have
significance!
Vedic Mitra
13
makes the
6.5,4.14).
sacrificer to stick to
Truth (VS
9.39).
He
He grants finally heaven (Svarga) to the sacrificer as he the A'svastomiya oblations in Asvamedha sacrifice (SB 13.1.3.3).
Thus
the various functions
mentioned above
hand, assigned
indicate Mita's
support
during
rituals.
AV, on
the other
Mitra a place
in
charms
against evil
and soon.
is
Vedic Mitra
further
relations with
other
YV. He encourages
mentioned
:
the sacrifice
Milra
is
great in
to
view of the
myths
in
the
YV, A
few
myths referring
him may be
cited below
syllables
(VS
9.33).
clay.
is related with the Mahavira (pot) on the nine seems to be favourite to Mitra, This myth
ninth
is
cited
in the portion of
the
victory.
light
it
Adhvaryu. This myth is mentioned in the Agnicayana clay is mixed with goat's hair (VS 11,53) symbolically.
to
viz.,
Mitra was given with the Ukha. This is cited making of Ukha in that sacrifice (Agnicayana).
in connection
with the
These myths are relevant to the situations. Moreover, as the Brlhmanas reiterate, the gods are the originators of sacrifice in the world (devavai Yajnatn
atanuta*).
his share
in
such undertaking.
Mitra together with Varuna has also certain common references in the YV. They are larger in number also. For example, it is said Mitra together
with
Mitra
rite) in
the Rajasnya
priests
(VS 10.16):
speech on the
(T
56,
1-4)
arid so on.
Mitra was one who out of jealousy robbed away the nobility (Ksatra) from Sri, the daughter of Prajapati (SB 9.4.3.1) But he returned that to her
when he
testifies
originally
made normal
to
human
Unfortunately no details in elaboration of the myths in general of the sarhhitas could be found after the samhitfi literature. As a result one is constrained to be contented with mere citations of those myths. However,
22
23
VS
9.33
and
39,6: Also
14
C. L, Prabhakar
is
it
is
connected with
all
sacrifices
viz.,
from
Darsa-
pnrriamasa
if described
becomes
known
in
yet clear,
this
paper
is
limited
to those references
HI
As
(!)
may
full
be interesting
Vedic Mitra
is
in a
in
RV.
Visvamitra
seems to be protagonist for fame in respect of mantra connected to deities of Aditya group.
(2) Vedic Milra found parallels in other mythologies viz., Judo-Iranian and Avestan. His character, however, does not change much.
(3)
Vedic Mitra
is
is
Yet
his
support
(4)
Mitra
the
YV
finds
deity
known
for benignant
is
some development and he is regarded as a looks and gracious personality favouring agaiculas
tmists. In
(5)
RV, he
is
known
Mitra
recognised in
the sacrfices of
for.
YV, Offerings
are
made
to
him and
sought
At
a deity of day. His worship at dawn is recommended. (6) Sandliyopasthana, Mitra is revered during the day. Mitra, is living even
Vedic Mitra
in respect
of
rites prescribed
ritualistic
religion,
(7)
Vedic
Mitra
is
prominent
in
AV
also,
evil
is
sought
is
even in effecting
charms.
When
to inflict
on the
enemy
Mitra
maintained
intheAV
is
also.
designed in
the
Salapatha
Brabmana
mark
YV
identified
this,
Mitra
is
obliged to the
YV
very
much.
Pokharna
Abstract
We modem
may
illustrate hsre a
science.
We show
fundamental similarity between Jainism and the that the two approaches of understanding various
phenomena of nature
appears
con-
way we
lastly illustrte
how
significant
in the context
facing.
1.
Introduction
There exist remarkable parallels between Jainism 5 -* and modern science'. These parallels are not accidental but come from a very profound agreement between the Jaina's way of seeing the world and thi of
modern
without
concept
science.
If
we
of
then
we can say
fundamentally there is no difference between these two approaches to understand different phenomena occurrin
any
loss
ing
nature.
may
yield
In some cases a serious consideration of various some new ideas which can help in
theories
comparison we
resolving many disputes which today. Instead of making a one to one shall discuss various aspects of different phenomena from a
In section 2,
theories
3, we analyze the shape of the universe as given in Jainism in terms of symmetry and antisymmetry a which are the two most fundamental attnbutes of (he universe as has been emphasized by several scientists in the section 4, we study the importance of in the of
sect.on
we discuss self-consistency and unifying nature of Jaina's which are the most important aspects of any beautiful theory Then
DharmastikSya
devoted to
light
coming
in
the
way while
quantum
mechanics.* The
section
5 has been
importance of the
emphasize the
Some new
16
S.
S.
Pokharna
of Karnuis
recent
has
been
carried out
in
the 6 th section
the
light
of the most
developments in the
illustrate
field
of quantum
grown.
creeps
We
out
how
beautifully the
ideas of
Ahithsa
and
rebirth
from
this theory.
After
discussing
all
thus
beautiful
aspects,
we want
to clarify
a very
disciplines.
important point about the validity of the knowledge acquired in these two We remark that these methods provide us only with an approximate underestanding of nature. An absolutely perfect knowledge of all natural
be acquired only
phenomena can
is
when one
realizes
knowledge
can be
structured in the
consiousncss and
hence a perfect
knowledge
acquired only by increasing the purity of consciousness and achieving the state of KevahB. All scientific theories have been criticized in this spirit in
the last section,
We
.
also illustrate
how
precise and
knowledge* 4
2.
A
others
beautiful theory
is
contains a
minimum
number of
rest in
hypothetical
and
assumptions and each of which is consistent with (b) which can explain a large number of phenomena
of the
satis-
facory manner. The most beautiful theory in this respect will be one which can explain all phenomena occuring in the universe whether physical or
biological. In the modera science, we have not yet been able to recognize of such a Theory. Controversies still exist' 1 between mechanists and vitalists about the existence of Consciousness and its nature. Mechanists argue that all phenomena in nature can be reduced to the laws of mechanics whereas
in some illdefined consciousness or soul which is different from matter and may not follow the laws of mechanics. Problems of mindbody 1 9 interaction are still as burning as they were at any earlier dale. Even in the case of matter, the properties of various forms of matter and
vitalists believe
their interconnection
is
no t clear
i.e.
there
is
no unifyinig and
self consistent
known
magnetic;
weak and
is
gravitational interactions
.
which
govern
all
properties
of matter as
In this
believed hither-to 1
respect, the
Jaina's
theory
that the
whole
viz.
universe
can be
constituted
from
substancess-o
time, matter (Pudgal) and soul is extremely fascinifind here that none of the six substances have ating. any contradictions with any of the others. Each one of them is having its own functions, without affecting rest of the others, Furthermore, the fact that Jaina's
rest, space,
medium of
medium of motion;
We
17
.not believe
in
any
God and
their
the
above
universe
all
phenomena, removes
still
completely govern the Junction ings of different unbelievable doubts. The law of cause and effect is
unifying in nature
another important aspect which make their theory most scientific. Along and with this main theory another important theory which is self -consistent main types is the doctrine of K arm as. The fact that 8 whole the biological of Karmas and soul are essential ingredients to generate
kingdom
After
is
all
biological systems.
of
we discussing the beauty of Jaina's theories the universe which has appeared in Jaina canons.
We
illustrate
how
symmetry-Antisymmetry
in
Jainism
The
figure
appearing on the
of
ihe
left is a cross-
sttt'on
universe
according
to
Jain ism
versial
5"6 .
Without
scientific issue of
we
start from
reflected
which
is
from
line
this
figure. If
we draw
is
a vertical
AB
see
in
we
that the
figure
symmetrical
CD
in
we
not symme-
trical
CD.
etry
symm-
and antisymmetry
are the
two most
fundamsntal attributes of
or
this universe
we can say
and
is
antisymmetry. The
necessary for us to
of symmetry is nothing but a composition words are so wide that it meanings of these two to clarify the importance reflected give some examples
from them.
(a)
lawsl,8-10
scientific theories,
variables like
lies
energy,
that
momentum
if
etc.
The reason
is
behind this
description
in the fact
the
given
system
not
then these quantities for the system interacting with rest of the enviornment Thus all scientific studies with time i.e. they are conserved. do not
change
are
performed 3
in
terms of some
conserved
quantities.
deeper
analysis
18
S. S.
Pokharn
symmetr
associated
all
which
is
preserved
when the
However,
these conservation
laws and
symmetry
is
ii
situation.
As soon
itselj
as
introduction of system
the field
we talk of system and the symmetry brings about an antisymmetry nto tin
will
picture as
of
the
system
its
be affected by presence of
is
othei
this
effects
assumed
to be small arid
makes the
Thus
all scientific
theories are
breaking
all
Lot of interest has recently arisen in the symmetry principles and their i.e. entrance of antisymmetry. It is believed that one can
generate
know
forms of matters by allowing some symmetry principles to break. that whole kind of matter can be divided into fermions (having hair integral value for spin e.g. cleciron, proton and neutron and
etc.)
We
bosons
(having integral value for spin e.g. photon, neutrino and graviton etc.). Gold-stone in 1961 has presented a theory which roughly states that massless particles like photons can be generated by some
Now
it is
a massless particle whereas a nonspontaneous symmetry breakdown produces massive particles. Thus whole class of bosons are obtainable from some
symmetry breaking,
(e)
A similar
situation
is
all souls in their state of perfection The mundane souls have differences because of the presence of different forms of matter in different quantities. Thus all souls are absolutely symmetric, the presence of matter creates antisymmetry in them. From the process of gaihering of matter" by an empirical self it is also clear that an empirical self, obeys the principle of complementarity with pure soul and matter as two opposite poicntialit/es. This complementarity may be closely related with the one observed in the mind- body interaction (d) The principle of Syadavada
We know
<
Thus
study
for a
it
one should
universe, and antisymmetric.
.be' most outstanding in the context of complete understanding of the whole from all the points of view i.e. symmctnc / "nnut,
Thus
the
figure of the
e universe
universe
in
and
its
The convergence of
In
lhe....iaini.r>m
19
w;
DharmSstikaya
in the
developments.
anil
quantum nu-chanics
Ohanuasfikaya 2
5.
f>'
and quantum
syridavitda
fundamental and revolutionary developments of this centuary. The ideas of and tin concept of prade.yi are already there in Jain ism forthe.se
two
respectively.
However, we do not go
of their
similarities.
We
new thing.
is
perfect in
its
in th 3 reality any natural phenomenon involves relativity and quantum mechananics both and hence to describe any phenomenon more exactly one
'should study
relativity
and quantum
mechanics
together.
illustarte
When
such an
attempt
is
made, we
fin J lot
all
of difficulties.
We
one of them.
physical
moving with respect to each oilier with a uniform velocity. However in practice we cannot have such frames moving whh constant velocity because to even know that there is a velocity between the two frames, we have to allow some interaction to occur between the frames. Thus to see the frame
moving one has
to use
some
light signal.
By quantum
will
mechanics a
light
and momentum.
their
relative
is
The
transfer of photons
between the
framss
disturbe
this
momentum and
in turn
be-
yond our
which come
in
the
way while reconciling relativity and quantum mechanics. To resolve these 2 difficulties it has been suggested by Dirac that we might have to introduce once again the concept of medium of mot ion which was once rejected because
of the theory of the relativity. However the properties of such a medium of motion which has been called here as DharmSstikaya may play some important role in resolving the above disputes. The fact that it is only capable of maintaining the motion and not capable of inducing the motion is very remarkable. )t is also significant that it does not move from one point to another but there are some vibrations-like things taking place in it
known
motion
called an Ether was not delected by Michelsion Morley experiment may be simply because of the fact that this is nonmaterial as is given here and is therefore not detectable by material means. A recent argument by Prof, Sudarshan'' that this medium of motion may be a superfluid further
We now
remedy .which
go
to
discuss (he
the principle of
10
Uffrmnndfrn Problems
StJMaiStla
Kii'ht
<J.
S, S. Pokharnj
f,
in Particle
;
Physics
and a Possible
Remedy
b\
I'M*)
birtii
from
[lie
of modern
.science,
search-
me
out
liieiihj.-a
Lot of
theoretical in ni exrerimeiital
till
to-day to understand
many
difficult
in
(his Held,
As we iMve emphasized
in tonr.s of tour well
earlier, all
known
interactions through
vk'iion
Four, difficult and the most interesting interor nuclear interaction. The particles which undergo this iiuaacJiun are known as hadrons. To study them various models have been
other.
Out of these
is
the most
the strong
tievel.ipeJ
am! different
types of scattering
processes
have been
studied
to-
using
lie
explain different
experimental
obsenalions, Although
many
Their number in
conditions,
hadron
they
is
may
be
finite
or infinite
Howeu-r
and
cannot be observed
in the
is
meant for explaining electron-hadron scattering experiment. Quark model is based on some symmetry properties known as
this model every hadron is assumed 8 group symmetry. to be constitnu-d from three elementary quarks and antiquarks. It is still controversial whether we can observe them or not in the laboratory. Finally in the bootstrap mode! one assumes that no hadron is elementary, all are equally fundamental. We have to emphasize here that all these are models and so they explain differed attributes (and sometimes same). There is a lot of
simply a
model
SU
In
between them.
philosophy in
this context,
we find that sysdavadu may be of immense help in this case. The idea of Ananta Parysya of Pudgala(Pud,alaisaname tor matter in jAiniam, 'pud' to
ga dBsocate) is equally significant in this situation. It may be that each model descnhes only one part of reality and in each case none of the so called fundamental Article is conceivable by us and so is undetectable *<i<tuie
in the laboratory,
we
just
,o
combine and
Each
description
is
thm
a model
and a model
fc
model
after all
The convergence of
be even more
the...Jainisni
^j
above dualism and it appears that theory of relativ.ly-1'ke principle ma.y be applicable in the panicle physics also. After discussing (he present situation of
sciences,
let
doctrme of Karmas
various theories in physical us turn towards biological sciences. We find that although the
is
ments. It is more appropriate and closer to the searching out such a theoretical discipline.
6.
advance-
Quantum
of R( birth
We
be
often
analsze the
In
some subsystems.
many
explained as a mere
properties of a system by decomposing it nto cases we discover that these properties cannot aggregate of the effects of the subsystems Such
i
as collectve
}n such phono the discrete constitutive individuals are modified in their behaviour and the whole group is more than and different from a simple addition of its parts. One of the most suitable of
phenomena or cooperative
phenomena
mena
all
the
reality
such a phenomena is an example developments in the field of biology and have confined only to the study of
it is only very recently that has gone to the collective behaviour of biological systems.
much
attention
Let us understand the meaning of collective behaviour by taking some examples. As the theory of such systems has been widely understood for some well known low temperature phenomena observed in some cuiantum mechanical many particle systems" we give here a short note on this theory
which
temperature of a body has a meaning only for the body as a whole and is not definable for a single particle which is a constituent of the body. Similarly the feelings of the happiness and pain etc. are meaningful only for an organism as a whole and not definable for its constituents. In physics we have many other examples which are very important at low temperature near absolute zero.
We
know
that
which
is
conductivity in which
nothing but viscousless flow of a liquid say liquid helium*, superflow of current takes place without
and ferromagnetism
a given specimen. In
any
resistance
in
all
value is unity at absolute zero and falls down as the temperature increases. This corresponds to an increase of disorder in the system. This disorder is then explained in terms of some quinsi-particles or elementary excitations which are theoretically devised particles and represent a collective property
which a strong magnetic behaviour is manifested by these cases, one defines an order parameter whose
The convergence of
(A) Naiurc
:
thc...Jainisni
23
Different properties of different systems originate from different elementary excitations. Thus phonons, rotons and vortices are meat for different properties of superfluid helium at different temperatares. Similarly karmas have the following species. (Number in front of each indicates its
specie
subspecies).
(
i
Knowledge obscuring
Feeling producing
(5)
(9)
(2)
(iv)
(
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
Age determining (4) Belief and conduct producing (28) Body determining (103)
Staus determining
(2) (5)
Power hindering
these is held responsible for different types of disorder present in the empirical self and impede the manifestation of true nature of consciousness. Jainas claim that all properties of all living beings can be explained in terms of these 158 karmas. It may be easily noted that some kind of energy gap like thing (in which space?) exists which may prevent 115 to- realize actual nature of consciousness.
Each one of
(B)
Number
The
relative
number of various
elementary
excitations
present in
mate
to another
Tin? age
and
their relative
is diffrent and this number vary with number of kar m as changes from one aniquantities are given by the following rule.
g-33s
determing species receive the smallest part, a greater portion determining and status determining ones, both of which obtain an equal portion. Mare than that goes to the knowledge
to
die b:>cly
obscuring,
gets
power
hindering
species
each of
which
an
a larger part than this goes to the belief and conduct obscuring species and the greatest of all goes to the feeling producing
equal portion.
Still
species.
number
will
of different animates.
(C) LifcTimc
The Thus in
among various excitations causes scattering among thsrn. a particular state an excitation, stays only for some definite time. Similarly the lifetime of the incoming karmas depends upont heir interaction
interaction
S, S, Pokliarna
o f the <yslem
ivTlide
is
is
perfect order
present
increases
Thus various
many
dcvis.'d
pcrticle
of quasiparticles the temperature increases, the number these so called quantum mechanical properties of in terms of these theoretically then are explained systems
As
quasiparticles.
(a)
Quantum Biology
Many
ondinp
vL-.
to the
have been thought for the biological systems state that a perfect fy ordered ( corresppeople have argued at absolute zero for the many particle systems) state ground
systems
in the biological
may be
etc.
D.N.A.
and K.N.A.
and
this
in
system.
may correspond
to
different phases
quantum ground stale of the socalled Then different states of the organism starting from this perfectly ordered
mode
excitation
of longitudinal electric
7
fields
in
cell
membranes,
foiling in the
microwave
to be
region
However
this
is
much remains
done.
Fn this situation,
which
is
the
much
Karmas,
every imindir.e
soul
has
an
infected by matter. infinities). But from a beginingless time it has been This mailer has been held responsible for the disorder present in the mun-
as
full
which can become Karma. Due to the presence of different types or Icarrnas
in
mundane
and an
souls
is
consciousness
analogous to
ground
state
to
which
is
free
from any
excitations
exci'atioi) then
corresponds
Karma.
every moment, an empirical self is allracting this matter towards him by his actions through mind and body. This matter which has now become karma then remains latent in -ihc self for some time
At
emperical
which
is determined by the passions at the time of arrival of new matter. Passions in turn are determined by karmas which are already present.
Karmas have the following four characteristics (A) Nature, (B) (Cj Lifetime and (D) Intensity.
Number,
24
S. S. Pokharna
Ihis with karmas already present which actually determine one's passions. lifetime is then determined by karma-karma interaction.
(D) Intensity
Pure matter
its
is
neutral.
The various
effects
determined by the
(c)
The concept of elementury excitations can also explain the phenomena 3 tried of phase transitions. Thus different phases of hellium have been
terms of elementary "excitation picture. Similar situation occurs which theory also. There are 14 phases known as Gunasthanas the have been recognised in this theory which one passes before acquiring from a slate of highest sinfulness. These have perfect consciousness starting
to explain in
here in this
been nicely explained in terms of various karmas and their mutual interaction.
(d)
Concept of Animsa
As we have
leave aside the
emphasized earlier
all
mundane
if
we
karmas from them. This identity of mundane souls nicely because of stress the importance of the word Ahimsa. To create distinction the Karmas (matter) is our defect of thinking which ignore the basic unity
of nature.
(e)
Ideas of rebirth
From
life
it
also follows
that some
sort of large
may
be responsible between
various
(known as Bhavas) of different living beings, This can be realized only when some "energy gap" corresponding to some knowledge obscuis broken. Some karma infrequent events which we hear sometimes ring
spans
may be
i.e.
of this theory of doctrine is the identity between the order of magnitudes of the number of distinct classes which have been claimed by Jainas and that which the biologist could have
discovered so far.
Doctrine of Karmas
claim this
number
to be 84 lakhs
12 lakh classes of biologists have been able to recognise only animals and plants. The smallness of the later number is even more remarkable. Might it not bs that we still do not know some organisms having
whereas
Jaina canons.
23
Up
till
now we have
scientific
fundamental
thought
and the
Jaina
approach
to
understand
various phenomena occuring in the nature. By either of these methods we can acquire only an approximate knowledge of nature. The reason behind
this approximation lies in the fact that all scientific theories are approximate. There exist very fundamental draw backs and limitations in the basic
definition of the
various
then again
the
scientific theories which prevent us from understanding phenomena of nature exactly. If we just have a look at Jainism we find that the above ideas of Jainas are correct only within limitations caused by Mali Jngna and Sruta Jnana. Jaina Acaryas
have critically emphasized that these JfiSnas provide only an approximate understanding of nature. It is here that Jainism come to rescue. No alternative can be sought in science. Then let us discuss why scientific theories are
capable of providing only an approximate understanding of nature and how the various problems coming in the way can be resolved by realizing that knowledge is structured in the consciousness and hence
perfect
knowledge
can be acquired only by acquiring a perfect consciousness which is at least from all the knowledge obscuring karnias. In its most simplest form "Science" may be defined as a method of understanding nature such that truth of the acquired knowledge is entirely based upon the experiments. In
free
methods, magics and hypothetical assumptions do not work. Every believe in observing everything from his "own eyes". In general one performs a series of experiments to study a particular phenomenon and attempts to measure various quantities which will describe
Scientific
one
different states
of the phenomenon.
are to be
We have our own definitions of various quantities which measured and we have our own inferences about the nature of
way
it
system in which
the phenomenon is occuring. The various;infbnnations gathered in these are then transferred to our brain through various
ways
say that
in
we have understood the phenomenon. Nowweshallsee how thisprocessof measurement introduces uncertainty our knowledge. Then we expain the approximations involved
in the
definitions of the various quantities which are generally in scientific theory. Lastly we illustrate how the
measured or defined
mathematical representation
(or
any other representation) of various quantities limits our the context of these difficulties we then describe rhe
and the
way
the
various
difficulties are
resolved by this
and
,
is
experiment.
26
S. S,
Pokharaa
Thus
set
study a particular phenomenon one performs an experiment or a of experiments on the given system. These experiments provide some
to
cases,
object. many the interaction first occurs between an apparatus and the given object then the chages taking place in the apparatus after the interacton with the
information about the phenomenon occuring in the given system in terms of some well defined physical variables. Thus in all scientific methods there takes place some interaction between an observer and an In
object give
object.
Thus
the observer.
between the
the
and the
change in the
clearly Jet us
To understand
object.
this idea
more
consider a very
to see.
simple
and
an
electron)
is reflected in to our eyes and we say that we see the electron", (ir, reality we cannot see an electron but this simply a thought experiment.) Now the light exerts pressure on a body on which it falls. Therefore the elactron will be subjected to this light pressure. This light pressure may change the position of the electron from
is
Thus the light scattered from the electron which will about the position of the electron does not give the earlier the electron which we had desired. Thus when we just want to see an electron's position its position becomes uncertain (the light intensity cannot be reduced to zero, othewise we will not be able to see the electron.
its
earlier position.
give information
posuwn of
if Hie electron were moving with some velocity and we had thought of measuring its speed then also we can similarly conceive that the process of measurement of i, s velocity may change its velocity in a significant way Y and thus making the
velocity
measurement uncertain.
argument to
scientific
We
fol
can
any
system
and
petty
processes of measuring any p o of any system may change the property to be measured in a sjfi^t way which make our knowledge about that property O f the system un
towmg
make the
general statement.
The
This
Hmenberg's
r'ain
uncertainity
principle. It
is
overcm this only by methods, We can overcome .teraetion between the knowerand the object does Jt of the object or there is no
physical interaction at
finite
Kiert
just
one
defect
ofali
all,
00
speed of interaction
J'/
then what
we
see
is is
What
not the star but the light which has left that happening on the star at the present can be
years later.
there. It
Thus when we say that "we see a star", the might have collapsed quite a long earlier, This
speed of light or
all
some other
interaction
in general.
in
To overcome
is
this
universe
we need a process such that every thing simultaneously so that space tims and finite do not cause any trouble,
this defect
perceived
Approximations involved
in the definiton
of a closed system
is
these
(such a without bothering about rest of the environment. However, such an assumption cannot be justified by one who desires complete understanding of any system. This is so be-
from
the rest
is
methods a particular system is assumed to be completely of the environment and then this isolated system
system
known
as
a closed system
is
studied
cause
between
phenomena accuring in nature are interconnected with each other and hence influencing each other in a direct or indirect way. Such interactions a particular system and the rest of the universe may have very
all
important
is
phenomenon
the state of the system. Thus to consequences study any in nature, one has to study all the others simultaneously which not possible by scientific methods. Conservation laws and their
Let us discuss the
on
(d)
defects
most
very definitions of the physical variables which measure various properties of different systems. The various properties are raeasused in terms of some conserved quantities. One assumes that for any closed system, there exist some physically observable quantities which do not change with time and hence the system can be decribed in terms of these quantities. Examples of such quantities are energy, linear momentum, and angular momentum etc.
'
exist in the
most general form energy of any closed system is defined as the quantity which do not change with time (all other forms of energy are definable from the above general definition). However, the time i, defined as that quality of the system which is responsible for causing changes in the system and is measured by finding the
system.
In the
This
is
which
is a very unavoidable.
serious
contradiction in the
Similarly linear
-hat
it
momentum
which
a quantity
,n a
fact
moves
.translates)
homogeneous
space.
However as soon as
we introduce a
2s
S. S. Pokharna
homogeneous space it becomes inhomogencous (say because of the gravitational field which is present because of the material system itself), Hence the space in the presence of a mass is not homogeneous
material system
.in
and
the definition of
is
our universe
is
linear momentum becomes ambiguous. Furthermore, inhomogeneous, so the law of conservation of momentum The ordinary definition of linear momentum of a
{
body
of
its
is
derivable
from
the above
general definition.)
similar
story
can
be written
for
other
fundamental
conserved
quantities.
As
far as velocity
have already discussed that they can bs only measured approximately with some uncertainity.
It
that all
Thus
the
quantities themselves
description of different
systems
(e)
The
basis.
most
attractive aspect
of
scientific
knowledge
is
its
mathematical
We
mathematical
representation of various
representation of any physical reality limits our knowledge of that reality. Not only this but the theorem also imply that none of the languages or representation can
express the reality of
necessarily
precise and accurate. However, from the following theorems which have been put forward by the great mathematician Kurtz Godel, we find that any mathematical
scientific
nature with
perfection.
have
of
Golde's
first
in-completeness theorem
This theorem says that the truth of a formalism (which describes phenomenon) cannot be proved. Thus no finite expression of
any mathematical
even of
starts
knowledge can ever provide a basis for comprehensive knowledge the elementary properties of the counting numbers. Thus if
one
of symbolic mathematical (or any other) axioms which is specifiable by a finite number of mechanical rules, and if C is consistent then there will 'be a true statement about the counting numbers which can' not be proved from the axioms C, using the standard rules of mathematical logic. The proof of this theorem shows that from C one can construct a sentence S in the simple mathematical language of elementary number This sentence is not theory whose meaning is provable from C
a collection
:
with
Once
The convergence of
is
the...Jainisni
29
constructed
it
must be
from
C.
Thus on the
all
cannot prove
basis of any finitely specifiable collection of axioms C, one true propositions about the counting numbers,
00
formal language (mathematical or any other) if consistent cannot define its own truth i.e. the definition of truth for a theory must ba of a order than the theoey itself. We can also say that the consistency of higher
the
basis
of mathematical arguments which can be justified by these axioms. Thus to establish the validity of any single mathematical system one must necessarily
utilize a
investigate an even
the latter
(f)
From
we conclude
that all
scientific
methods
give incomplete knowledge of various phenomena. However, the beauty of the scientific methods lie in the fact that approximations are possible and
work with great accuracy. If one is satisfied with an approximate "understanding", one can explain many phenomena in terms of a few and thus understand different aspects of nature in an approximative way without having to understand everything at once. But one who desires
they
complete understanding
finite
of different phenomena has to study the whole universe simultaneously to get rid of the limits caused by space time and speed of light and to take account of the mutual effects of various phenomena occuring in the universe on each other simultaneously. Furtherinteraction between the
more the
knower and
his object
must not
disturb
in the cage of these problems one finds that Jaina theory of knowledge by consciousness to be very promising. The Jainas have defined knowledge as an essence of sou! 5 According to the coception of Jainas a soul has
.
perfect
infinite
knowledge, infinite intuition, infinite bliss and infinite power. Although a perfect soul has other characteristics but the knowledge has been regarded
of soul. Kundakunda 5 has stated that although from the empirical point of view there is a difference between soul and knowledge yet from the transcendental point of view it is sufficient to say that soul is knower and nothing else. He further said that there is no difference between the knower and his knowledge. From empirical point of view an omniscient (Kavali i.e. perfect soul) perceives and knows the whob
as the chief characteristic
knows
3D
S.
S.
Pokharna
a
the
thing
of the
the
by a
cognition.
Since
whole universe
tions
is
imposed
perceived simultaneously by a single cognition the restricby space time and finite speed of Jight etc. do not come above partially conserved physical variables need not
natural
phenomena.
approximations do not arise, Furthermore since point of view there is no difference between the
there is nothing like interaction
Henee the corresponding from the transcendental knower and his knowledge
his
between
knower and
object
which
is
phenomena
are studied
phenomena are automatically obvious from the fact that one who has
the whole
universe.
understood the
since the real
"
self ",
has undertood
Furthermore
of Godel's theorems.
We
ing
is
a very outstand-
various
formulated and secondly the concept that to understand phenomena of nature one should understand the self is the most remarkable concept which may slove almost all the problems which we
Acknowledgement
I
am
Prof.
H. Frohlich;
to
F.R..S. (England),
who
has referred
some of the
above
work
Prof.
B. D.
Josephson,
Noble
Laurette), Prof. E. C.
Prof,
P. Sinha (Bangalore),
C. L.
Mehta
D.
S.
Prof. E. P, Wigner for interesting (Poona), Josephson correspondence, discussion and sending highly critical comments with apprethe about some above ciation of work. I am also thankful to Dr. U. N.
Prof. B,
D,
and
Upadhye,
Shri F. C.
Dr.
K. C. Sogani,
Shri
Dr. L. K.
L.
Kothari,
their
Shri H.
S.
Sarupria,
Mehta and
D.
Mehta for
keen
interest in this
work.
References
J
.
FeyHmann R.
P. et. al.
The Feynmann
lectures
on physics.
2
3
Y. The
physics
News
Vol. 5,
No, 4 Dec,
4
5
Roy
P. in physics
Mehta M.
Jain G. R.
L, Jaina philosophy.
3l
on Theoretical Physics and Biology
H. Frohlich
by
1967
Wignar
School of Physics
"Enrico Fermi"
10
1 1
12
Madras in January, 1971). Landau L. D. and Lifshitz L. M. Quantum Mechanics. Haken H. and Wagner M. Cooparative Phenomena. Pokharna S. S. The concept of elementary excitation for
Tulsi Pragya p.l (1976) Sogani K. C. Ethical Doctrine
in
in
living
13
Jainism.
14
15
16
Vidyarthi R. D.
Krishna D., Mathur D. C. and Rao A. P. Modern Logic. A Text Book of Zoology (1969).
March N. H.
Philosophical
17
et. al. The manybody Problems in Quantum Mechanics. problems of elementary particle physics (A set of papers, translated from Russian into English, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1968).
18
Chew G.
F. Phys.
To-day
23, 23 (Oct.
1970).
2,
19
No, 2 Dee.,
1974,
HISTORICAL DATA
IN
K. Sharma
was a
Apart from being an able administrator Sri Harsa of Vardhana dynasty great patron of letters and a poet himself as evident from Bana's
allusions such as
udvamantarh"
"Sarvavidyasamgitagrhamiva Sarasvatyah" 3
"Kanyantaftpuramiva KalSnam" 4
"Jagati
and
jvalatpratapajavalanapra-karakrtajagadraksah.
Kavitvasya vaca^
..........
and
those
made by Jayadeva
na paryapto visayal?" 6
himself
in his
NVMnanda*
KaJiJ)
Jayadeva's
eulogising him as ths joy of the constitutes the happiest tribute to the kiag's poetic talent. In th, S pomt h,s personal commitment of calling hi.self
encomium
muse-dame
s
2
3
Ibid., p. Ibid., p.
(93
211
4
5
15
6
7
Ucchvasa
II,
Yasy&ieauraicikwani
'
mas
c ^khamba
kM
1,
*****
**"&
I.s,
M. R. Kate,
'
221"5
p.
'
'
31 - 32 '
Ramasundra-Sarm'a 9
rht Sanskrit
Vidyabhavana serieTcd"
hanar; Nfigr.nadam
3,
pp 8 ~?, Prof-
Drama,
p,
175,
33
Nevertheless a poet merits contributing immensely towards a continuity of the regular stream of poetic muse, Harsa is an admirable author in so far
as his two Udayana plays, inspite of their having drawn inspiration from Bhasa and Kalidasa and even GunSdhya, are of immense historical value and the
student as well as the scholar of Ancient Indian history and culture has
much
to explore the oasis out of the arid desert of the dark period of Indian History wherein the internal struggles had created a chaos and disorder of political
In
order to
sift historical
chronicle,
we
shall
have to
examine the
though
Ratnavahin Ratnavali, is the princess, the daughter of the King of the Sirhhalas, who on the prediction of a sage was destined to become the spouse of a paramount sovereign. Yaugandharayana, the astu te minister of Udayana the King of KaiisSmbi planned to win her hand for the espousal of his
master. Lost in a shipwreack she was brought toKausambi by a merchant. Yaugandharayana named her as Sagarika and kept her in the harem of the King quite covertly without disclosing her. King's fascination for her irritated
Vasavadatta who kept her away from the sight of the King. By intrigues and counter-covins manipulated through the expert skill of Vasantaka the Vidusaka, Udayana succeeded in wooing her after Vasubhrjti, the minister of
the Sirhhala king revealed her identity as Ratnavali. Yaugandharayana appeased the anger of his master by begging excuse for what he had done.
Similarly in Priyadar^ika, the hand of PriyadarSika the daughter of Drdhavarma, the king of the Angas had been solicited by the king of the Kalingas whose behest was unheeded. She was however, betrothed to
Udayana
this
subsequently vanquished and captured his foe Drdhavarma. The chamberlain of Drdhavarma took Priyadarsika to Udayana but on the way he had to keep her under care of Vindhyaketu, the forest king of the Vindhya regions, a friend and ally of Drdhavarma. He himself went to have a holy dip in the place of Agastya. Udayana sent an army governed by Vijayasena against Vindhyaketu who was defeated and slain. Priyadarsika was presumed to be the daughter of Vindhya-ketu and was kept with Vasavadatta. Her
name
as
mothers
were
sisters.
They
as
were,
therefore,
fructified
the enactment of
Aranyaka had concealed her identity. Udayana's love for her was got by Vasantaka and Manorama, her confident through the ruse of Udayana- Vasavadatta legend through a drama. The Army
f
sent by
S. K.
Sharma
Udayana under Vijayasena had vanquished the king of Aiigas and reinstated Drdhavarma to the throne of the An gas. The chamberlain of Drdhavarms disclosed the identity of Priyadarsika and arranged the
marriage.
The themes of the two plays have, of course, been planned as parodies of the theme of Malavikagnimitrarh of KalidSsa which according to the scholars is based upon the story of Bandhumati as narrated in the Kathasaritsagara of
.
Somadeva 10
Regarding the historicity of the political events as well as characters the scholars have doubts regarding the authenticity. Dr. Niti Adaval
postulating
on
the point
comments on Priyadarsika
at the
as
under
weaved
in
V&tsarsja against Vindhyaketu and the King of Kalinga in order, perhaps, to bring out the dhira quality of the hero. This political addition seems
entirely
the
is
imaginary as we find no reference to it anywhere else, not even in (Brhatkatha) recensions. Moreover, the King of the Vindhya regions as a friend of Udayana in the version of the legend, whereas here he is depicted as Udayana's foe" 11 . Regarding RatnSvah she remarksl2 " RatnavaI J i s only Padmavati of BK. and Bhasa in a changed form and that the story of the marriage of Padma vatl with Vatsargja described in the BK. is the source of the plot of RatnEvali". She even goes to the extent of postulating that the events in the Ratnsvaliare fabricated to suit the dram&tic 13 purposes of Snharsa.
BK
ment oned
;
BK
In both the plays Udayana, Vasavadatta, Vasantaka, Yaugandharayana common characters that are legendory as well as
historical. In Priyadarsika,
the
A^gas
and
sire
unnamed king of
Udayana seem to be historical personages whose identity shall have to be proved by the process of comparative logic. Similarly in Ratnsvali the lord of the named as Vikramabahu towards the end of the play, jSimJialas Vasubhati, his minister, the unnamed king of Ko&la, Vijayayarma deputy to' Rumanvsn beingflatter's sister's son and Jayavarma his elder all
brother,
identities shall again Sagarika and Priyadarsika as Aranyaks equally strike as historical characters in so far as they stand in
strike
require
whose
and Angas
as their
daughters *
KSS
II
Sastri
ed '
The' story
Ill,
pp. 153.454
12
Ibid; p
m ^^
_
35
figures out of the
is
To
precludes
create historical
characteristic
confusions
of
scresning the
bygone days
in
whom
he
normally
own
personality experiencing
many
trudging along in the tiaining of life. Hence to view in Udayana the true replica of Harsa depicted as such in the two plays and in contradistinction
to that of Bhasa, will not be
To
start
with the
Identification of
Ceylon
(Simhala)
modem
Snlaaka we have
]I
three sources
(A.D.
568-601) pro-
>
pagated by Aggabodhi
(601-611 A.D.)
B
carried on
by Hathadatha alias
through Aggabodhi III, IV, V (not mentioned by these sources) Aggabodhi VI and Vil (759-785 A D.) etc. does not contain any name Vikramabahu as such. May be that Aggabodhi II whose period synchro1 Dathopatissa (650-658 A.D.)
with that of Harsavardhana was a variant name of Vikramabahu or Vikramabahu as such might have reigned between A.D. 611 and A.D. 650, The reign period of Harsa Vardhana (A.D. 606-A.D. 648) about whom these
nises
sources have dropped the link in a chain. He might have had a daughter Ratnavah by name for whose hand Harsa's minister Skandagupta' 6 represented here by Yaugandharsyana (in the drama Ratnavah) contrived a plot for the political gain of his master. Vasavadatta might have been the first wife
of Harsa either bearing a variant name or the same name as such because 17 She might have been the "Parasparagata loke dysyate namatulyata".
niece of
Vikramabahu
the minister of
easily play
Vikramabahu. Babhravya
in
as the chamberlain of
adjunct to Vasubhuti
the endeavours of
two parties.
Rumanvan might
for the peace and war Maha-Sandhivigrahadhikrt), being the chastiser the king of Ko&ala who might have been Pulakesin II who, as postulated
14
of by
S.
Majumdarpp.
231-243.
15,
Journal of Indian History (JIH), Vol. 46, Pt. The age of Imperial Kannauj, pp. 167-177.
15 16
JIH Vol.
46, Pt.
1,
pp. 15-16.
AtesagajaSsdhatiadhikrtath
Skandaguplcim
HC
VI
CE
p,
678
and
Dulako'tra
CP
of HarSa, p. 113,
Dr.
Composed on
(SVD VI
14.
p.
126,
HC.
mitrcim sandpatih
Samagravigrahaprasraharajf
19
Harsa by VD-Cangal,
p. 36.
36
Dr. R.
the life
S, Tripathiso,
S.
K, Sharma
js
cre(j[ited
with the conquest of Ko&la and be within the pale of Harsa's sovereignty. For
us that
after subjugation
of
Kongodha
Siladitya
camped
in
made a magnificent gift of the revenue of eighty, large Jayasena, "the admiration of the period ", who in his 2 characterstic other worldliness declined the king's repeated offers. 2 The
towns of Orissa to
Jl was Mahako^ala and not the Uttarakosala having Ayodhya for its capital 23 Udaj ana's (i.g. Harsa's) conquest of Kosala as announced by Vijayavarma, the nephew of Rumanvsn
.
we deem Pulakasin II holding charge of Mahsko&la vanquished by Harsa, we shall be belying the veracity of a historical fact that Harsa was defeated
by PulakeSin
II.
alias
Sirrmansda
may
Dr. R, K. Mookarji comes to our rescue here. He writes in his 'Harsa' 3 G "The incident introduced in the Ratnavali of the princess driven to seek
shelter in the
Vindhyan
sister
been directly
Harsa's
own
forest under the chief Vindhyaketu seems to have of a similar connection which Rajya&r! had with the same forest and its Chiefs Sara-
bhaketu and Vyaghraketu, father and son"2Q. Vindhyaketu had been marched against by Vijayasena by whom he was defeated and slain. a'
Drdhavarma, the king of the Angas defeated by the accursed lord of the Kali n gas poses a serious problem. Vindhyaketu was an ally of Drdhavarms but an enemy of Udayana (i.e. Har?a)28. Drdhavarma was defeated
by
to
the
accursed king of
(i.e.
Udayana so
Harsa)
who
got
vanquished
Vindhyaketu killed. The lord of the by Harsa through his army in chief
his
own
throne in
Angas.
p. 118,
22
24
Ibid.,
Cli
25 Notes 'A' to 26
IV pp. 152-159
R. K.
Mookarji, CP.
HC.
"Ekada ca
sunuh
Vyaghraketurnama
The story of king Udayana, Dr. Niti Adaval vyapadya vijayasenanlta Prjyadarsika" IV
Ibid.... p. 5 29
p.
p.
p.
28
Ibid p. 6
153."
30
Historical data in
tiie...
3^
The kings of Koiala and Kaliflga vanquished by Harsa remain unidentified. They may be identified with Davagupta of Malavasi and Sasa n ka of Gauda. Devagupta primarily anally of Prabhakaravard liana
by the
(vanquished latter - Mslava-laksmilata-parajuh, p. 342 HC, CE) turned so by subjugation got a revenge by killing Grahavarma Maukhan, the brother-inlaw of Harsa who slew him ultimately and had Kumaragupta and Madhavagupta,
the
sons
of
Devagupta,
reinstated
and
consecrated
as
vassals
(Kumargupta being the elder and hence an heir to the throne of Malava) though already made followers of Rajyavardhana and Harsavardhana by Prabb.akaravardhana.3i Drdhavarma might have b;en an independent vassal
ruling over
A n ga, who
might have
offered his
daughter in
marriage to
Harsa. Dr. R. K. Mookarji's contention of identifying Vindhyaketu with Vyaghraketu son of Sarabhaketu does not find corroboration to the effect that Vindhyaketu was killed because Harsa did not know the names of Sarabhaketu and Vyaghraketu when come face to face with Nirghata.
Moreover, ''deva sarvasyasya Vindhyasya svami sarvapalh-patmain pragraharah nama. tasya ayam nirghatanama sabarasenapatih bhukampo svasriyah
Sakalasyasya
Bhakampa
of Valabhi
as the lord
who was
this
would be reasonable to propound the theories Udayana plays of Harsa i.e. Ratnavah and Priyadargika^establish the fact of dual matrimonial relations of Harsa with the kings of Siriihala and Anga named Vikramabahu (Aggabodhi If Alias Vikramabahu 601-650) and Drdhavarma respectively; the epilogues of the plays alluding to the discomfiture and demise of Devagupta of Malava 33 and Sasa n ka of Gauda, the former having the Vindhya region as well within his jurisdiction before Pulakegin II Caulukya wrested them from Harsa in the decisive battle as
point
it
To conclude
that the
AD
evidenced by the Aihole Insc. dated 634 A.D. Since Harsa reigned
pered
Unham-
till 648 it seems the success of Pulakesin JI was not so dominating as to have inflicted a crushing blow on Harsa. ft might have been
AD
31
Atradeveita abliifiktal.i /aimarakHC. Ill, p. 248. CE Probably Kumaragupta son of Malavaraja (may be Devagupta vanquished by Harsa) and a brother of Madhavagup ta,
to wait upon Rajyavardhana and Harsavardhana. "vinitau vikrantau abhirfipau Malavaraja-putrau bhrntarau bhujau iva mesanrat avyatiriktu KumiUagupta-Mfidhavaguptau asmnbhirbhavato anucaratvartham imau nirdistau. HC. IV p 412 CE, P 138 BE ffaiiacarita. kii Sdmsk tika r
'
Adhyayma
Dr. V.
S.
ca gfhite ku'sasthale.
HC.
VII
p.
Guptan&mns,
32
33
HC
sarve
VIII, p. 842
CE,
yeiia
p.
Ry//o yudhi dus/avajina ivn Sndevaguptiiclayah. Krtva sumam sariiyatu/ .~ Baiiklicrs CP of Harsa Verse E.
t
Icci^prafidravlmuUuh
113.-
Dr. B.
Upiidhyfiya.'.
38
S.
K. Sharmft
'
Dharma
'
Vijaya
Harsa
as such.
Ahmed
war and
in
established
some
IHQ
Dec. 1961. s^
He
points regarding the extent of empire of Harsa has examined the evidence of of Heiun-Tsang.
Inscriptions such as
works of Dr. R.K. Mookarji, K. M. Panikkar and R. S. Tripathi, and concluded by the remarks that Harsa was never defeated by Pulake^in II though a war ensued between the two and heavy losses were suffered on both the sides. On the basis of the Aihole Insc. s Njsar Ahmed that PulakeSin (Verse 24)8
Pallavas,
612 A.D., Lohancta plate (630 A.D.), Aihole grant of Jayasimha HI, records of the
insc.
says
checked the progress of Harsa. The Pra asti is silent s about the defeat of Harsa. Nausari grant of Jayasimha III corroborates the same point. Hieun Tsang never says that Harsa was defeateJ by the King of Maharastra which on the other hand were under the suzerainty of Pulake^in Use. "fiana is
silent
have
it. Had Harsa been defeated by Pulakesin his vassals would raised their heads during his life-time. But it never happened so. PulakeSin was surrounded by. several powerful enemies and was not in such a position as to defeat Harsa who had subjugated nearly the whole of Northern India and defeated a powerful king like Sasanka.s '
about
Nisar Ahmed's
following remarks
war
the Aihole Jnsc. ths place of the battle on the bank of Reva
the
been eloquently described in the prajasti of Pulakeiin but the poet passed over the loss of his master. 38 It seems very probabjethat both {he part.es were paralysed due to the destruction in the field. And forced
'
has
Udayana plays. According to was somewhere near the Vindhyas (Narmada) where after having encamped they checked progress of Harsa. As stated earlier Harsa had to bear a heavy loss which
narrated in the
by
34
^l^^^sjanoes^ xxxxrr,
Vol.
According
NO.
PP 245-252
,
'
36
37
IHQ.
1961
DEC XXXXH
No.
1,
pp 249-250
39
to the
treaty
Narmada,
most
probably, was
it
taken as the
demarcation
boundary
seems
to
me
the sovengnty of Va Aga AAga and Magadha to Harsa. These parts were claimed to have been under the suzerainty of his ( i.e. Pulakejin II's
predecessors.
of
We
testimony in the
M?
Mangalesa that his predecessor (Kjrti Varma I) defeated the and Magadha etC- Har?a WaS als the sl'P reme adha
Mahak^a
Pillar Insc
rulers of
Nisar Ahmed we can easily reconcile with the statements of Harsa in Priyadwilka and RatnSvah that Pulakeiin II suffered at the hands of Harsa and had to enter into a peace t.eaty with him on
From
these remarks of
He had
to
hand
ver th
defeated by
to h.s
r dh aV " r ,
Pulak^n
'
^'
therefore >
II the
bei "S
a subsidiary
vassal
might have
,
been
lord of the
Kaluga," and
PulL
?aced
anm 7
tl
Vrt SS
f
f
?a
^
S
Vassal in the
surroundings of
have
^
r 6lSe
M
a
defied
and
P,f,
th
isa.
later day sept y UnSer br ther f Grahavarma n of Avanftvarm., on the thione ne of f re Kanauj soon after the death of Grahavarma, at the hand of Devagupta of Mava, since B 5na has baptised Grahavar m, as t ^de on of Avanhvarma. -i n the fourth Ucchva S a of HC. This can imply the existence of a younger brother to him
-
V 1 t Vindhyaketu might have been killed in the turmoil Kalyan Kumar Dasgupta has elaborated a paper on the
D^ TT ^
h WCOUld haVarma mi ^ ht
Z~
accordingly.
My^lln^
39
41
,961,
No.
and
i,
40
XXXV
cf
2J
III
Pts
II
III
42
dharidhan
agtslasa
p Sdanyasa
avantiar
iva
sa kala
43
1HQ,XXXV
III
p.p. 245-246,
S.
4fl
K. Sharma
the deposed king of Kanauj ( through youngest son of Avantivarma, of Harsa) or he might have been a cousin of Grahaexpert sfatemanship a prakrtimitra varma and Suva-suvra in the direct line of the Maukharis, been an uncle of of Suva-suvra and a sahajamitra of Harsa or might have to Grahavarma and Suva-suvra. Kalyan Kumar Dasgupta himself appears the
Grahavarma married Rsjyasri one of King of Kanauj and it was after his death that some throne only to be ousted by the Maukhan house sat upon the Maukhari was to one That some Dasgupta soon.** according Harsavardhana very of the Suva-Suvra as in later days he has been illustrated as the progenitor
Maukhan dynasty, a. scion of which Bbrguvarman by name, Varmans of the Maukhan race married his daughter jewal of the illustrious ie "Grahapatiriva gam gatah" referring to a Nepal King in the 8th Cent. A.D. to Grahavarma in 42 above makes it amply manifest that Bana describes
later
the crest
Grahavarma
Graha'Adityavarman, Iganavarman, Sarvavaraian, Avantivarman and varman having a younger brother in Suva-Suvra being the direct line of
the Maukharis of
it
becomes
Kanauj where Harsa Vardhana ultimataly became a usurper, of. Drdhavarma. As already
Kausambi (Modsrn
sovereign of
Kosam
near Allahabad)
Thanesar and Kanauj having Ramnagar near Barelly an area Udayana defeating Drdhavarma and reinstating
him
to the throne
HGAI, 4 '
of Angas must be Harsa on the same analogy. Dr. B. C. identify Drdhavarma in relation to Harsa in his SuvaSuvra of theNalanda seal 48 readable as such also not
tried to
being
second
may be
varman or Suchavarman lost its varma from the Drdhavannan was the variant name for suva or suvra who might have been
Suvravarman, even. In that case Drdhavarma and Suva or Suvra will be the two variants of the name of one and the same person, the younger brother of
imbecile and
of
the
throne of his elder brother, while his brother's wife was alive, incurred the
anger of Harsa and lost his supermacy over Kanauj and established himself over the Angas where he might have had bis sway as a viceroy during the reign periods of his father and elder brother. Being an uncle of Graharvarma
even he could usurp the throne of a nephew as his collateral and, therefore,
44
46
47
Ibid?. 244
45 jbid
7, p.
Banskhero insc L.
P-
146.
HLI.
Dr R.
B,
Pandeya
48
24 ?
p, 243,
41
could incur, the anger of Harsa and final discomfiture at the hands of the latter as also the bestowal of his own daughter on Harsa in the form
ofUdayana.
vanna
of
in
His being an uncle of GrahavarniS and a collateral brother of Avanti strikes more plausible on the ground that the espousal of the daughter
easily a
man
equal or
little
less
who was
contemporary of Avantivarman.
Moreover, the younger brother of a brother-in-law could hardly dare to .offer the hand of his daughter to the brother of the wife of his own elder brother. Rather it would be illogical to presume that the dauthter of the
younger brother of Grahavarnia could be so mature as to woo even Harsa immediately after the death of an elder brother who had just married
quite
recently.
at
a later date,
however, as the
Aranyaka who was his second wife wooed at a time when Vasavadatta was a mature lady. Hence the Lord of Kalinga and Kosala could be Pulakesin II who had
Priyadarsika alias
of
his
vassals
while
Drdhavarma vanquished by
making
being
Pulakesin and later by Harsa could be a foe turned ally of the latter
a peace-treaty with the two and a matrimonial tie with the latter an uncle or a younger brother of GrahavarmS Maukharj.
Abdreviatioos
1
BE. CE.
'Bombay
:
edition.''
2
3
'Calcutta edition.'
HC.
HLI.
<Har$a Carita.'
:
4
5
HGAI
:
'Historical
'Historical
1HQ.
6
IN V AM ANA'S
KAVYALANKARA-SIJTA-VIJTT5
Biswaaath Bhattecharya
Vsmana's
"
KsvyalankSra-swtra-vrtti,
5/1/11
[sarva-namna'misandhi<r
citation
:
anonymous
mukhasya wrf-renu-samana-gandbinah
|
"
Sanskrit
Series,
Chowkhamba
edn. (sBenaves
Nos.
155]
to
134
&
course of
his
Vrtti
sarva-naman &abda,
1
'tad-'
I=apradh3na J in the upamgna-pisrva-pada madhyama-pada-lopin anyapadSrtha-pradhana bahuvnhi samasa (mlotpala-patra-sadrse caksusi yasya yasmin va tasya mukhasyety asayahj.
This subseqent reference to some previously mentioned point with the help of a sarva-nSman eschews also kathita-padatva dosa.
hemistich
Psma-Saraon
their
respective commentaries
samasas,
karmadhnraya
and
sastln-tatpurusa,
have
been
Cf. tav&sya
nllotpala~can/-caksuso
mukhasya
-gandhinah.iti.
x
sarva-nfimnat
x
'
x
'
x
itj
]nusamdhir vrttic-channasya
laksanat.
'
E
on Kalidasa's
yi
!l
V'7-s
'
Kn shnamachariar
in
'
i 9'
pp
Some Citations
Purna-Sarasvati's Vidyul-lata
Megha-sandesa' in
Research
Madras Vol
XXXIX,
3
Cf..
. .
.kascit [=Purna-.Sarasvat; ?
tu "sabda[
'
JnuSsanam"
"
iti
"
iti,
tav&sya
nrloipala
Cfl-ro-caksuso
mukhasya
tad-renu-samana-gandhinah
ed. S.
sastre
kavye ca prayoga-
[Suraano-ramam
On
an anonymous
li;niistic!i...
43
tavBsya ml.otpala
mukhasya tad-renu-samana-gandhinah,
prasanna-candra-priya-darSanasya
mam
twelve-syllable
gana-wise scheme.
h
s
^! !^!!L!^l
J
OW c
Ed,
P.
!_^J l
n traced as yet.
i 163,
.:Narayana
Pillai.
Trivandrum
1949, p. 45.
Tnvandrums,
It
J.
THOUGHT
(i)
J.
Krishnamurti
as
it
is
He
is,
is
who expounds
in his talks
all
over the English speaking world, a philosophy of life; and in his endeavour of to do so he is mainly concerned with the act of comprehending life,
understanding
signifies,
life
in
terms of everyday
existence
and
the reality
that
it
of
He concerns himself with the fundamental causes of the problem human existence and seeks to reach for their solution cutting at the very
he
is
sophy, or to be
more
and a
an
intelligible
understanding
life in
is necessarily implied in it. Consequently, the Philosophy of life that he presents points out not only the structure of existence and hints at its
way
in
which
it
could be,
Thus
his
constitute not
not the
Any
attempt
pragmatic
is
orientation
to create
bound
It has
approach to
life.
mainly with
and death.
1
and
between philosophical
focus on
speculation
and
its
human
life.
Though Krishnamurti is an Indian by birth, he is a British citizen today; not because he considers himself to be such but because he holds a British passport. As far he is concerned, as he says, he belongs, to no
1.
Cf,
Chethemathann John
3. Srislinaniurti and..,
45
all
same he does not deny the influence of cultural heritage in the development of consciousness. Thus, even though tie is an international figure, the spirit of his mind, the orientation of his thinking and the approach to the way of living that he is suggesting in feis teachings, is primarily Indian, To mention a few aspects of his philoparticular
country.
But
the
liberation or
mutation of mind
in
which he
human
relationship,
which
suffering of
human
pointed out by
circle
Buddha and
the Upanishads;
of 'igno-
rance-craving-desire-incomplete action-psychological memory and ignorance' as the process of becoming and the quality in consciousness as the descri-
ption of
all
existence,
becoming
characterised
which form his version of- ignorance as the cause of by the multiplicity of the phenomenal existence
spoken of by the Advaita Vedanta and the MahaySna Budhistic schools of thought. So much so that the choiceless awareness and the effortless action suggested by him as the means for freeing the mind from the duality of
'what
is'
be,' too,
histic concept
of vijRaptimsira, the Vedantic concept of nirvikalpa-samadhi and the niskama karma of the Bhagwdgita. It would indeed form a subject-
matter of an independent thesis to carry out a comparative philosophy of J. Krishnamurti and the Indian philosophy,
Yet, his philosophy
the old concepts.
is
study of the
On
the
traditionalist, though as far as one can see from a close study of his philosophy, such an opinion is misinformed, if not misconceived. The correspondence of his ideas with the concepts of Indian philosophy seems to be incidental the to and the identity cf the problems of investigated of
approach
investigation which
happen
to be
common
to both,
and
is
conditioning influence.
As
far as the
is
cultural
and the
well
religio-philosophical
that
background of
Krishnamurti
concerned,
it is
known
the Theosophical circles during the first quarter of the twentieth century that witnessed a vigorous revival of the Theosophical movement at the
leadership and pioneering efforts of Madam Blavatsky and Dr. Annie Besant. The revival of Theosophy itself Was highly influenced by the Buddhistic and the Vedantic traditions of the East. It WaS
4*
indeed frankly recognised
R. K. Shringy
that tre urderlying unity of (.hefe
two traditions
Advaita tbims of thtse traditions, which yield the greatest influence their followers, are concerned. Thus Krishnamurti inherited the
among
of
inter-
spirit
oneness of
preted
in
life
as (hi \ery
light of
essential feature
of Theosophy as
it
was
Buddhism and Vrdanta. Therefore, historically, Theosopby, the MnhaySn a Buddhism and the Advaita Vedanta have exerted the greatest influence upon the mind of Krisfcnamtirti in his formative
the
period. Even the spiritual experiences that he has 'recounted bear witness to this fact. He has spoken of having visions of Lord Krishna, Maitreya and the Buddha, and finally he speaks of the experience of the unconditioned pure being that transcends al! images.
terms of
life;
and
life
to
him
is
relationship. Thus, on
the
one
he
rather
and
of the
guishes
noumenon and
existence
existence,
the
hand, he distinunconditioned
conceives
and
reality as
and
existence relating
reality
them in an
life
essential identity.
The
fact that he
two aspects of the Vedant.c absolute (Nirgiofa Brahman), namely transcendence and immanence and of the Buddhutic absolute (Swya or Vijfiapti-mtro), namely, transcendence
and existence as
and
relativity.
presented as the
three
reality
phenomenon of conditioned
once
relates the
concepts of, transcendence, immanence and achieves a fuskm of the best of the
relativity
and
thereby
thought
culmmatmg
into
an
entirely
what he
'mutation of
Vedmto
an
radically concepts of Nirvana and provides for the concept of Jivanamukta and
al so
the concept of *
to
that 'endows
altruistic significance, yet because both of outside the emperical world of experience and
MoLa
4^*
Ever? H
.
tl
rrS
*'
rl f llfe
J. Krishnamurti and...
consciousness. But, ths dissolution of the psychological conditioning does not imply the annihilation of the physical conditions of existence. In other words, in his philosophy, existence is not by itself incompatible with reality, though individual existence is bound to be limited whereas reality is unlimited. It is the psychological identification of
rise
to daulity in
consciousness with the conditions of existence, the limitation of particular experiences that constitutes conditioning and not the conditions by themselves. Thus, liberation in his view is related not so much to the physical world as with the psychological set up of the individual in his relationship with things, people and with ideas. Liberation, in other words, implies an
inner revolution, a fundamental
a mutation of the
change
in
mind.
Krishamurti does not visualise any dissolution of the ^Moreover, phenomenal existence or of the physical body 'this consequent mutation
upon
of mind; rather, he visualises the beginning of a new civilization based on love and the action of intelligence in contrast with the present civilization based on limitation of love in lerms of self interest and self-motivated action of will. A liberated individual lives and serves the not
society
pra< abdha-karma like a Jivanamukta or out bound;ess joy of nirvana till the liberation of all is achieved like a bodhisattra, but because he realises his involvement ia the whole. In the conditioned existence the individual consciousness is divided as self and not- self and is therefore unaware of its involvement, its relationship, its identity with the whole, limiting it all the while -to a fragment. But the realisation of one's true identity, to Krishnamurti, significantly means the perception' of one's involvement in the whole and not merely in the part. Thus his ideal of human existence is fundamentally and seeks to revolutionise the quality of life on earth. In other positive,
merely in
order to woik
his
of compassion
sacrif.es the
life is
concept of his philosophy that is very closely related to the Bhagvadgita is that of choiceless awareness. This concept seems very to to the concspt of'Saksln or Saksi-bhava of the clearly correspond Gita, though in other terms it can also be considered analogous to nirvikalpasamndhi of Vedanta and Vijnapti-mntra of the MahavZna. But there is a very special reason why it may be considered to be inspired by the philosignificant
Another
sophy of the Bhagwadgita on the whole. Krishnamurti very ingenuously relates choiceless awareness to effortless action, and his concept of effortless
action
is
analogous to the
in his
Nisknma-Karma Yoga of
is
the GHa.
Effort,
the
consciousness
mind involved in choice of oppDsites. Choice in the sense of preference, indicates of values which depends upon the duality of the self and
terminology
48
S. K. Shringy
desirable and the
avoidable,
and
necessarily
all
implies a
1
of reference. Thus
self-oriented
effort,
an element of
is
of
will.
A predetermined
attention naturally involves the overcoming of the dissipation of energy in undesirable directions. Thus concentration
concentration of energy or of
are the
two
aspects of the
same phenomenon,
namely the action of will. But, as he points out, in the choiceless awareness 5 of 'what is, which comes into being only when the mind ceases to project itself and is completely silent, alert, vigilant and not immobile and dull,
there
as
it
is
is*
a perception of truth i.e. an undistorted perception of 'what is without any volitional action of the mind, without the mind interit,
it,
preting
it
or
utilising
it,
justifying
it,
condemning
tanding of 'what
individual to
totality
as
it
is'
is that perception of truth, the underswhich awakens intelligence, and restores the
the infinite
movement of
the totality. It
is
this
action
of
in which the individual participates by virtue of choiceless awareness, that Krishnamurti recognises to be effortless, total, immediate
and spontaneous. Though he does not take resort to the concept of God to provide the psychological motivation of the motiveless action of the Bhagvadglta, yet he provides a psychological analysis of the action of will and postulates the possibility of the action of intelligency on the basis of the Oneness of all life.
(iii)
systems convergence. Whereas Krishnmurti does contribute to the concepts of liberation from the suffering of everyday existence, Karma, transmigration and the ethical
discipline
etc.,
However, the points of divergence in between the traditional of Indian philosophy are also as marked as those of
that are commonly shared by almost all the systems, his philosophy cannot be identified with any of them because he develops these concepts in his
own way and lends them a new significance, ft will indeed be very interesting to study in detail the contribution of J. Krishnamurt, to Indian thought in terms of the development that the fundamental concepts have found at his hands. But for the present it will be sufficient to point out one or two such concepts by way of illustration.
Metaphysically, Krishnamurti takes a transcendental which, as he declares, cannot be described in terms of
of the
view of
reality
thought or in terms
of
the
known,
in
terms of experience.
J.
Krishnamurti and...
existence
is
49
explained by him
as ideal; or in other words, to be
it is
phenomenal
ignorance
erroneously taken to be
real,
is
is
with regard to the true nature and significance of the self responsible for it. This ignorance is beginningless and self-sustaining, it
beginningless, for 'time, as a psychological factor,
it
is
is
product of
it;
and
self-sustaining, because
self
it
is
held
in a vicious circle.
to
the
implies an
unawareness of the
actual
functioning
structure of
ths constitution of consciousness. Thus, to Krishnamurti awareness of 'what is' leads to self-knowledge which dissipates the illusion
i
mind
e.
of the ideal multiplicity appearing to be real and brings about the experiencing of the transcendental reality which is the ground of all relations.
Now,
it.
this view,
on the
it
face of
it,
it
to be ideal
Existence
it
is
rejects in
as ideal
itself.
not completely rejected by Krishamurti as unreal, what he is the psychological element of multiplicity and not
existence
by
conditioned which
He conceives being at two levels, namely unconditioned and may be considered, to correspond to the Parmnrthlka and
Parinispanna and
Parikalpita
satta
of.
Vyavaharika
Asanga and the Paramarthika and Samvrtika sattfi of Nagarjuna; and thus, whereas he shares this common feature of absolute idealism of Indian
them in matters of detail, For example, Krishnamurti, what is false in the phenomenal existence is not itsthe but physical being psychological perception of multiplicity. Perception accordingly is either true or distorted but not false. Phenomenal existence thus
philosophy, he differs from each of
to
false in
implies a conditioned or a distorted view of reality which is neither entirly itself nor true as it appears, though it may be described as ' true
but 'untrue and yet not false' as it appears, Existence as conceived by Krishnamurti cannot be considered either as Simya i.e. totally devoid of
in itself,
origination or substratum, a final cause or as Maya which has Brahman as ground since his concept of the unconditioned cannot be identified with
its
it.
have been nature of reality and its relation to the individual. Whereas Buddhism does not affirm a permanent self and conceives reality to be entirely devoid of attributes and relations; Vedanta affirms a permanent
Atman even while proclaiming the reality to be transcendental and all attributes and relations through the concept of Saguna-Brahman or I'sv&ro. Krishnamurti has actually no room for God in his thought, though he does not deny it if the word is to denote the absolute. And like
self,
devoid of
the
Buddhists he
is
never
tired of negating a
Karma and
rebirth,
50
in his
is
R. K. Shringy
system. So according to him, there
is
nothing enduring,
much
so, that at
of fact he
timelessness,
distinguishes
to say. So permanent; everything is in a perpetual flux so times, he describes reality as ever-becoming. As a matter between continuity in time and the eternity of
identifies permanence with continuity in time. Thus if permanent, it only means 'nothing continues,' not that In fact he firmly believes in immortality. But that
and he
there
is
nothing
survives'.
'nothing
immortality
does not imply the continuity of the Jivaiman, the personality it means the psychological death of it every moment
and a psychological rebirth consequent upon it from moment to moment. Eternity is not the infinity of time but the timelessness of awareness. Nothing
of the external world changes for the so called
vidual,
indi-
what
is
transformed
held.
is
Thus the 'unconditioned being' of Krishnamurti in which existence is co-exists with the phenomenal existence, which distinguishes it from the
cognate concepts of the Indian Philosophy.
This
reality
and existence
In other
inspires the
search
for
not in
order to
its
escape
suffering.
the suffering
relieve
existence of
words
suffering
and
not
existence that is
critical
question that
whether
is actually asked by many, is world and yet be not of this world, of the to exist in the midst play of opposite? and yet not to be conditioned bv choice. He says, 'yes,' and suggests that whoever wants to know the it
possible to live in
this
truth
about
it
may
better
experiment with
it
it
is
view of the above deliberation that, the teaching of Krishnamurti are generally in consonance with the spirit of Indian philosophy and in respect of very important concepts record a
in
marked
divergence
from
the traditionally
established
view-points
which
may be
interpreted as an advance
tation requires to
PREPOSITIONS IN ASVAGHOSA
Satya Vrat
(heir
own
or
they merely indicate the meanings latent in the roots is an old controversy dating back to the pre-YSska era. As unlike nouns and verbs prepositions are never used independently. They are presumed to have no function beyond bringing out the different shades of meanings of the roots which they themselves are capable to denote
set upasargas
but, as a matter of usage,
is
To
be sure, this
their
in full measure.
When
selves the sense which they are supposed to yield with certain prepositions
only, apasargas cannot be legitimately claimed to be impregnated with various layers of meanings which are transmitted to the roots they coalesce with. This function of the prepositions is poetically emphasised by Magha in the following verse
:
x. This however
is
is.
a half truth.
There
is
an
mass
of
Sanskrit roots which are incapable of conveying they are conjoined with prepositions prescribed by
nuances unless
or usage.
to mention a SST, VH, s^, qsfa., few, cannot themselves express what they do with ft, ST, ft, ft, 3^ and ft respectively. The meanings these roots denote with the above-mentioned upasargas are poles apart from those expressed without them. What precisely imparts them fresh meanings 7 Surely the prepositions. Then, there are roots which though sanctioned by grammar are never used without upasargas even in their
grammar
*%
by
itself
means
'to
it.
study'
Its
f| B^HR*
but
is
is
invariably
employed
well-known
with
is
*fo
to denote
use without
a?ft
simply
hinted
in
unimaginable.
the
This
precisely the
phenomenon KaiidHsa
has
from Raghuvarhsa.
verse
XV.
9.
The
case
of
uii^
is
its
Si
of
^T??.
If
afl?
1
has
no
what
is
the root
f^TCTH
'
Likewise
powerless to denote
the twin
senses
of
respecting
and
seeing' without the the help of 3q and ft though it has full sanction of grammar. There is not a solitary instance in the whole range of literature where it is used in isolation of the above Upasargas. The conclusion is irresistible that Sanskrit prepostions are not altogether void of meanings
to the roots
they join.
i)
sometimes
it
( ii
sometimes they
meaning.
strengthen
(iii)
its
igionists he
Upasargas in the works of Asvaghosa do not follow this set pattern nor are they always found to adhere to any norm. Like most of his co-relhas gone off the track in the use of prepostions. Not unfrequently
his treatment
to
is arbitrary, Like the author of the Bhagavata in his anxiety sound pedantic at places, has given his language a fair sprinkling of the forms which though peculiar are hopeless and betray a pathetic of As tradition, a disregard consequence he is found using prepositions to denote the meanings that have nothing to commend them except their
verbal
they failed to
muster
used by Aivaghosa,
a current coin
and
as such
first
which bring
in subsequent
represented by those upasargas about no change in the primitive sense of the roots, though
literature they
is
The
extensively
provides brilliant
unaffected in its
Ajvaghosa's works as to encompass all the illustration of how a root may remain
usher sure
even with
meaning even in conjunction with prepositions which otherwise changes in them. With A S vagho ?a it undergoes no alteration
ft
S.
IX. 44,
Hare
of
ftu^sft
srft
is
means
?
is
B.
XII. 83.
and
sfemw
It
is
equivalent to
^R.
The
use
I*
with
also
found used
which
in a slightly
different
though equally
sense of 'dying'
seems to be an
Prepositions in A&vagosa
53
as
extension
of
its
basic
(S.
I.
meaning
death
is
but
departure to
heaven.
In
gift
34) gfaii^
means
no
force.
evident
fif
As
is
illustrations
f^r
Vl
to
convey the
simple meaning of
*t
CTT!
I
B.
V. 35.
16.
S.
111.
However
in S.
III.
37 it retains
its
9</*tf generally means to 'lay down', 'promulgate', 'to compose', but in A&vaghosa % does not affect the primary sense of the root. In the following verse goftWN: means nothing more than f/faTH: - spiftWW V. 3*1] ERiq
(S.
42
).
Here however
(^tffi;
Asvaghosa
with
sr
is
supported by Vmimiki,
primitive sense.
who
in
sn^Ror
ST'ftd'T
uses
^ft
in
its
It is
as against its
ly in the
again a measure of uncertainty of the upasargas in Aivaghosa that popular meaning the root UT with au has been used frequenthighly
uncommon
g^qTfl^ ijlfcng^
IX. 16.
?T^w*r fem^flTc^i
XL
'8.
Though rare, but not without the authority of usags, Asvaghosa uses with the preposition y in its primary sense.
i
s.
XV. 37
f|
S.
XVII.
45.
As
for
in case of tf,
q adds
^
(B.
here
stands
The root
'to
W
is
by
itself
means
'to ask',
With
sr
it
denotes
use
But here again the ineffectiveness of a is demonstrated in the Buddhacarita in much the same sense as
* amqf?a
in question reads
&
RJ:
%'q;
If. 10).
That
synonymous with
a^fol
is
too obvious.'
lhat by themselves
consists of roots
prepositions.
as usage
Not without
precedent, the
all
much
does not
empower
their
few
The roots
ings of
respectively.
fpl^
15)
irfl
3l!3<pi?l.
while
iti
IX. 26)
S.
XI.
means
3$f?t.
is
found used
in
a sense other
than
gflftl
ils
primary meaning as in
Saundarananda VHf. 48
3jg^
TOn^clW
As
illustrious successor
Kalidasa so
in
Asvaghosa f means
3j|.
'to
strew', 'to
a sense
it
generally,
I.
q\
sffli^
1i:
$p\'
fl?^'
feuRf
...... (S.
Here $M'
is
not different
from
'
The
it
surround.
the sens-:
It
of ''protecting', 'guarding'
generally takes qft to
is
not recorded in
this
known
lexica,
convey
of 3jr^
I.
meaning,
example' of 'the
silj; 5?'
iise
without any
flcgSp-W-lK-cl (S.
59.)
its
We may
sense,
f\
also
which, in contradistinction, to
usual
means
the
'reproving', a
connotation not at
known with
or without preposition to so
perceptive
of the meanings of
rsad as follows.
for
its
derivative, 'Codana'.
If.
The
^i^f?'i ^^.(S.
^q ^>pNM B.
of aberrations
IV.
37)
'reproving
him
for
bis
indifference'.
strange jumble characterises the third category. Here AJvaghosa tags on certain prepositions to the roots to which they are never
joined or which yield the intended sense with prepositions other used by him or which though warranted by and
than those
meaning widely
different
grammar usage convey a from what has been wrung out of them by the poet.
Its
for
use with
is
?[f]R?Sf3rftc3xfi
in
in
the
is
same sense
As
Prof,
Jhonston
testifies the
is
form
not recorded
52)
prefixes
to
of
J^
mV
%T
Avagho?a
also.
The
use,
itself
the later
classical
i.
literature
also.
61)
which convey the meanings put on them with nrenosit.ons other than those used by Aivaghosa s.ands promin'ent by reason
roots
Among
Prepositions 5o Asvagosa
sa
of
its
frequency.
Its
use with
in
the sense
of
'knowing'
is
common
qft
enough. A$vaghos a sxtorts the same meaning with the prepositions 3?f also. The following instances cry attention
:
and
B. v. 78
S.
V. 32
3
g.
V. 45
xvi. 42
B. XII. 38
ifi
is
1*
its
use
with
lacks support.
fel,by
used
is
it
itself
or in conjunction with ft
means
is its
'to
spit.'
Asvaghosa has
which
spit on. Jn
where ajwj^^
Indeed
it is
Mar means mm, faffa. Saundarananda again provides a brilliant example ias been used for s^q^ ^^f qj^^^ S VI 2H
[
to
may be
1.
cited here.
q^T^Sfqf ^
m*3K
S.VI. 32
w ^ ^c^qi^ %to
of 'withdrawing'
'killing'
S.
XV.
27.
Contrary
to its
known
sense
%|^
S.
here
56.
means
Here
ft
3.
-^
ft^ aa^^
^
XVII.
with fe
serves
the
purpose of
4.
^M%q^^^ S.IX,8.
3^
has been
used
here
in
the
f^qorfitOT^:
S,
XIV. 20 ,ft
sense of 'passing.'
afT-vfc
and
^TV%\
qhpimf^SRT (B.V.35)
wty
in
At places the Saundarananda contains premonition of Bhatti's ingendlustrating various grammatical forms. A^vaghosa has
to
"purposely
convey
56
different
meanings
The
uses
of
J^S
f
and
91 are
s.
II
S.
VII. 48
s.
xvn.
4
1 1
s.
xvn.
The survey, though not exhaustive, incidentally serves to show that Saundarananda, as a better poem, provides a richer wealth of verbal usage
than the
sister
epic Buddhacarita.
Shah
If
there are three fundamental substances, viz. sattva, rajas and tamas. Accor-
ding
to this
is
it
substances. But as
sattva predominates in
simply called sattva. Rajas and tamas are regarded as veils (avarana) covering sattva. They obstruct the property of to be the veil obscuring samyag is considered Tamas viz. saltva, jflana.
drsti or
vidyS or
amoha of
sattva
(i.e.
citta.)
But
it is
noteworthy that
when
two
Yoga writers speak of veils covering sattva., they mostly refer to klesa-karma or klega-rajas. 3 Again, Vyasa in his Yogabhasya specifically states that karman is the veil obscuring Viveka-jfiana. He uses the term Viveka-jfianavarariiya karma. 3 All this suggests that tamas can be
the
viz.
reduced to rajas
(karman), or that
tamas
is
from
rajas (karman).
to the
The
oft-recurring duals of
identity of the second members, i e. karma and rajas. Why point did they use the term karman in the sense of rajas? The answer is quite simple. The special property of rajas substance is kriya i.e. karman. So,
they occasionally used the term denoting the special property viz. karma for the substance of which it is the special property, that is, for the rajas
substance. In other words, the terms
karman and
it
changeable. If
Th.
karman
in
is
rajas,
then
should
be
material
substanc3.
Scherbatsky
his
Buddhist
Saflkhya
karma
is
explained
infra-
atomic particles or material forces making the action either good or bad". (Vol. J, p. 133, fn. 3) Like the Jaina thinkers, the Yoga thinkers also
believe that the actions, if
and hence
urged by kleias, cause the veil of rajas (karman) should be held responsible for the rajas (karman) veiling sattva. This is very well brought out in the Yogasotras
in
fact the
klesas
niiidham
tu
tamalfsanwelrekat
4,31.
Tattvavai&sradi
l.l.
avarakena
tamasa
Yogabhasya
2
talah klc'sakannaiih'r/ti/f.
Yogasutra
vimuktasya
Yogabha;ya
3
4.31. vitihuiakle'sarajasali
Ibid, 2.26
karma
Yogabhasya
2.
52.
58
Nagin J. Shah
kannaSayab'
(2.
'klesatnulah
12),
and
'sati
male tadvipSkah.
'Mala'
1 .
.(2.
13).
The
term klesa
means
'that
which
taints or tarnishes.'
is
naturally the
1
close Sanskrit
synonym of
'klesa.'
(this
term occuring in
given by
Vyasa in his
Bhasya as
Thus
property
jflana
of sattva.
As
these
their
malas are produced in citta (sattva) made eligible (yogya) for upadSna( -karana ) by the association of rajas with citta, they are
not natural to citta. They are adventitious and hence should be completely in order to manifest the infinite jflana which is the nature of citta or sattva. t All this clearly proves the difference of
removed
rajas
(karma)
from mala
'karman'
in
(klete).
(1) the
found
in the basic
works of the
It
refers to klesas.
does not
karmans
rarely
Buddhism we
wherejt 7
come
They
across the
are
:
'rajas'.
We
have
found out
some
'virajarpi nibbSnam's, 'kle^a-raja'*, 'virajo vltamalaip's, 'virajam patthaySno' 9 It seems that the term rajas used in these quotations means rajas substance trans-
places
occurs.
,
'chinnopasantarajab'
on
the removal
:
But as the Buddhists want on the removal of rsga, dosa and moha, and not of the material veil of rajas substance, the veil caused by
vippajahitva pandita
vigatarajassa
viharanti
te
sssane
11
doso
rajo
rajo
na na
]]
moho
By
this they
11
[Mahaniddesa p
505
as the destruction of raga etc. necessarily entaUs the removal of rajas substance it is sufficient to urge the people to remove r5ga etc,- the people experience rSga, etc, they do not know raj ubstance so lt is better to avoid the talk of rajas substance. Peop l So> Buddhists might have used the term
tads
4.31.
5 6 7
8
Therigatha, 97
Pali English
p.
'
67
Udana,
8.
M
Ho
their classifications
mto
of karmans
material karman (rajas) ? Has the second the material karman (rajas) ? Does their
an iya krta-upacita.drstadharmavedaniya.upapadyavedaniya-aparaparyayaved. suggest the usage of karman in the sense of rajas substance? Do he,r fourfold karmans, viz. k r ?na, sukla etc. betray the use of karman in this sense? Does their conception of avijfiapti point to their of
acceptance
material karman (rajas)? Does their conception of klefcvBrana and Jfleysvarana correspond to Yoga conception of kleja-karmsvarana ? However feels that Buddhism in its zeal for the ethical aspect of karman has neglected the metaphysical aspect of karman. But this metaphysical aspect of karman is implied in the ethical aspect of karman.
nidana,
one
is
substance
Their implied metaphysical position is as follows: For them citta _ (-sattva) atman. There is no entity over and above citta. Their citta is sattva
i
alone. It s not constituted of the three substances, viz. sattva rajas and tamas. They do not accept tamas substance besides rajas. Substance tamas may be at the most a variety of rajas.
implicit in Buddhism is explicit in Jainism. Jainas are well known for their view that karmans are material. They believe that as a result of the threefold activity, viz. bodily, vocal and mental, the material parties called karmans get bound to soul (=atman=citta). It is very interestmg to note that in the one of the oldest Agamas Uttaradhyayana-Sutra, he term used for the material karmic atoms is 'rajas'. This clearly suggests' the
What
is
idenuty of matenal
instances in point
(1)
karman with
rajas
substance. The
the
following
(2)
(3)
21.18
?
jahasi
12.45
(5)
dussahadam dhanam hicca bahuip samciniya rayam -7 8 laddhum samvude niddhune 3 n rayarri' vmunahi rayam pure kaclarn, samayarp goyama ma pamayae-10.3
A
ca,
half-verse
of Dasasutakkhamdha
is
(5.27),
viz.
duft.
bhava, njrae'
'Buyam veyani
'raj as
'
one more
These references clearly point out that the term, substance transformed into karmans. The term
1
'rajas'
10
Note
^_
eOSe ' VJZ
'
k!T
'rajas' ha, the technical sense aid St ThlS raJaS and the ra as
^'
**
-^tanoe)
:
above-quoted
phrases
follows
(5.
also the
following
occurring
in
Sthanangasutra
<
V>;
fayam
60
Nagin
atfhaviho
J.
Shah
his
kanimarayo'
(7.8),
'raja
<
iti
'
karma'
(10.3).
SSntyacarya in
'
Paiyatika explains the term rajas occurring in these Uttaradhyayana quotations as follows: 'rajah karma badhyamanakam baddham ca (3.11), ' rajah astaprakarakam karma iva (7.8), 'rajah karma
(10.3),
'raja
rajab
karma' (12.45),
18).
(21.
The
last
explanation
rajas.
popular
all
the
material
identify
karmas
OF
course,
these
commentarial
rajas with material karmans. But no Jaina out the connection of the rajas which the Jainas explain as material karman with the rajas of the SSnkhya-Yoga system. The rajas which the SankhyaYoga thinkers advise us to remove cannot be different from the which
system as well as in Jainism means material karman atoms. These material karman atoms are called rajas primarily because they represent one form of rajas substance (called rajas guna in the
Sankhya-Yoga
Sankhya-Yoga).
Ac. Haribhadra
that the term
in his Avagyakasutravrtti 11
andNandisutravrtti 12 states
means the material karraans that are in the process of being bound. Thus we find here the contraction of the meaning of the term 'rajas'. 'Rajas' here means material karmans, not all the material karmans but only those that are in the bound. process of
'raya' (rajas)
What
is
being
to this question
as follows:
The word
'raya' (rajas)
many
as
the
of the compound 'rayamala'. There was a tradition of expcompound as dvandva-sarnSsa. So, they took 'raya" (rajas) to mean one type of material karmans and 'mala' to mean another type of
first
member
laining this
material karmans.
(1) Fine material
particles
Ava&yakacarni gives four explanations of rayamala proper to be transformed into karman atoms
by 'raya* and the samparsyika karmans are denoted by the term 'mala is In AgastyasirnhacuTni Agastyasimha explains the terms 'rayamala' as follows aSravakale rayo, baddha-puttha-nikaiyam kammam malah.i* In
1 .
(kammapayogo) are denoted by the term 'raya' and the karma atoms already bound are denoted by the term 'mala'. (2) The karmans in the process of being bound (badhyamgna karmans) are denoted by the term 'raya' and baddha (=puvvovacita) karmans are denoted by term 'mala'. (3) The baddha karmans are denoted by the term 'raya and the nikacita karmans are denoted by the term 'mala' (4) The iryapathika karmans are denoted the term
1
the four
H
12
13
p. 507,
p. 4, p.
U,
14
p. 223,
PTS
Ed.
5|
explanations of the term rayamala, given by the Avasykacomi the meaning assigned (o the term 'raya' (rajas) is not uniform, as in explanation (1) it
explanation (3)
means karmaprsyogya, in explanation (2) it means badhyamana karmans, in it means badclha karmans and in explanation (4) it means
iryapathika karmans. But in the explanation given by Agastyasimha a uniform meaning is assigned to the term 'raya'. It means badhyamana (as-ravakahna)' karmans, According to Agastyasimha 'mala' means either baddha or sprsta or nikacita karmans. But all these explanations do not seem
correct. Jt is kasayas
(i.e.
klesas) that
should
ihe
compound word
with 'vidhntaklesarjasah' (Yagobhasya 2.26). And the term 'raya' in the compound rayamala shou'd be taken to mean all karrrans. Explanations of 'raya' (rajas; given in theUttaradhyanacnrni and Paiyauka corroborate our
to explain rayamala as 'rajaipsi eva malah'. cannot betaken as a correct explanation. Moi cover, this explanation comes in conflict with the old tradition. In old tradition the term 'mala'
view.
But
this
is
is
quoted.
''
It
is
dharmesu dharmacaksurudapadi.' This clearly points out that the terms 'rajas' and 'mala' should be taken in different senses. The
'virajo vitamalaip
author of the
Abhindharmasamuccaya
says
dharmaksantibhih
virajah,
10 I have no sources to study the meaning assigned dharmajfianaih vitamalam. by the Buddhists to these two terms used side by side in one sentence. But
this sutra quotation
samasa.
and its explanation at least prove that the compound 'rayamala' should be taken as dvandva-samasa and not as karmadharyayaAnd the Jaina commentators are right in considering it to be a
to be wrong in assigning the meanings to compound. The question remains to be answered is
:
why have they not explained the term mala in the sense of kasaya which is so apparent and patent ? Is this the result of their undue emphasis on the material karmans ? They are talking too much of the material karmans,
relegating the kasSyas which cause the material karmans in the background. This is quite in contrast to what the Buddhists have done.
As we have already noted, the karmic matter (=karmans) of the Jainas nothing but rajas substance of the Safikahya-Yogas. In the Sankhya-Yoga system tamas substance is posited besides rajas substance and it is regarded
is
samyag
drsti or
mith>a
drsti
mohamya-karman
causes mithya drsti or moha and works as a veil obscuring samyag drsti. This suggests that for the Jainas tamas is not an independent substance but simply
a variety of
15-16
karman
(=rajas). Jair.a
p. 67.
atman
is
nothing
but
citta.
But Jaina
Abhidharmasamuccaya,
Magiii 3.
thinkers regard citta as
Shah
why they consider soul (=citta-atman) -m-U-ansmigratory-state to be kathancit marta. Thus Jainism upholds a
clear-cut dualism of
finest
sattvstmaka only. They do not consider it to be sattva-rajas-tamasatmaka. They would not hesitate to accept that it is from sattva-rajasatmaka the practical standpoint because they believe that in the transmigratory state it is mixed or interspersed with rajas (^material karman atoms ); this is (he reason
sattva and rajas. Material karman atoms are the form of rajas substance, whaereas material objects of the world viz form of rajas.
)
they maybe. Rajas impart colours to citta (sattva) through the process of inter-mixture or interpellation. Karmans ( = rajas ) in the Yoga as well as in Buddhism are classified into four types on the basis of viz. colours, krsna Uraians, sukla
lesya
is
being what
it
is
classification
on
the
ba^
of colour,
but he classification of these material karman atoms (rajas) on the basi* of colours The words of Heinrich Zimmer are noteworthy He says, Th theory of karmic colours is not peculiar to the Jainas. but seems to have been
<
karmans, etc. The Jaina conception of of material karman atoms (rajas) The Ajivaka theory of abhij.tis is also nothing
17 Philosophies of India,
The Bollingen
Series
XXV!
(1953)
251
PRAKRIT STUDIES
S.
N. Ghosal
When
Ujjam
gathered courage and the encouragement and help from some made the task comparatively easy for me. Before 1 proceed 1 heartily thank the organisers of the Oriental Conference for having bestowed upon me this honour, of which I am hardly worthy and which is at the same time a definite indication of their confidence in me.
with
U So
performed
if
one
is
Jested
of
my
friends
We all know that it is an age of science and technology age of materalism people are more concerned with material comforts which can be achieved only by the proper cultivation o sconce and technology. So people are very keen about the pursuit of these branches o knowledge and
Gentlemen
!
Ja
this
and
prosperity,
try to utilise
'
hem
for the
.employment
PrOSPerity The StUdentS S as als devote evote temselves themselves to he en, the cultivate of these disciplines, as these are assumed to open avenues of
to
eml
enhancement
and
in
life.
Undersuch
narrowness and superstition. Its study is openly denounced and only those few, who go astray from the common run of men and have a .pedal aptitude for it (oriental culture), hug it as a treasure and invaluable tradition.
S?l'o
denod
How
from
H kWa rdn ba
,
T 7
r the
^
is
oriental scholarship is neglected in the present days a study of the fact that in and colleges
universities
best
known
k r it"s
W'XC^Xr'^KL-
tol
Prakrit studies
c 65
,-
impression upon the audience who are destined to leave the hall in disgust. Nevertheless it bears testimony to the fact that Prakrit has been neglected not only in the past but also in the present time.
fails to
make any
Now
technology
it
should be stated
that
although
all
it
is
and
Man
the
is
in the life of man. Every thing happening centres round which remain enshrined in the oriental
interest
learning and culture, are the expressions of man's heart, his emotions, impulses and aspirations. So being absolutely human oriental learning should have a permanent place in the history of man's his progress evolution, towards the ultimate goal and attainment of perfection. So oriental learning has a permanent value. Jit will remain ever brilliant
and
scintillating.
it
man
As
and
Prakrit forms a part of oriental tearing it should have made a definite contribution to the sum total of Indian culture. As it suffers
and its worth has not been properly appreciated we intend some of the purposes, that have been served the
by
knowlege of Prakrit. We know that inscriptions are one of the very important sources for the reconstruction of h-story of a country. In the case of India the
same condi-
tion obtains. Here too inscriptions are to be found and they have immensely helped us in the matter of reconstruction of the history of this land. But from the very beginning right upto the 2nd century A. D. Prakrit was the exclusive language of these inscriptions. The edicts of Aoka have all been transcribed in this language and these have been the
for the
service of
most effective documents knowledge of the history of this great monarch, dedicated to the man. Not only the history of the but
Mauryas
post-Mauryas foreign invaders, the Scythions and Greeks, has become from these literary records-rhe
inscriptions, that are
all
transcribed in the
Prakrit language.
form a very important community in India of non-violence and love, which once proclaimed by the lord Mahavira and glorified later by his d 1S ciples. The teachings of this faith have been retained in the scriptures, which are transcribed in the Prakrit language a dialect, which is technically called Arsa or Ardha-
We know
They adhere
to the tenets
MSgadhi. religious texts are highly precious for being the documents of thoughts, which are very wide and comprehensive in nature. They not only embody a detailed account of ethical principles and moral practices but also contain discussions on philosophical, social, religious and cultural matters
These
'
S.
Ghosal
64
optional <ubja :t
vThK-'h there are
and maybe
the
beinr
left
open to
of
it,
diligence.
and adopt a modern which they can master with As a result of this
The
from a
set
back.
numbsr
of students
extremely reduced.
When
it
is
is not studied as an independent in few universes m Western India Prakrit the universities it is studied along with Sanssublet anywhere. In most of it occupies a place which is neverthefcrit. !n the curriculum of the latter In the Sanskrit course it is not studied 'as a compulless
very insignificant.
it
may read
it
or
may
discard
it
altogether.
krit or
M.A. may
ib
How
that
th?
condition
of
Prakrit
Samentahl;
best
known from
the
fact
students
reading
their
the Sanskrit
drama do
same in
and omit
absolutely
i;i
emulated by their students. This practice has become so rampant that some editions of the dramas include the Sanskritthe within body of the text and push the original Prakrit retiifcrings
to the place
portions below
meant
and
references.
among the
How
reproduce
its
legitimate
the lovers
Now-a-days
all these
on the stage
the Sanskrit
making them
making them
of
Naturally
the
speeches
to be abridged
and
texts
But
in
many
cases
the editors
in
of such
remove
and introduce
niceties
Sanskrit translations of such passages. This removes evidently much of the of such dramas. But in some cases such an adventure
becomes
disastrous.
The
The
wilful ignorance
of
this
poem of
The
recitation
which lack
the cadence
and
56
S. N. Ghosal
that constitute the product of the entire mental process of a nation, imbued with the same ideals. These texts thus grant us an access into tlis religious
violence
and cultural heritage of the Jains the adherents of the doctrine of nonand give us an insight into the very intricate problems of their mode of life and thinking. But as this treasure remains concealed within
to
master
The knowledge of Prskrit is indispensible for philological studies. Of late people are becoming more and more interested in the history of the modern
Aryan languages,
Jn fact Turner
which
made commendable progress in the respective spheres of their investigation. But the study of these modern Aryan languages became possible only when one could learn Prakrit as it was the direct source
of the former. In fact Prakrit one hand and modern
scientific study
is
on
the
of Prakrit
Had
there been
no
the
sphere
The knowledge of Prakrit helps one surely to obtain some result in the
field
of literary study. The early works of the modern languages cannot be understood properly unless one has got a thorough knowledge of the secular
Prakrit literature.
It is a fact that the thoughts arid the ideas, which formed She contents of the later Prakrit texts, must have found their continuity in the early New
Indo-Aryaa
literature. Ideas
come down
conditions of
the time.
for
study of the Prakrit texts, without which the knowledge of the former remains incomplete a spec,f,c instance we can say that the knowledge of the love poems 06 '5 f Benal Hke
modern Aryan
achevld
h ve have
tr an
left
fh^? ^
tan0e Withthe ^ve aCq lyrics of Apabhrar^a, which unmistakeable influence upon the former.
VidySpati and Ca
idSsa
ca
<*
;'
f,
"f"
ir:
-**
""
of Prak
that
the
<
the study
^rt
* -ential. *oa of
it is
of Prakrit, in fact
* , j;: tr;rs
Prakrit studies
in
67
the subject
and there
is
much scope
too
for
investigation.
Only the
to task,
the task,
We
may
take here for discussion one or two problems as specimens. There is much doubt regarding the character and application
of the
Prakrit dialects and one can hardly get a precise picture of the latter from a study of their account as laid down in the dramaturgical texts and Prakrit grammars. The Natyasastra of Bharata suggests that in a Sanskrit
Drama
as
there
may
occur Prakrit
dialects like
may
Diamill
and Andhraja
which are
re-
a detailed statement about the persons, who should speak such speeches and here the speakers of one speech are surely different from those of another. In the Sahitya-darpana also a similar statecognised as Vibhasss.
is
There
ment
Maharastn,
(or Sakari),
Magadhj, Ardha-magadhi, Pracya, Avantija, Daksinatya, Sabari Bahlika, Dravidi, Abhin, Caudal! and PaisSci.
Now
is
the statements, that' we obtain from two different sources (i.e. from Bharata and VUvanStha). Secondly in the Prakrit grammars, which are considered early and have got some authenticity many of these dialects are
ignored.
we
find
only
four
dialects
namely
Prakrit
(i.e.
Maharastri), Saurasasent,
Magadhi and
Paisgcl.
Hemacandra
adds to these Ar?a(i.e. Ardha-msgadhi), CnlikapaiSacika and Apabhrari^a. Hemacandra is followed in this matter by Trivikrama, Sirhharaja, Narasimba and Laksmidhara, but with one distinction that while Trivilcrama
excludes Area from the account, the others
i.e.
the speech
at all.
many
of
the Prakrit
dialects mentioned
Sirhharaja, Narasimha and It becomes evident then both by Bharata and VHva-
of Prakrit
of the a very restricted number of Prakrits, namely Maharastn, Sauraseni and Magadhi. Sauraseni is used as the principal Prakrit speech, to be utilised by those noble characters both male
Sanskrit dramas have used
female,
There
is
another
fact
also.
most
who
are debarred
mouths of
those,
who
are
and from speaking Sanskrit. Maharsstrl appears as and Magadhi is set in the inferior in rank and are mostly outcastes. So the
as used in the Sanskrit dramas,
do not
of the Natyasastra or of the Sahityadarpana, have stated before that in the Mrcchakatika there is a number of Prakrit dialects, which are conspicuously absent in' other Sanskrit dramas.
We
68
S. N.
find
Ghosal
Here we
Saurasem spoken by Vasantasena, Radanika, MadanikS etc, Avanti spoken by Vtraka and Candanaka, Pracya by Vidusaka, Magadhi by
Sakara,
the servants of
Cgrudatta and
Vasantasena,
Sakari
by
Sakara.
Candalt by two Candalas and Dhakkl by two gamblers. Although there is no scientific edition of the Mycchakatika, which makes any statement about
it hazardous, it is undoubtedly true that the speeches distributed to the characters do not agree with the account, as provided by the NStyasSstra
or by the Sahityadarpana.
slaves,
to the
Rajputs and gentlemen, which we do not actually find in the drama. suggests that the rogues should speak Avanti, which is certainly not the case as they speak a different kind of which is called dialect, Dhakki. Keith by an incidental study of the features of the dialects reduced
Again
it
all
drama
namely Saura-
no way
all
varieties
According to his estimate Avanti and Pracyii from Saurasem; Sakari and Ca n dali are in fact of Magadhi and Dhakki is of an indefinite character.
different
speeches, wers utilised by the minor communities of people living likewise within restricted areas They might be presumed as class-dialects as they were not in circulation 'in all substrata of the people. Abhiri, C^fcl, and some others b!
these facts particularly the one that the Prakrit grammarians ignore many dialects mentioned by the dramaturgists and the same remain unrepresented in most of the Sanskrit dramas we come to certain conclusions First many of these speeches e.g, Pracya, Avant.ja, Bahlikj etc. were minor dialects confined with narrow areas and as such they had extremely local application. Some again were sectarian which
From
to this class.
As
these
considered
le c t s
they
in
rent
MahSrastn we can
rfi.i-*
^~
1
,
j-f.
such an
-^arious
particularly to the forms of the fi rst and forms can never appear in one Da t
USn
"""
PerS nS
'
^
Speech
'
refer
'
Such Vadeties
in
iQt
t2*of 2*of
IS
T*
'
.
can
showtK
M^3ST
speech,^
OQ tabut ?
f
f? ^
"
'
8enOUS
<*"<"*
&
^^
the
^men.s
&
for
7
?"" a
a1 ' tllese
su W-alects occur.
the help of
the
specific
example.
Vararuci
Prakrit studies
suggests that Skt
(,9
Ks becomes Sk
in
Magadhi
dialect,
e.g.
laskase, daske.
Hemacandra notes such a change of Ks only in the preksa and acaksa (i.e. peskadi and acaskadi) but
sound K? should be represented by JMc Vararuci states that a-stems in the nom.
occassionally the loss of the ending, e.g.
e.g.
sg.
same
Again
laskase,
yaMce
etc.
show
the
esi,
But Hemcandra
sg.,
all
he would
approve only the ending -e in such a case and that too only in the case of the masc. a-stems. Again Vavaruci would permit the use of the suffix -dani
as the suffix for the absolutive in the
Magadhi
dialect,
but
Hemacandra
acknowledge the use of the suffixes -iya and -d u na in this very speech and remains ignorant of the one, suggested by Vararuci. Evidently the divergent forms of Magadhi came from its different sub-dialects, some of which are
recognised by Vararuci and some by Hemacandra. So this clearly points to the generic feature of the Magadhi speech, under which Sakgri, Candsli and some others might have occurred as sub-dialects,
From all these evidences it is perhaps possible for us to presume that Maharastri, Saurasem and Magadhi were all generic speeches. They contained a number of minor dialects or sub-dialects within themselves. The common
features of the subdialects were ordinarily adopted to assign the features of the generic speech but sometimes the individual features of the subdialects were recognised owing to the popularity of such forms. This explains
dialect
here.
forms in the declension and conjugation systems in some of the generic speeches. According to our assumption the ArdhamSgadhi too was a generic speech like some others mentioned
the prevalence of multifarious
We come to another problem. Jacobi in his Kalpasatra expresses the view that Prakrit or Maharastri of Hemacandra is not Maharastn proper, of which specimens are to be found in the Gathasaptasati, Setubandha and
the dramas, but
it is in fact Jaina-Maharastn which is evidently different from the traditional Maharastri speech. But this view has been categorically contradicted by Pischel, since Hemacandra cites examples in suport of his
rules
from
the texts
like
the Gathasaptasati,
Setubandha,
Gaudavaho,
Visamabanahla and Karpuramanjarl, which are all composed in the popular Maharastri dialect. Although one cannot deny the statement of Pischel there appears some truth in the statement of Jacobi. Jacobi calls Hemacandra's
Maharastn Jama Maharastri on account of the fact that he notes there the Hemacandra prevalence, of some Ar?a or Ardha-magadhi features, which
knowingly or unknowingly admits into that speech.
Now
Jains
as these features
frequently
appear
describes
in
the Mah.,
which
Hemacandra
70
these characteristics, is designated as Jaina
briefly
S.
N- GhcsaB
Maharastn by
Jacobi.
We may
Here k frequently becomes changed into g e.g, becomes, ego, amngo, Jisugo, savago, agaro etc. (2) So c becomes j e.g. piiaci when it (3) The use of '.the ya-sruti is quite frequent particularly pisajl.
mention these
(1)
comes
(fental
to
fill
two
a vowels,
etc. (4)
in
participle
(5)
vavaclo,
padarhiua,
danda
a at
etc,
of the
dental
into
the cerebral
special
Hemacandra
the
e.g.
word and
the
when
the
it
is
doubled,
etc.
In Mshsrastri
acknowledged
the use of
suffix
absolutive is -ana,
but
Hemacandra sanctions
-uana
(e.g.
some others
bhoccgj rmcca,
socca; etc.),
kauana souanaetc,),-ttu
dialect
motturh dauhurii
etc.),
as constituent
mixed with Maharastn give the latter a distinct character. Jacobi calls this MahSraStn as Jaina Maharastn but suggests another name also, which here the preponderance of the Ardhais Jaina Saura?tri. That one finds
Magadhl
But
it
is
a notable
it
and are
in fact abso-
of
is much different from the tradiHere the influence of the Ardha-mSgadhi speech that which one finds in Jainais remarkably deeper, atleast more than Maharastd. Occasionally some features of Mahara?trl too have crept into
composed
this
it
Now
in the absence of
any authentic
evidence
it
is
very
difficult
to
admit the separate occurrence of these two Prakrit dialects namely the Jaina-MahSrastn and Jaina-Sauraseni. The Ardha-magadhi dialect, in which
the
left a
tremendous influence
Pr'Skrat studies
71
upon the
were so much imbued with spirit of the scriptures that the latter haunted them. Whenever they made attempts to compose .any thing in MaharSstri or Sauraseni the idoms of the sacred speech Ardhamagadhl fell upon it. This is perhaps the reason for the origin of Msharastr!
Jains.
latter
The
and Saurasani saturated with ArdhamSgadhi features. But the influence of the Ardha-msgadhi upon Mahara?trs and Sauraseni does not surely entitle the latter to become completely transformed with the change of the basic
features. This influence of
Ardha-msgadhi fell upon Hemacandra too and made his conception of MahSrastri to a certain extent different from that of the authors of the profane Prakrit literature.
The Apabhrarhsa
Prakrit. It
is
dialect
stated
to be
poses a great problem to the students of the last phase of Prakrit, although traces of
texts like
Mahavastu, Lalitavistara, the Prakrit Dhammapada and others. The features are to be noted in Kalidasa too and the Mrcchakatika bears unmistakeable evidence of its occurrence. Scholars have not
Apabhra^a
as the
given any problem, but it requires serious investigation conception of the evolution of Indo-Aryan depends much it.
upon
Again
the
scholars
subsequent^
presume the occurrence of an Apabhrariija speech as development of each of these Prakrits. According to this surmise
Prakrit
MHhBrSspj Prakrit
definite idea
so Sauraseni
any
speeches.
The
corresponding Maharastri ApabhrathSa, Apabhramia. But we 'do not possess about the dialectal pesuliarites of all these Apabhrarfisa
has
a Sauraseni
Magadhi Apabhrarh^a,
it,
if
it
really existed, is a
nevertheless
is
considered
the source
of certain
Maithih, Bhojapun, Bengali, Assamese and Orya. Friends there are certain tasks which are to be performed best of our care and devotion. First we critical
!
require
editions
few of which have hitherto been seriously studied. Secondly a critical edition of the Mrcchakatika is a great desideration. The book is read all over India and is very popular but unfortunately we do not possess a text that contains the variants and
the
Jains,
religious texts
of
readings.
that
the text
is
indispensible
of Prakrit, particularly the varieties of dialects, in which the Mrcchakatika is remarkably rich. Thirdly we know that the Sanskrit
linguistic scudy
Alarfiksra texts
abound in stray Prakrit stanzas, which are miserably represented in all such works. The Sanskrit scholars neglect the text of these stanzas but remain satisfied with their Sanskrit translationsthe socalled chayas.
calls for
But
a student
which
s'ully
an immediate study of these, poems. These verses should be carestudied and embodied in a collection, which will assume the
glamour
72
of the anthological work, the GathSsaptasatl. In this matter
Ghosal
one may
find
some guidance
long ago
Gentlemen
thank you
Prakrit
is is
me
so graciously.
all for the patient hearing that you have lent not surely so resourceless as it is presumed by
I
some.
What we need
consider
opportunity
to address
you
at
again
for
having
bestowed on
me
the opportunity
to lay
J
some of my
consider my
my
suggestions,
shall
inspires any my young of Prakrit and Jain culture and keep the torch
address of
mine
of
of knowledge ever
!,
ablaze,
Presidential
Speech,
(1974).
Prakrit
and
Oriental
Conference,
Kuruksetra
Paisaci
is
Gunadhya composed
the Ranayana
irrecoverably
lost;
one of the very archaic Prakrit dialects. It is in Paisaci that his great Brhatkatha which could stand in rank with
and the
Mahnbhurctta, But
literary
is
no other
and we have
to depend mainly
described the language fairly of its peculair and independent nature, Paiasci has been considered as the fourth language besides Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabhrarhsa. Phonologically Paiacj shows closer relation with Sanskrit and Pali. Often attempts are made to trace isolated characterstics of Paisaci in
1
work in PaisacI has come down to us; on grammarians like, Hemacandra who has well in his Siddhahema Sabdanusasana. Because
one language or the other. An attempt is made to detect Dravidian affinities in the so called PaisSci language of the North West, on the ground that Paisaci was connected wilh the Dravidian group of languages. 2 Moreover scholars like Prof. Muliya Tirnmappayya 3 and Dr. V. R. Umarji 4 have tried
to prove that the
Kannada language
originated
one.
.1
to examine, in this paper, this theory of the Paisaci origin of the Kannada language and also present a few observations on the same.
Propose
Prof. Muliya Timmappayya's line of thought regarding the theory of the Paisaci origin of the Kar.nada language 5 can be summarised as follows: (/) Pampa in his Vikmmurjuna Vijaya (941 A. D.) stales:
Amalayscalahimagiri
Simavanitala(ke) Behgimandaladol ce
l
fvsgame tahagadondur
}\
(40,
A. XIV)
Paper presented at the 28 th Session of the AH India Oriental Conference (Prakrit and Jainism Scetion) held at the Karnatak University, Dharwar, in November, 1976. Vide R. Pischel, Comparative Grammar of the Prakrit Languages, English Tr. by Subhadra Jha, Varanasi 1957, p. 30. Sir Asittosh (i) The Dravidian Affinites of the Paisaci Languages, by K. A. Row,
'
III,
Vide Paisaci
4
5
Nadoja Pampa, Mangalorc 1938, Ch. IV Kerigimapdala, pp. 85-127. Kannada Language : Its Origin and Development, Dharwar 1969,' Ch. Presented Op. cit.
10
74
R. K.
Khadabadi
n
ta
<
countty of
occurin
this
admixture of the
less
some comparative
Ch. IV
'
r
r
v
-
material in e ac
t "^
^'
heory
'
Ph Ph
! nol
Ch V
"
^ HI
Ori81 n
'
He
presents
Vocabulary.
coroUafy
ConclMion '
'- rtatonicnt
original* a
Pa/
some
of
etcinh ,
.. i.e.,
etc..
referred
to as
Bid Smi region inKarnat.k. Hence the ancient Karnatak k was Pai Jcr froni w fa
flourished
itl
hascome
'
the
fhe
'
(il f)
Thu
incolade^a,
called
fir^adcia. The
or the
,
(rakr n
S
Was also
Drsvida Apabhra
"
P ken
!
his
]anguage VJZ over Pteade,. can be a and the Vedic beklnfta *<sode and the
was.
*A
rwno&l
J^
Southward march
^^^' ^
(It
in his
n the
f
."
(v)
More
Tf
or'
"
On
the
Now comming to Prof. Timmappayya, t would present the following observations on his line of thought: (i) Pampa's statement on the Vefligimandala is beset with a vague purport and its interpretation by the learned author appears as a forced one. We do not understand why Pampa should
bring before
his
mind the
Moreover if the Vengimandala^ according to spread over the major part of Bharata, it would mean that the bulk of the Indian Sub continent was occupied by Pi&acas or the bulk of it was divided into Paisaci speaking provinces, to show which we have
Pampa, had
no evidence, (ii) Then the Vedic bekanata has been ways. The author himself tells that Apte identified
Besides bel
has
different
interpreted in different
uncivilized its semantic development: &e//ar-stupid, beings, ddsyus, bhutas, pisacas etc. The author himself proposes that bellar can be taken -to mean brave people. Hence the author's discussion on Vengi
slippery
his attempt at establishing its connection with bekanUta standing on very ground, take us nowhere, (iii) Culika Paisacj has nothing to do with Coladega. The names Culika and Cola represent rather an accidental phonetic phenomenon than hold any linguistic interrelation. It is worth noting in this context that the Culikas, Sulikas or SodikSs are a northern
and
tribe
various
mentioned along with the Kaikeyas, Bahhlcas, KSmbojas etc., in the Puranas. 8 And Dr. P. C. Bagchi, after a thorough study of this problem, has finally established that the Culikas were originally Sogdians
living to the north of the
North-Western
been a
side.
that they
moved
into India,
from the
Paisaci
variety of
North-Western
Prakrit
spoken by
etc.
is
the Sogdians. 9
(iv)
Connecting bel (pi'svca) with Belgaum and Belgola but also a wild surmise; because Bel-garna(Belgauna)
(a village with plenty of
is
bamboo
trees)
a white pond). Similarly Bellary, Bangalore who know the history of these names, (v)
less
admixture of the
Aryan
linguistic
We
most akin to
(i)
Vide
StHcliex in the
India, Dr.
D. C.
Sircar,
Delhi 1960,
(ii)
p.
26.
Vide also
Series
3,
A Concordance of Parana
Hoshiyarpur
1952, p. 29.
Yashapal Tandori, V. Iv
(/)
(//)
Vide Journal of the Department of Letters, Vol. XXI. Vide Dr. D. C. Sircar, Op. eit., p. 26.
(//'/)
clt.
10
p. 30.
R. K. Khadabadi
Now
coming
to
Dr. Umarji,
would present
Instead of devoting the major portion of his small treatise e., six out of seven Chapters, to trying to establish the Sanskritic origin of the Kannada language, the learned author should have clone so to prove directly thePaisSd origin of the same, After this treatise came out, it mny be noted, this theory ol -the Sanskritic origin of Kannada and other So-.rh Indian
i
Languages was
not
Ranna's poetic expression in ofhhGadnyuddhap. 982 A.D.) cannot b: taken in the grammarian's sense. Here navabhutablmeyhh would mean in the new language of the goblins' moving on the battle field where the Mahabhvaia was ended with success for the Pandavas, It cannot be taken as Kannada. We should not
(i)
'
flhatt."
earher
verse
(IV. 39).
Guriadhya
j ust to
tabhasa as against Gunsdhya's (old) bhutablmn which term for Pai^ac, was used by scholars like Danclin and
expressions navarakia and navavcda in the He mentions in the versa (IV. 41) the name of heighten,the effect of his poetic expression viz. navabh-u-
across
language either
Vagbhata". Moreover we do not come anywhere the usage of navabhutabhasa in the sense of Kannada in the above discussed context or otherwise,
(ii)
We
need not
a favourable
R^ay ana to cut out accorded by other dependable evidences -linguistic, geographical, historical etc. We should note that .here
,
is
renCe in the
Lt
th that the
indicates
The
legend of the
more
has
ap.peal.ng with
come down
the
H,ndu
Kalhana,
does not
the Buddhist literature correspond to the Pifecas of legends, c a nna ba ,, sm being a common
,
Nagas and Pi^cas, preserved in the Purana, is much its geographical and linguistic background. That Pefevar froni Pi^capura is much convincing with similar background Cetf in different ^itions and V
Wwta
Yakws
h,s
in
Rnjatarangini
(I.
184), equates
K^bojas
eaters of
to
b?
etc.
raw
Yaksas and Pisaca Aryans and they are menti The word P ltac a is derived from
several
^
a
flesh).
There are
ancient cannibahsm
traditions
,
one of the
ancestress
11
12
Pischcl notes
^^^^^^
ofheandbalP
tli-'s
^w.ves
dha v
named
w
'
the
'
cit,,
p. 29,
13
Vide CPC,
p. 51.
ihe
foot of the
Hinduku.hu
1
'
the
convincing geographical and linguistic there were some <-'y cannibal tn he neighbourhood of the mndufcush.
or ptiacas and built colonies there their ^us the origin,, home of " ^ai^has region of i ndia
cannibals,
with
'
'
^/^
.
f/ ^
****
ilKiiCate
(1 '
""
&
nt
*'"
in the
moved
oTe he
'
(iii)
been
already
That shown
the
"'^
North-Wesern
W/th
by Bharata or the
'
'
f,
Vra
;ilumerate eleven Pi
tradil ,
OM
ve;ses
-and
literary figures
-~
f
narratore
stories, religious
mcn
(i)
tha
thatNos.
times under
discussion of this fact
;
dlffere
re
/D
,
Tc?
dlffereilt twritwta1
'
-'"
"
Ca
''
Op,
prescnts an
cit.,
pp
155!, 59'
w'wcsting
a..
S. K, Khadabadi
Moreover
there
is
It is
interesting to
know
Pracya, Saurasem, languages enumerated by Bharata viz., Magadhi. AvantijS, under the sub-dialecis Ardhamsgadhi, BahhkS and Daksinatya are brought 1 8 This phenomenon Canda in his grammar. and Paijsei of
Magadhi
by
may
above.
of Paisaci given be noted in comparison with the various sub-dialects Moreover we have no idea of the context as well as the authority be and Laks.mldh.ara, which ccukl of the .quotations, left by MSrkandeya bora ot of the nature of the traditionl fiftysix Indian daughter languages
others. 19 the three and a half mother languages, as slated by Nagavarma and and tne That there is no agreement between the eleven Paisaci sub-dialects doubts creates regarding eleven Paisaci speaking regions or provinces, itself Beside tome the genuineness of the linguistic or g ographical classification. of very minor points. sub-dialecis are noted on the ground of difference
RamaSarman,
disapproves
of such
trend
-because
it
would be
just
like
311
"differentiating
that of sugar.'
of origininale from a sub-dialect, a x In these circumstances we cannot as from three and a half languages ? subtake one or two particular grammarian's enumeration of the Paisaci of dialects for the purpose of establishing the theory of the Paisaci origin
Paisaci as well
the Kano&da
histoiical language and that too ignoring the geographical, It has already been observed above that Pampa's to us not identify Karnatak htlp vengimandala or the Vedic bekanata do with the'Pisaca country, (v) And lastly, vye do not understand how the
and
the
southward march of
Rama,
described
in \\K Rnirnyana, go to establish the Paisaci origin of the Kannada language. On the other hand, the reference of the Mahabharaia to the country of
Kasyapa-Krodhava s a legend or the legend of Kapisa noted by Grierson, are much more appealing with nheir present day geographical back-ground and linguistic conditions.
,
viz, literary
evidsnce (Puranic,
or and partiepic or modern), etymologiging words like bel, vehgi bekanal^ cular grammarians classifications of the sub-dialects oi Paisaci, give us to say that the kannada language originated from the PaisSci one.
any scope
18.
For further
details
on
Paia-Sadda-Maha,,t;ao,
19
20
For my paper, Nf.gavarma and Three and a half Languages, Journal of Karnatak University (Hum), Vol. XIX. Indica 278 Prakrta-Kalpatant (III, 3. 13). Ed, Dr. Manrnohan Ghosh, Bibliotliica
details vide
Calcutta 1954.
21'
is
a product of thr^e
Op.
cit.,
87-88.
the
(hc
Kannada words
">
II
for such as
etc.
as to have
e"
T"
"^
*"'
* ftw
been derived
th
a, So
Grierson,
who devoted
g
legacy,
fen*
n
"dian
m Jor
languages,
its
delects and
"""^
brother>
f>
t0
T" thought to
,
PaiSacr,
its
sub-
languages
vi z
"*
K1 1
SUldy
f the North -
acteristics".
a*
as to
aJJ
their peculiar
nans
like
but that opens L/padhye has suggested^ fairJv problem of the appearance of the socalled Pa P-ns of India ; "It may be
Mark a n deya
"
j
<
Pifttea8
outwcaqu
ha
^^ rrJ ^^
n
mr,
there
.'
'
with
,'
may
f
t^
f
here "- SS
'
Iution to
''"
s(a ted
original
)e
home of
_..
the
,h
travelled in different
T^ ""
*
* is
KaiJceya
23
24
Op.
Op.
cif.,
cit.,
cit.,
Intro, p. 3
Intro, p.
p.
25
26
Op.
190.
LQC. C jt,
K
to
K. Khadabadi
The
facts
dial
W
come down
to
us.
At
this juncture a
come
to
ktamalla
That such change could b, spontan(j>c); RScaa.yakaO c) But the community, cannot be denied. eo, S on the tongue of someKannada a Pa,sact feature foot a Pah (sn> M) does contain Kiaflanna name peculiar
,
my mind
Racappa
(j?>c),
or Magedhjone.
97
38
consonant
into
Change of
(rt
a voiced
is
a voiceless one.
of the palatal nasal conjunct
28
S) D
P.iOti of the Praknt grammanans after being literary language winch .'was probably the early Middle Indo-Aryan the name Pah m of Buddhism, later received cultivated by the Southern Schools 207-208 Institute, Voi XI. 3, pp. Oriental the of Journal Ceylon" the Kannada Language. was little scope for Magadhi to influence (iii) There
In
which too
found
this feature
Sukumar Sen
'
Bhatta Nayaka's views on rasa-realisation have been presented to us by Abhinavagupta in his Abhinavabharati and also in his Locana on the Dhvanyaloka. This makes it amply clear that Bhatta Nayaka flourished
nuich earlier than Abhinavagupta. But it is seen from the views presented that Bhatta Nayaka has criticised the theory of 'abhivyakti' of rasa. This could be with reference to the views expressed by Anandavardhana and also
such other unknown writers who accepted the rasa-dhvani-vyanjann theory. Later writers such as a Mammata, Hemacandra and others have obviously
taken up the clue from Abhinavagupta and -have also presented Bhatta Nayaka's views in an absolutely identical way. It is quite possible that -they might have also obtained the original writing of Bhatta Nayaka and mighthave duely varified Abhinavagupta's presentation, to their satisfaction. It
is welknown tbat Bhatta Nayaka was a die-hard opponent of the theory of vyaKjana and that for that very purpose; viz. dhvani'dhvamsa or demolition of the theory of dhvani, he had written a polemic called the'Hrdayadarpa/ta', which unfortunately is lost to us for the time being. It should be noted,, however, that he commands respect even from Abhinavagupta who accepts
' '
it could be safely stated that on account of the shown to Bhatta Nayaka by Abhinavagupta, the presenta--
the former by
the latter
must be absolutely
faithful
and reliable.
1
Bhatta Nayaka's views with reference to rasa-realisation are known as bhuktivnda '. We will not concern ourselves with this in this small article.
article
is simply to draw the attention of the scholars to Bhatta Nayaka understands rassbhivyakti and how he to his own understanding of 'abhivyakti'. My
according
is
'
humble plea
that Bhatta
Nayaka has
'
abhivyakti
as
this
failed to grasp the exact connotaimagined by the followers of dhvani, who term, which is a shade different from the
as
qpiwcEns
WT
vfftvft,
$&*&, *<\$i&m
*w<3$&
ff
T. S. Nandi
fFfll
OT^^
i
serai'
(P. 10
(
Gnoli')
" Rasa is neither : perceived, nor produced, were perceived by the spectator as really present hi himself, in the pathetic Rasa he would necessarily experience pain. Again such a perception does not stand to reason, because Sfta etc., does not play the role of a determinant (as regards the spectator); because no
Again, Bhatt
Nayaka says
if it
memory
cannot
of his own belbved one does arise in the spectator's consciousness [while he looks at Sits ]; because f the representation of
]
deities,
etc.,
extraordinary undertakings,
Not
as
it
simply
the
memory
supposed
of
Rama,
has had
he
is
even
if
it
is
that
perceived through verbal testimony, inference, etc., logically there cannot be any occurrence of rasa in the audience-just as it is not aroused by a thing perceived through direct knowledge. For on the of a
appearance
supposed is perceived as present in a third party, the spectator should be ia a state of indifference. Therefore it js not possible to suppose that Rasa can be perceived -whether this perception be a form of direct experience or of memory. The same errors
that Rasa is produced If it is preexists in a potential form (saktirupatvena) and ater raanifesfed then a determioants mus t f necessari.y it | Me bv blfle. Besses, the difficulties already encountered would recur :
of lovers united together, the mind of anyone present rather becomes the prey of conflicting feelings ( shame, disgust, envy, and so on ); and we surely cannot say that the onlooker in such a scene is in a state of Rasa Jf, on the otter hand, it is that Kasa
\
pair
imputed
to
the thesis
which
may
be
maintains
supposed that
Ran
first
illume
iRata manifested
as
really present
thesis
is
in
our
,
own
;
self
or
flurd party?
as present in a
as fol ows)
mana) by a special power assumed by words hi poetry and drama, the power of revelation (bhnvana)to be distinguished from power of denotation
consisting of the action of generalising the determinants, etc. This power has the faculty of suppressing the thick layer of mental stupor (moha) occupying our own consciousness in poetry it is characterised by the absence of defects and the presence of qualities ( guna) and ( dosa) ornaments (alamksra); in drama by the four kinds of representation. Rasa, revealed by this power, is then with a kind of
(abhidha)
enjoyed
enjoyment
(bhoga),
different
from
direct experience,
memory, etc. This enjoyment, by virtue of between sattva and rajah and tamah, is coriof fluidity, enlargement and expansion, is characterised
sattva, is
by a resting on one's own consciousness, which due to emergent state of pervaded by beatitude and light; and is similar to the tasting of the supreme brahman.") Translation Gnoli, p. 43-48 In his Locana Abhinavagupta has not quoted Bhatta Nayaka's views
:
Ksvyapraks^a presents the bhuktivnda in conformation with Abhinavagupta's presentation. (vids, Kavyapra., p. 90, Jhalkikar's Edn. 21 ). However, Mammata does not give the words But his commentators try to explain the words \<?' fcfftw.
J
:
elaborately.
Mammata,
in his
q%' in a similar
l
way
|.
Ifffls'-is^
r,
sqr-jtfpn
aq^sqicqji
fej^q
f^WiJ. (See Jhalkikar, ibid., p. 91). This amounts we accept 'rasabhivyakti' through vyanjana, then we have to accept the prior existence-'/?i7rva,swW/zatva'-of rasa, for only that which is ' ' or purvasiddha or having prior existence can be said to be abhivyakta manifested. Sridhara on the K. P. takes note of the same idea with reference
I
ffi
to saying that if
to Bhatta
3?fqs?}j%;
gvj:
f^gm^% ^ifq^ft
i
^f?i^j^f$j.
,K. P.
Kvgq^T
Edn. with
..... 3jf*r^f^Fi%
sfhft's
f^^i^i^Ri^ W^?^M?:
Calcutta.
)
(p. 68,
comon.
'56,
It
Samketa
writes
^T^f^s^q^
(vide, $H3,
p,
46,
Ananda^rama Edn.
it
'21
).
Bhatta Nayaka
opposes the
'abhivyaltti' ofrasj, he takes for granted the possibility of the 'purvasiddhatva' of rasa, in one way or the other. Somesvara also has a similar remark:
i
jfrfaiNssr
p.
1%
>zmtw
y/'
(vide.
44,
Rajasthan
S
Pradeep also
says: 3
p.
)
66, N.
lidn.
'33
).
Hemacandra
'34, Prof.
Parikh
S4
In view of the above citations
rejects the 'abivyaktr
T. S. Nandi
it could be gathered that Bliatta Nayaka of rasa on the ground of. its not being 'purvasiddha'. become ' abhivyaktd or manifested, e.g.
1
jar
can be
cannot
manifested by light. But if the jar is totally absent, it be revealed or manifested with (he help of light. Again, holds
if rasa pre-exists
in
form of stlmyin
i.e.
saktisvar upend,
there will be the contingency of recognising- gradation in its manifestation owing to gradation in the revealing agents viz, the vibhavadis. This objection of Bhatta Nayaka is explained very clearly by Gnoli in his ft. note no. 1, on p, 45, wherein he writes This objection repeats, mutatis mutandis, the objection of the Buddhists and of the MTmamsakas
:'
against- the
(vaiyskaranas),
letters
concept which, according to the grammarians is a vocaiity, eternal and without parts, distinct from the these. This eternal vocaiity causes the
:
of sphota,
is sphota manifested (a) sphoia is manifested which come after are unnecessary. 'in other words, the first letter would be capable of rendering perceptible, the meaning of the whole word, (b) If sphota is manifested gradually, then it could no longer be without parts. This second alternative is, therefore in contradiction .to the very nature of sphota. The same reasoning is applied by Bhat<a JNa-yaka to.,Ka and to. the words by which it is manifested. "
entirely
cognition of the meaning. This objection is as follows by the first letter of a word or not ? If
its
.h-.Now.we have to think whether there is any loose link in Bhatta .Nayaka's understanding of 'rasabhivyakti' as imagined by the exponents of the tasa-dhvani-vyanjana theory.
;
As made amply
.
clear
earlier,
Bhatta
Nayaka seems
to accept
two
alternatives with
.later
.any of the
;bemg
logic
presented
Now it. is a fact that redoes not 'preexist two ways. For, we do not experience rasa prior to the play on the stage. So far, Bhatta is
Nayaka
very
right
and
But
but
m
''
his
Jt
is
very understanding
a fact that
lies,
not in his
imagined by
the
their
"
Xnandavardhana -himself has suggested that plea for vyanjam on the basis of the
But there
is
T marians
a very
subtle difference
also
make
a secret of it either
formally of the sphotavada could be safely utilized in the refutation ot'abhivyakt? And Bhatta NSyaka does as such.
not so easy as
is
forth by the
Mnnnpaakas
in refutation
BJiatta
Nayaka's Blunder
85
to
vardhana seeks support from sphotwda But for that it does not
follow
that
theory.
is
the
of
rasa-realisation
On
the
may
is
a fundamental
reference to .he
an extent.
identical in
process of
jnaa.feBtation to be exactly
purmnddha'
between
But that does not make the things manifested nature. For example, sphota is taken to be
existence, while
or having
prior
rasa
is
'rastbhivyakti'
and
sphofrthhyakti'
may be
hus far and no further. The Alarpksrikas and the manifestation^ the
But
On
process to be 'abhivyaktr, simply because (hey can certainly not either 'u<pat ti> or ' praat f or Van*,///.' 'Abhivyaktr is a
safer ten,.
But even
comparatively
this
this
all
is
not
perfect.
And
is
to
bring
home
call
idea
prepared to
It
way
may
sphota manifested, so is rasa suggested. both viz. sphota and rasa cannot be taken as alike. Bhatta Nayaka seems take abhivyaktr only in its philosophic (dirtanlka) connotation which o. course, was an accepted connotation of the
to
accepted
th,s
term
simply
because
they found
i.e.
to
be
a lesser evil as
vlbhavacUjmtuvadhi It exists neither prior to nor aftor the existence of the vibhavndt*. In this way its nature is different from the nature of the of sphota the grammarians which is supposed to be beginningless and endless.
to 'utpattr or <anumiti', or 'promt* ' is only < tatkalika em', and also.
direct perception.
'
Rasa
Truely speaking, the Dhvanivadins are very clever. They seek the support of the grammarians who are '* f f fafo, for them> on]y to extem Qf even do not They hasitate to mock at them at times because faprtha is something which is not apprehended by the knowledge of grammar alone-' ' sabdarlhasasanajnnnamairena cva vedyate etc.
So,
tries
on an extremely slippery ground. He commits a greats blunder when he takes the 'abhivyaktr of the Dhanivsdins to be. the same as the of the grammarians or the 'abhivyaktr
philosopher.
.
that he travels
rasa
is
<
alauktka'
problem
it
viz. if
rasa
is
he 7 Bhatta
-i
"I
serp^ro-^fft
^
sft
li.
nfjaia
^ra
f* afei
^urcscta
ih ^qror
3flm^t
flii'uft
I^Giqf'TiT
^'
c af?J irf^ct
ai^
^
I
^T'-'-ff
i
fair
VT
ft 1^1
87
**rcfe*
a. aw.
f_,ft
^^ f^
,,
*ft
ta,
fa*,
*T
^ qN **
wJT ^l^T
^n;
it
f
f
*K
ftwr
i|.
1W _^
|,
,i,-^ lf
^^^ ^ ^ ^ ^
.
H.
gai,
a.
fq
-
^ %|
itftfinpER, g^f,
fifw smfira
qt |,
ST.
gft
Ed. Dr. Satya Ranjan Banarjee, Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar, Calcutta-700 006, 1975 A.D., Rs. 15/-.
Pub.
by Narayana VidySvinoda. The learned editor has written an Introduction dialing with and various commentaries of his grammar.
This text
is
critically
edited
with
new commentary
Bhagvan Mahavira and his relevance in Modern Times, Edited by Dr. Narendra Bhanavat and Dr. Prem Suman Jain, Pub. Akhil Bharatavarshiya Sadhumargi Jain Sangh, Bikaner, 1976, Rs. 25/-.
In this
volume various
aspects of
Mahavira's
life
and
teachings are
discussed by
many scholars including Dr. P. C. Vaidya, Dr. A. N. Upadhye, Dr. Tatia, Dr. Kalghatgi, Dr. Sikdar, Dr. Sogani and others.
Wft
OTftfal
'
fwr,
PADMASUNOARA'S JNANACANDRODAYANATAKA
Ed. Nagin J. Shah
The
present edition of
the
Jnanacandrodayanataka,
the
work hitherto
unpublished,
the paper ms. belonging to the is prepared on the basis of SSgaragaccha Jaina BhandSra preserved in the Hemacandrscarya JflitiaNo. 7382. Its size is 30 cms x 12 cms. rr.andir, Patan. The ms. bears the It consist of 24 folios. Each folio has 12 lines -per side and 45 letters per
The script is good. There is no cobphon at the end. But there occurs the name of the scribe at the end. His name was Megha. (Meghalikhitam.)
line.
The
ins.
is
copied in
is
c.
1700 V.
S.
It
is
in
good condition.
But in the
last verse
The work
author
calls it
entitled Jnanarandradayantitaka.
the
vyayoga.
It
is
divided
into
Five Acts
remarks
'pravijati'
and
'niskranta' to
m;irk the
We
that Bandha (Bondage) etc. particular topic. Though the author suggests are characters, he has not personified them. There is no dialogue. So, this
-work
is
not a drama. It
is
It
simply a work on Jaina philosophy exclusively consists of 398' verses. The author has employe 1
various metres.
The author of the present work is Padmasundara. In the last verse us that Padmasundara, a occurring at ths end of the work the author tells of Anandameru, has composed pupil of Padmameru who again is a pupil
in this line after Jnanacandrodaya Vyayoga. Harsakirti who flourished Padmasundara informs us that Pad ma sun data was. honoured by tmperor Akbar just as Anandarya (=Anandameru) had been honoured by Emperors that Babar an Himayu. In his D'intu"ir<n?inl Harsakirti further tells us he defeated Padmasundara was honoured by vttladeva of Jodhpur and that a Pundit at ths court of Empsror Akbar. When in 1582 A.D. Hiravijayasnri more and his books lying visited Akbar's court Padmasundara was no who established a with Prince Salim were handed over to Hiravijayasuri was a Bhandara with them at Agra. It is beyond doubt that Padmasuniara on Rayyaiastra), work (a great scholar. He wrote Akabara'snh\'srhgnradarpana 2 work on Astrology), Pramanasundara (a work on Logic;,
I
Published in Cans a Oriental Ssries, Bikaner. No. 41. Included in Jaina Philosophical Tracts published in L. D. Series,
Nagin
In
J.
Shi,li
the seventeenth
century of
Vikmma Era
there
flourished a great
Digambara personality, BanlrasTdasa who was transformed into a saint-poet touched his heart. He
several
He composed
in the
words.
earlier
1 .
Kundakunda's Samayasnra in ideas and expressions as well. Though he was a Svetambara monk, he studied Kundakunda's works and Amrtacandra's commentaries thereon InPadmasundara we find another
Svetambara
He
closely followed
monk contemporary
of Bansrasidssa, who was very much philosophy of Kundakunda. Thus we have two
works
in
the
Svetambara
circles in the Middle Ages. In our own days, Shrimad Rajacandra, Svetambara by birth, turned out to be a true follower of the mystic philosophy of Kundakunda. His severe penances coupled with ascetic wisdom point to the fact that he had certainly realised the ideal which
Kundakunda
As we have already stated, Padmasundara was influenced by the works of Kundakunda. In away, the Jfianacandrodayanataka embodies the essence of the philosophy contained in Kundakunda's works. Throughout the workverses are
he closely follows Kundakunda and his commentator Amrtacandra. Some almost identical, with the gsthss and slokas from ^expressions, the Pravacanasara and the AtmakhyStitika on the Samayasara. At
many
the
places
he
has
versified
the
passages
of
the
Tattvadipikatika
on
Pravacanasara.
Ha
has
bodily
from the
works of
all
down
the
verses that strike comparison with the verses and passages from the works of Kundakunda and Amrtacandra. Sortie instances are given below
Jnanacandrodaya
Jttonacandrodaya
Atmakhynti
1.
Published
in
's
Jnatiacanjrodayatilajka
Jnanac -indrodaya
sfsi
2(i
fra
.^, 3
^U
JnZnacandrodaya
fjriHsi
fl
i3|fl? sig
II
\9-
..(3
i)
how PadmasimcUra
digested
Nagin
J.
Shah
a'.
a??.
%.
e'.
q'.
T*T:
it
\\;-\\
fa
||?Q||
ff
*Tft
IRMI
*rcmc<nszr
jff:
J.3<il
tf?
||
g 8 1|
t%
II?
||
13
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ikil
||?
H?<;||
IK ^H
?f:
IK 9
1)
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%(
IK
||
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Mr
fttf
f|
U
q?tn
IR?i
IRS
II
II
^T^qftt
^flfcf
1 1
II
all
li
mi
<Tcf:
II
|Ro||
f|
\\\o\\
re
goftsRcr
1 1
^^
1 1
wr:
||
311
n<;|i
3
=?
KS
3ft
Slffe
I:
gg;
IK $11
\\tt\\
1 1
Mr
|l?'ov9||
|icr
fifsf:
%grwtenrRr IRIS
aarr
1 1
1 1
-r
ft
pr
gofr
Mi
sat
Ro||
f%
clef:
IK Ml
5^
*r
era
fxq
JT%J
If^:
||
9;
it
vs
.
STARTS!
ff ?R;
j^qnirq
3333^*5^
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??r
*ratsgrf*Rr
mftfNg[
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HU!I
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srfofit
asfcr
TFKR:
(go
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3S%
f|
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I
I.
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f?!fmTr
w:
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dti
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erg:
4l<rj
(\3vs3).
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(\5V9V9).
11=0 J.
(\3<1M).
.
(13^0-
cl-il
'oiC-U
HIM,
6lfl,
oy
cRISte
^R
3TFia?t
RiVll
cfl,
si!
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19
Statement about ownership and other particulars about Sambodhi, the Quarterly Journal of L. D. Institute ofladology, Ahmedabad, to be published in the fir.it issue every year after the last day of March.
Form IV
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H. C. Bhayani J. Shah
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nt
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iollowlng four
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.5tt'
Director,
D. Institute of Indolbgy
%ayamf\jari (AhniJb, I) with Gujarat! translation, edited and translated by Br Nagin J, Shah, pp. 4 * 144.
Atonements in the Ancient Ritual of the Jairta by Dr. Colette CaHlat, pp. 8 + 210. '(1975)
49,
Monks
Rs Ra
50,
the
Rgveda Interpretation by
51,
KJ
XU.
by It A,
53, Jayavatt&wri's
'
%idattirk^
(bid' Gtijarati
Kavya) Edited
Edited
Rt,
w/t^niJu!^^flKfi^ui^^
."''
__
'
'
'
'
'
by
|C,
Tukol. (1970)
Edited 'fey
Dr.
Kg.
41
;0t<
Attcln
,
usic ,and
,',
,'
Dance by
'
Ma
%' jDr,
Pt.
Sialj*
Saaghavi, (1977),
' '
-
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(QUARTERLY)
"'
.
"
''
VOL
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NdS; '3-4
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CONTENTS
The Story of Bharata and Bshuball
Dalsukhbhat D* MaSvanla
Jaiiia
Nagla
Tkee 'QucstionV
;-
'>
'Agatsya
'.--' 'i>;..^
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1904-1978
Introductory
The
in
colossal Bahuball
is
South India
(Gomatesvara (983 A. D,)) at Sravana B< Igula one the wonders of the world. Generally the Jainas
worship the idols of Tirthaftkaras but the worship of Bahuball is an exception. Though Bahuball is not a Tirthankara he is not only worshiped but also gets an abhi$eka with grand celebrations just like Kumbha celebrations at Praysga, after each period of twelve years. In South India there are
many
idols of Bahuball but in the North India idols of Bahuball are rare.
able to
Though he was
reason of
conquer the Cakravarti Bharata in his physical and became an ascetic. This may be the
is worshipped by the Hindus as Maryada Purusottama, (comp. Tata bhaqati B'shuball -jai tumam loguttamasuo kounam wajj&yamatikkamasi pihujarje kn ganatfi 1 VH.p. 187) who as the greatest hero established the limits of morality and propriety. So is .Bahuball for the Jainas in establishing the fact that to conquer the physical world or the
Rama
Cakravait I, the conqueror of the physical world, is not should conquer his spiritual world, his pride, the inner
aouli. Other
enough.
vices
One
his
and
When
and
Bharata asked
important point also may be mentioned for his worship. him to surrender his kingdom or have a battle
for
a duel
so as to avoid
the
horrors
of
violence
killings of the
innocent
people and
destruction
of the
manner he was
the pioneer
to establish
's
the
theory of
no-war
Jainas Bahuball
father
Rsabha
was and
the first Tirthankara, his elder brother Bharata was the first Cakravarti in the same manner Bahuball was the first man to establish no-war
this world,
policy in
no surprize
if
he
is
given
The
first
colossal statue
was established by
Paris in 1977
*
1.
Paper read
at the
Mottum
For
kasayajujjbam
inhirn/Parisahabha4ehi
samayam
Art and
K. R.
.Srinivasan,
Aspectes
of
Jattta
-4
Dalsukhbhai D. Malvania
(983 A. D.) and
it
Camundaraya
were erected.
seems
that
thereafter
many
such idols
The
which
it
is
found
first in
Ravi-
main source
is
the Prakrit
Padhamanuyoga 3 from
etc.
are
JambGdvipaprajnapti, Vasudevahindi, Avasyaka Niryukti, Visesavasyafcabhasya, Avasyakacurni, Cauppannamahapurisa cariya of Silarika etc.-and
Hemacandra's Trisalisalakapurusacarita in Sanskrit and many such other works in Prakrit and Sanskrit. The commentaries on Avasyaka-Niryukti by Haribhadra and Malayagiri though in Sanskrit narrates this in
story,
,
its
source
is
II Vasudevahindi (pp.
It will
157-188) (VH)
first,
so that
it
will
be easy
to understand
development. And as the version of the story found in in catch words, St will be better if we AVasyakanirjukti give the version from Vasudevhindf which is generally followed by others.
The form
is
found
in
VasudevaWudi
may
be summarized thus
Rsabha was
wife.
Nabbl the 7th Kulakara and Marudeyi (pp, and behaved like husband and
gave birth to twin Bharata and Brahmi, a son and a daughter, and she also gave birth to 49 other twins of sons. j. e. 98 sons (p.162); married to Sunands who gays birth to Bahubals and Rsabha Further,
Sum aAgala
Suhdari (p. 162). So Rsabha had 100 sons, and two daughters. Rsabha at the request of the people became the sovereign king and ruled the KosaJa
Janapada from its capital city Vin it S (p. 162), Rsabha taught script to Brahmi with his right hand and taught mathematics to Suadan through his left hand. Bharata was taught Rupa while BahubaJi was taught pain,.
3.
Muni
Punyavijayji'a
article
on
Padhamanuyoga, in
Acharya
49-56
VijayavallabhasKn
;
SmSrakagrantha, Mahavlra Jaina Vidyalaya. Bombay, pp. Vi. 1688, 1669; nttmavalinibaddham PC. 1. 8. ;
4.
-.
AN,
250, 231
Theory of
twins (juyalaga] is accepted by JP. p, 549, Susamastisama there were no viva/ia; (marriages etc.),
and
it
is
p. 548.
So
is
the
case with
susama also p.550, about Susamadusama text is not clear, because Marudeva is said to birth to Rsabha but Sumangala is not mentioned, p. 551. According to VH also we do not find mention that Marudevi gave birth to SumangalS but as brith of twins is continued in the times of Rsabha also according to VU, we can conclude that Rsabha and Sumangala were twins, VS. p. 161,
have given
The
t!ng
story of Bharata
and Bfthubatt
(cittakamma) and palmistry (lakkhanatn), [( was for the first time that Rsabha taught arts .a ad crafts to the people at large fp, 163j. At the tims
of
his
Kaccha and
kingdom amongst Bharata and Mahakaccha along with other 4000 kings
abha.
(p.
163).
When Rsabha was roaming as an ascetic two princes namely Nam! and Vinarnl, who were absent when Rsabha distributed his kingdom at the
time of his renunciation, associated and helped him in various manner. Dharana Nagarsya, when he came to know that their object was to some portion of the land, taught them maharohini and other
achieve
vidyas and
how
the
asked Vinarni to establish his kingdom at Vaitadhya in the to form his kingdom at Vaitadhya in the South. This is kingdom of Vidyadharas was established (p. 163 J.
his
Rsabha, after
got the
first
an
ascetic,
Hastinspura.
omniscient,
(p.
164)
Rsabhasen the
all
son
of Bharata
the
Brahm!
'?
:
On
the
the jewels,
same day when Rsabha became an omniscient Bharata Cakra etc, Bharata came out to worship Rsabha (p. 183).
got
him
as
a Cakra.
They took advice of Rsabha and became monks (p.'186). Thereafter was the turn of Bahubali. Data was sent to him by Bharata asking him
the
proposal.
his army went to Taksasils, Bahubali came out of the city and met Bharata. It was settled that only they two should fight 6 without army or arms. When Bharata was conquered by Bahubali in all types of
Bharata with
seeing
physical fights, he was ready to use his Cakra, given by god. Stunned by like this Bahubali told Bharata that if a son of the greatest man,
(Jai
you, were not true to his words then what to think of others.
loguttamasuo
tumarji
could
(p. 187).
He
realising this
he became a monk (p. 187). Instead of going to the assembly of Rsabha, he began his meditations there only because, of his pride that how oan he
present himself before his younger brothers without obtaining
omniscience,
5.
Here Ravisena says that Potana was ths capital of BShuball an 1 further that thete was war but after that Bahubali proposed duel. PP. 4. 68 ff,
he aays
4
and because of
like a pillar for
Dals'ikhhhai
D, Mahvania
this pride
he could
mt
become an omniscient.
He stood
by the creepers called Atimuktaka, just like a tree. At the same time Rsabha reached Taksssila. Brahmi asked Rsabha regarding Bahubali's not
ob'ainirg omniscience.
called
Rsabha explained
is
that
he
is
mounted on a mountain
thinks that
way.
He
how
can
ho
bow down
his
y^ungar
brothers
this
who have
Brahmi,
achieved
their goal,
their
purpose (kayatths).
On
hearing
went
there and
gave
riding
the message
from
Rsabha
hearing
that he
this
an
elephant.
On
removed pride,
187-8),
of Cakravarti Bharata 6 by the devine beauty of finger of Indra, started Indramaha festival (p. 184). Bharata also was responsible for creating the cast of Brahmins out of Jaina-laymen, (p. 184). Further he was responsi(p.186). Bharata, attracted
ble for the Xrya Vedas which were quite different depending on the preachings of Sandilya (p. 193)
from
Anarya
Vedas
The previous
birth-stories of
Rsabha
and
others
are
also
found
in
VH
pp. 165
ff.
Ill
Jarabudvipaprajnapti (JP)
Angabahya canonical texts of the Rsabha and Bharata in Us II and III chapters seems to be the earliest version because the relation of Rsabha and Bharata as father and son is nowhere mentioned. Though Brshmi anj Sundari are mentioned as prominent nuns of Rsabha's Sangha they are not mentioned as his daughters. Indeeed, it is mentioned that Rsabha taught lehviao .... to/ Bo but again no mention Is made of Brahm, and Sundrl. Further, it is mentioned that before renunciation Rsabha enthroned his 100 sons, but here also not a single narce of his son Is given. It should also be noted that Marlci
Jainas relates the stories of
respectively.
And
this
the
Rsabha
is
nowhere mentioned
grand
son
of
in this text.
no mention of
:"
0l
^
.
0?Eh
digujaya
his encounter
with
^
'
of Bharata,
lS
*
i
opposition
by
motioned
Bshubair
i
name
Aocording to Jambndvipaprajfiapti this is not the ca, e Tf ; " country of Bharava-a takes its name after he e G God d of f that t t name and evcn thii is permanent( p 592 Thj , d *'"*' " W rkinS tOWard ' mythicidng But VP (2. 1. 32) and BP (54 1? ' PPWt VH RaVi?ena (PP 4 S9 nd Jinasena (MP, 15. > a
.
159)
so suppoit
VH
'
The
story of Bharata
and Bvhubali
So
it
was
Risbha with
Bharata, Bahubaii, BrahmT, Sundan, Maricl and version of the story of Rgabba and Bharata,
new
Here
would
paper.
are
mentioned
Bharata was
the Ctturaita-cakkavatfi and was residing at Viniya i. e. Ayodhya, Once upon a time Cakkarayana was emerged in his armoury and when Bharata was informed of it he ordered for the celebration in the city for eight dajs. Then the Cakkarayana proceeded one after another towards Magahatittha, in the east, Varadamattttha in the south-west, Pabhgsatitha in the
Timisaguha
in the wesr,
and
at
all
the
places
the
presiding
deities
accepted Bharata as their sovereign. Then he ordered Susena, the commander of his army to cross the Sindhu river and establish his sovereignty over
there
in
the
west,
and other
places
and
Susena
conquered
Simhala,
Babbara, Angaloya, Balsyaloya, Javanadiva, Arabaa, Romaa, Alasandavisaya and many races of Meccha residing in Northern Vsyaddha upto the end of Sindhusggara. Then Bharata ordered Susena to opsn the southern
.doors of Timisaguha. Bharata entered the Tiraisaguha with his army
got prepared
bridges on
the river
and and
its
Timisguhs near
to fight
cilttyas
of the northern
was not
kumara-s. Only to please them these deities gave trouble to the army Bharata but at the end they surrendered and thus Bharata was able to
come the Lord of northern part of Bharata. And after conquering the land of Cullahimavantapavvaya Brjarata on tha Usahakada inscrided as follows
:
satrtni
pacchlme bhse,
Abamamsi cakkavatti Bharaho iya nSmadhijjena j Ahamamsi padhamar'ayn ahayarfi Bharahshivo naravarindo, Natthi maham padisattu jiyant mae BhGraharri vtisam // p. 581
On
finding this
the
Vidyadhara kings
of Veya-
also accepted him as Cakravarti and in token of that <Jdha mountain Vinami presented him with itthirayana and Nami with various types of the Cakkarayana goes towards GangSdevibhavana in the jewels. Then
North-east and he becomes sovereign of that part also and procures Naua-
6
niftis
Datsukhbhai D. Malvattia
and returns
to
and
celebrations
for
corona-
took turn towards Once when he was the purification of the soul and he became omniscient. So he became a monk, travelled to Atthavaya mountain, took the Sallehand and was liberated.
looking in the mirror his ideas
IV Mahabharata etc
The Mahabhsratas
;
As regards Rsabha, in the Mahabharata we find that in the assembly of the Rsis of Brahma there is one named Rsabha (II. 11, Fn. p. 57), Significant is the mention Jn the Mahabharata of the Rsabhatirtha in the
country of Kosala
(III.
83.
Jainaswas ruled by
in
named Rsabha
also
mentioned
the
Maha 1
As regards Bharata, in the Mahabharata, the story of Bharata, the son of Du?yanta and Sakuntals is found. Bharata was the (I. 62-69). This Cakravarti according to the Mahsbharata and the name of our country
Bhsratavars.a
is
Bharata
the son
of
R?abha
(I.
69. 49),
story
is
found in
the
2.
Visnu
(VP)
and
the
the
to
VP
(4.
11)
and
BP
(9,6.4)
Ifcsvaka,
who was
bom
sons
through nose
of
of
snee/ed.i
According to
VP
and grandsons
Ik?vsku were the kings of Uttarapatha and Daksinapatha (VP. 42.12-14) But BP (9.6, 5.) says that the kingdom was divided as Eastern Western' "*' (Soutlwm> amongst them In this A
'
y^y
R?abha
is'
Story of
R 5 abha
is
mentioned
in
VP.
(2.1)
sty of Svayambha Manu, who had two sons, Priyavrata's son was Agnidhara and his son devi gave birth to R 5 abha whose 100
dyn a
Bahubali
Uttaaapada and Priyavrata was Nabhi whose wife Ma ru' sons were Bharata and -others Here
is
etc.
Same
the case
with
BP
(4
and
5.)
The kingdom
B h5rataVar?a
it
the
time
of
|vp
'
ZI.^BP!
B^arata/
its
king.
it
"^*.*
(5. 9),
1 l
X;,Sr
"
'
<
VH
'
p'
""
****
3.).
The
Rsabha
is
story of Bharata
and BzhubaH
as
7
incarnation
accepted
an
of
God
as a naked ascetic.
The purpose of the Incarnation is mentioned as the Arhaddharma (Jainism) opposing the Vedas
in Vedas. The Asuras followed the Arhaddharma propounded by Rsabha and opposed the Vedas and so were
who could
not
be
conquered
by" the
BP
5. 3.17
ff).
found in both the becomes a king but due to his extreme devotion to kingdom and beiame a Parivrnjaka and resided at Pulahasrama (Hariharaksetra) and due to his attachment to a deer which was saved by him from drowning in th; river he took his next birth as a
is
The
Rsabha
also
PurSnas. Bharata
God he renounced
the
deer,
God. And
became
Brahmin who
like a
God and
nothing
else
behaved
mad,
and deaf
man (Atnmnam
;
unmatta-jada-andha-badhirasvarupeqa
jadonmattakrlitp jane VP.
last
Atnmnam dar'saynmUsa
44).
And
of
VP
is the
base
for
BP
version.
The occurrence of
the origin of Jainism
context of
the validity
of
the Vedas,
the story
from the
Jaina
sources.
Both of these Pursnas though against Jainism and Buddhism are in praising an unattached way of life and they adopt the theory of nonviolence, non-attachment and equanimity as is preached by the Jaina Tirrlhankaras. They are opposed to the Jainism and Buddhism only for their non-acceptance of the validity of the Vedas.
unanimous
tion of
There was no way but to accept Rsabha and Buddha as an incarnaGod because nothing in this world happens without the will of God
the fact that they
and
God.
find the sectarian bias of Svetsmbara and Digarabra in the story . So it is proper that before we discus! those books pregnant with bias Paumacariya of Vimala should be discussed and compared with AN as it is certainly earlier than those books and Mso it
we
Dahukhbhai D. Malvania
contains
some
of
the
peculiatties
of
both
the
Svetatnbaras
and
Paunacarlya
(3, 4,
and 29)
ths story
is
the
same as
It is
Avasyakaniryukti
(AN)
;
paumacariya mentions
Aummi
thovasese
mihunam
jantfina pavaratnyannani
//
(3.39)
is 3.
also
5l).
by
AN
(188),
Vasudevahindl
(D.
But
this is
MP.
AN
j.
e.
Vasudevahindi
clearly
mentions
Both
the
AN
and
VH
with
with
Nabhi.
Samavaysnga
it
kulakaras
(3.50-6) and
is
is
same
lineage.
Same
the
case
with
Ravijjena (PP.
also differs and says that there were 15 of 3.74-88). Jambudvipaprajnapti as the last Kulakara. Jinasena in his
and
Bharata
,
also
3.
as
Kulakaras and
ff.
2l3,-3.229-32).
is
3.
Relation of Rsabha with Bharata 119-120 but out of the two wive^
as
father
mentioned
as to
is
in
PC
case
it is
is
whose
the
AN,
Bahubali
Sumangala was
their
In
AN
Rsabha
is
PC
122)
(nilatn
vasam da((hum
3.
3.
According
to
Rayiaeaa (PP.
263)
Nilanja.
la
PC
there
no mention
of the
simultaneous
happenings
of the
attainment of Kevala by Rsabha and emergence of Cakra for Bharata. So Bharata has. not. to decide where to go first unlike the mention in 268 ff, that ha w^nt to Rsabha first with his mother, Marudevl.
AN
PC
became
ascetics
27J-77),
Ta?
re-isoa
became ascetics bat AN Rsabha and Marici and preachings of Rsabha of becoming monks for Rsabtw's sons was th.at
on
hearing
the
The
they did not
9
Cakrayart!
want
to surrender to
Bharata when
he became
(AN. 275-6.)
As regards the fight of Bharata and Bahubali PC and AN are unanimous in saying that there should be no war, only they two should flight
use of
PC. 4.43). In AN the (nndhammena jujjhe AN. 276 kini vahena logassa Cakra is due to some devatn (AN. 276) while PC directly says that 43). PP also confirms
; ;
and
it
is
4.
73)
On
be
become
the
first
Vssudeva
and Cakravartl. Hearing this Bharata goes to bow down to Marlci (ANPC. Ravtysna only mentions 304-12). Noihing is mentioned about this in but does not mention his that Marici became the head of Parivrsjakas
relation with
Bharata (PP.
3.
293).
Taksaslla
He
wanted
to worship
and this Information was given Rsabha next morning but Rsabha left
built a dharamacakra at
to
for
memory Bshubail
in Taksaslla
the
place
(AN. 260-1),
VI
The next
are sure
of the
Jainas
follows the Svetawere separated in a distinct form. Jinabhadra (609 A.D.) mbara trend and Digambara Puranas beginning with Ravisena (678 A.D.) etc (PP. 3. 123). follow the Digambara trend with regard to dreams
or the T!rthankaras As regards wearing of clothes by the ascetics that Rsabha while becoVimala's PC is clear on this point. Vimala says And when he says that left the clothes etc. (PC. 135). an ascetic ming and began to wear clothes it some of his colleagues became tnpasas to him those ascetics had no clothes when they
ascetics with
is
became
naked
maintained by
$ena (678
AD.) And
Rsabha (PC. 3. 143). This tradition of ascetics being all the Digambara Puranas beginning from Ravideny the liberation to women.
savvasahgo (4. 52) and for Bharata
he
tinamiva caiiina
(4. 75).
myavaralacekf (4.89).
PP
says
Bahaball
became
naked
But
AN
is
trend which is followed clearly following the Svetsmbara 206 says that all fte his VI
r
AN
Sambodhi
6.
1$
Tirtharikaras take
Dalsukhbhai D, Malvania
one
cloth
at
the
time
of their
"
Savve
vi
egadusena niggat^".
And about
\.
the colleages of
becoming Rsabha
ascetics-
AN
284
nTrambaras,,
i.
e.
having white clothes as well as without clothes. In order to oppose the Digambra trend
c.
of nonliberatJon of women 184 according to Haribhadra and 181 according to Malayagiri proclaim that man, woman or eunuch can have the Tirthartkarakarma. And this trend can be found inPannavana (16) also where it is stated that there can be " itthiHhgasiddhn, pirisaUngaslddhn and ndpumsakalingasiddha '', This trend is emphasised by Jinabhadra
AN
when he
mother of Rsabha
is
the
first
siddha
in
159 simply says that Marunevi was libe1631). rated " egti siddhim patftt marudevfi nnhhino pam. " But Jinasena in his
AN
MahSpurana
Bharata
(24. 181).
Removal of pride of Bahubah by the daughters of Rsabha as nuns Is accepted by VI- 1718 but Jinasena's MP (36. 186) has a diffreent story. It was removed when Bharata went to Bahubhh and worshipped Him. This
suggests that a
woman
society had no regular marriage system and that was established by Rsabha. So upto that time Mihunadhamma was prevaii.e. twins - brother and sister- were behaving like husband and wife. This was also the case with .Rsabha and his sister according to
3vetSmbara tradition. Avasyakacarni clearly mentions that Sumaticala " Rsabha's wife was his sister - ito ya bhagavam sumaiigafoe bhagjnie saddhitn
suhant suhena viharai
"
p.
152.
But according to Digambar Purarias Ravisena says Raabha's wives were Sunanda and Nanda (3. 260) but it is strange when he says-Bharata was the son of Yasasvati (20. 124). Jinasena says that Rsabha married Yasasvatl and Sunanda, both were the sisters of Kaccha and Mahakaccha (MP. 15. 69-70). Bharata and Brahmi were son and daughter of
Ya.sasvatl
was the
and Bahubali and Sundarl were of Sunanda (MP. 15.126, 16.5,7). Bfihubail first Kamadeva (MP, 16. 9). This Kaaiadeva mythology is a new conception adopted by Digambara Pursrias.
About
his
this
mihinadhamma however
who
is
later
HP
(7.
this
the 12th
Kulakara producing only one son (HP, 7 166) and not daughter!
read
Digambara Harivamsapurana of than the Jinasena I accepts this theory in system was abolished by Marudeva,
tp
Mahapursna of Jinasena it is clear that he is trying accomodate some Vedic ideas in Jaina mythology. Such a trend can bfl
When we
story
11
times of
seen in
PC
118).
also
when
It
identifies
Krtayuga with
the
Rsabha
(PC.
3.
He
identifies
Kulakaras
with
Manvantara (MP. 3. 76, 77, 90, 94, 102 etc.) Kuladhara and explains their meaning 211. is identified with Hiranyagarbha, Dhata and Svayambhu (3. -212). Rsabha (15. 57) and further has given 1000 names of Jinendra (M.P. 25) explaining each of them. About the object of Rsibha's marriage Jinasena says what
their times with
Manus and
He
(IS. 60-64).
And
in this
many
spheres in Jinasena's
MP.
In this paper I have simply tried in short to show some of the stages of development of the story of Rsabha-Bharata and Bahuball. Much is left
o.ut
and
I
if
some
is
interested in
it
Bhayani
who
Bibliography
AC AN
AN AN
BP
Malayagiri's Com. 1932-36 = Slrimadbhsgavata-mahapurana, Gitapress, Gorakhpur, V.S. 2018 Cauppannamahapurisacariya of ^Itaika, Prakrtit Text Society,196l.
HP
= Jinasena
II,
1954.
MB MP
PC
PP
= Mahabharata, Poona, = Mahapurana of Jinasena, Bharatiya Jnanapith, Kashi 1944 = Paumacaria of Vimala, I, II. Prakrit Text Society, 1962, 1968..
= Padmacarita of Ravisena, Manifc
Chandra Digambra
.
Jain Gra^
VH
VI
VP
= Visesavasyakabhssya, Part II of Jinabhadra, L, D. Series, Ahtaedabad, 1968. = V'snupurana, Glta Press, Gojrakhpur, V. S. 2024.
JAliSTA
Shah
Setion I
SPACE
1.
Introductory
views.
Regarding primary material elements (mahabhutas), (here were two old One view recognized five mahabhntas and the other recognized four
mahabhutas.
The
up and
five
first
view were
- skaga sabda, \~syu They possessed the five special qualities sparia, tejas rupa, ap rasa and prthvi gandha. Those who followed this view counted nkaSa as a mahabtiuta with a special quality sabda. The Sanprthvl.
this
view of
five
mahabhutas was
Is
that
five
the
external
human
body,
composed of the
is,
mahnbhutas.
this
according to the
the
causes of
all
mateiial
is
of material
effect
subst-
The Vaisesika
differs
mahabhutas
The Vaisesika maintains ap and prthvl are the material Zhasa is not a material cause of any
is
Zkfita as
Mimamsa
dent substance to Sabda, thus putting at stake further the existence of akafa
as
mahfibhiita,
The four mahtibhutas recognized by that other old view were vtiyu, tejas, ap and prthvi. Those who followed this view maintained either that aktia is a form of matter, produced from the four mahabHRtas or that nkv&a is
non-material non-spiritual substance.
first
alternative.
s,
For
it is
thus
The TheravSdj Buddhists accepted the them fikasa is saniskfta, it is produced from the four a derived matter (upndttya rupa) 1 But the Vaibha:?ika
.
Introduction to Abhidharmadipa, p. 90
13
only
thus
Buddhists, who too recognized the abovementioned four mahabhutas raised nktia to the status of asamskrta (eternal) dharma
putting at stake
(element),2
its bhautikatva (materiality). So, for them n/cssa is a nonmaterial non-spiritual (rather non-psychical) element. Jainas too follow this old tradition of four mahubhutas and hence maintain that Ttkn'sa is not
pudgala
(matter),
it
is
an independent substance.
the view of
four mahnbhutas maintain that sabda is not a quality; it is a mode or an aspect of these four mahnbhutas. So, akasa was not needed as a substratum of tabdaguna. Hence, before these philosophers there arose a question as to what function the substance nkasa is
The upholders of
its
function
is
to
all
all
other substances.
It
functions
as
cotainer
All
of
It offers
obtruction
to
no
substance.
bodies
can
move
freely in
it.
The
is
the
group of philosophers think that the a/cwsa-mafiabhuta which substratum of Sabda could not play the rol eatirely different
first
e>
of our cognitions of
relative spatial
positi-
ons of material bodies. They seized upon aa old idea of dik found in the Rgveda and the Upani ads. In the Rgveda dik was regarded as that which made possible our knowledge of relative spatial positions of material bodies and gave rise to the notions of far and near. 8 These philosophers accepted dik to account for our cognitions of relative spatial positions of
material bodies. According to the
etc. 4
(i.
of
Sankhya dik is produced from aktia along with the material bodies. In the absence is no dik. In this sense, dik is dependent on material bodies. In other words, we may say that it is an aspect of material bodies. The Sankhya view of dik, understood and interpreted in
e.
five mahtibhiitas)
all
this way, comes very near to the Theravada view of uka&a. The Vaisesika view of dik differs from the Sankhya view of it in that the Vaiseifca dik is not produced from akasa etc. ; it is an eternal independent non-material
i.
e.
even
The second group of philosophers maintain that their aksia which allows material bodies to occupy their positions in it can very well function as a condition of our cognitions of relative spatial positions of these bodies.
So, they have not posited dik as an independent substance besides
2
3
Ibid, p. 90
14
'
Nagin'j: Shah
'
dlk
and
'
'
nk-Rka
are
synonyms
referring to the
same
2.
As we have
effect of
It is
is
mahabhutas s
For them
it
is
mode
is
devoid of colour, odour, taste and (ouch. According to Jainas sabda of mahvbhutas or matter (pudgaja). e Aggregates (skandhas) of
strike against
atoms
sabda
is
not the nature of fiknsa, nor is it its quality. If sabda were its being formless or nonphysical, it would not have been heard through the organ of hearing, say the Jainas 7 . Aknsa is
quality, the quality of 3/csla
8 infinite in extent ,
it
is
present everywhere,
it
over the
substanextensive
Thus no substance
is infinite.
is
so
as zknsa
It is
is.
Ak'asa
There
is
no
or decrease in
number.
it
It is
one and
gives
will
its
It
is
present everywhere ia the universe, the possibility of movement from one place to
another
Is
never
up
As
it
is
3. Function of
Akasa
to
is
is to afford
room
exist
other
substances.!"
it.
Other
own
in.
nature.
There
no doubt about
themselves.
is
But they
They do
by
is
But
the
wherein
do they
Sktisa.
exist ?
is
They
existence
not
same
all
as
Nor
fundamental
substance
other
different
s
flfr
ic
$1 qfolBf
\. ?-
6
7
frd
JFRSRirc, R.
12
13
H.
jt$
If a substance
being a substance substance and this substance i n its turn and so ad infinitum If to avoid this contingency the Jainas were to say that aknta does not require another substance to exist in, then they should apply the same logic in the case of other substances also. Thus the conception of vkz'sa as a universal container is self-destructive." Again, the Jaina view that vknh contains itself is beset with another difficulty, viz kartrkarmamrodhado^a It is a rule that in a particular act the subject and the object cannot he one and the same. However sharp a knife may be, it cannot cut itself.
some another
substance
to exist in
expert an acrobat
his
However
upon
may
be in the
art
of acrobatics he cannot
itself.
own
stand
Not
all
substances
is
require another substance to exist in. The less extensive ained in the more extensive one. This is the
substance
corn -
obtains
between the container and the contained. Hence, if we conceive a substance infinite in extent and maintain that there is no substance more extensive than it - not even as extensive as it then this
compels us to conceive
contain
it.
it
this
is
because there
no substance more
extensive than
it
to contain
it
Akz$a is such a substance." Regarding karttkarmavirodhadosa, not arise because the function of nks'sa to contain substances
passive.
1*
does
really
'is
Moreover, that nkasa contains itself is simply a positive statement of the fact that skzsa being of the infinite and the highest extension cannot be contained in any other substance.
Can
motion
to
this question is emphatic no '. They contend that if it bs also the condi, tion of motion, then wherever there is -aktisa, there should be chance of motion ; but neither a single Jim, nor a single body nor a atom
single
could step beyond the limit of uiverse (loka), though there is nktia beyond the univere. If s/cSsa were credited with the function of assisting motion,
14
awsrip?
sniR
sft
15
16
'
^^4^fi;
^ ^r
Reals
ln
16
then
it
Nagin
J.
Shah
the division of loka
and
would
dissipate, the
atoms would
would be very far from one another, they one another to form material bodies."
to contain substances or
their instan-
Tikn'sa
one should note that those that obstruct one another cannot be contained In the same portion of space whereas those that do not obstruct one another can be contained in the same portion of space. Though space
gives
room
to
all
It
never contains
the
two
A
And
primary indivisible
It Is called
atom of matter is the ultimate unit of matter. atom is the ultimate unit of space. is Though material atom is physically prade&a (space-point),
it
Indivisible,
is
amenable to mental
division
because
it
possesses ananta
attributes or
modes.
it
As
these
modes or
parts of a
material
atom
are
and can only be mentally abstracted from it, they are never found physically discrete in space. So, a part of a material atom cannot
inseparable from
serve as the defining
unit of matter,
viz.
measure of the unit of space. The physically indivisible atom being discrete and concrete (as opposed to its measure of the unit of space.
Though
in the
same
can accommodate two it, under certain conditions, 8 upto ananta material atoms in one and the same spacepoint at a time' This phenomenon becomes possible because material atoms in their subtle
spacepoints at a time,
.
states, are
atom
But
is
2kn$a has
ananta
spacepoints.
22
this
number ananta
is
fixed in
no
is
19
20
21
wrarat,
17
are conceived as inseparable parts or avayavas of akn'sa. Thus vktisa is an avayaoi - astikHycfi*. Avayavas or parts (pradesas) of akvia are as much objectively existent as Jtksia of which they are parts. Were
it not so, the two cities say, Ahmedabad and Poona which like the two mountains, the Himavat and the Vindhya, occupy different locations of space, would, the Jainas affirm, tend to be at one location, which is an absurd position." They maintain that the partless Zktisa can never be a
The spacepoints
favourable receptacle for the objects having parts. Thus they contend that aksla too must have parts; for, when the table exists In space, it does not coyer the whole space, as in that case other things cannot exist at all anywhere; the table exists not in all space but in that part of space where it does actually exist, leaving room for the other objects to exist elsewhere;
all
this clearly
parts;
it
space
is
an
avayatii.
To be
its
mean
that
time,
some point of
5
Divisions of akasa
in extension. That portion of
it,
Akasa
ains
all
is
ananta
is
(infinite)
which cont*
Loknkata (Universe-space) and that portion of to accommodate in itself is called Aloktik'sfa (Space-beyond-the-Universe). Akasa is one only. LoknKnba and aloknksta
substances
called
this
division
is
not in zknka
itself
but
is
due
6. Lokaka'sa
LokzkZ&a has asamkhyTita (innumerable) space-points ? This number is of the spaeefixed. That is, there is no possibility of increase or decrease
points of lokvkasa.
Though
it
acco-
23 24
m
25
26
gambodh
6,
1^
Nagin
J.
Shah
mmcdotes ananta material atoms. The greater than the number asainkhyata. So,
the
number
ananta
is
infinite
times
how
space of asamkhytita
space-points
can accommodate
ananta material
in the Jaina belief that, under atoms. The answer to this question is there more than one material certain conditions, one spacepoint can accommodate
atoms.2'
is
no
possibility
this. First,
contract. Secondly, loknka&a can spacepoints cannot expand or and loka can expand provided the expand provided loka (universe) expands, bodies get exploded and thrown into aknsa which was till then empty; but
this possibility
has no room in Jainism because according to this system the medium of motion is necessary for bodies to move from one place to another, and this medium of motion is not present in empty space, it is confined
to the universe only.
the
So no body crosses the limits of universe set up by universe is not expanding and hence universe-
space
not expanding.
pose here another question 'Does the
One may
move may
in the
its
universe as a
whole
is
empty
extension
result
is
that
though universe-space
for ever ?*
fixed in
universe-space
He
(medium of motion) and adharma (medium universe they cannot move in the Universe, nor do
into the non-universe they as individuals peel themselves off the universe because they constitute the nature of the universe, but what prevents them
from moving with the universe in the empty space ? These questions have not occurred to the Jaina thinkers and hence they have not answered them.
The
two
feet
loka
(Universe)
is
of the
form of a standing
hip.ss
human trunk
the
with
apart
So,
secondarily
this
lokfikTiba
(Universe-space)
formless
is is
may
also
be said to
its
possess
form.
Usually
the
container
form of
content.
Of
course,
lokSkZlia
this
aras
(divisions) of
Time
Cycles,
the
different
regions of
28
JR
of
hollow
19
As we
of
go higher
and
almost
is
nil,
becomes more he enters higher and higher regions of happy lokTikasa, but entry he should earn the passport by his meritorious deeds. By
living
lokakfisa
the
being
if
living being earns the passport for the entry into higher regions
acts a living
7. Alokakasa.
a whole has ananta pradesas (space-points). And alokvka'si also has ananla praclesas, Having taken asarpkhyata pradesas of lokaka'sa from ananta pradesas of ftkasa as a whole, the remaining pradesas
"dkasa as
As we know,
of
aloknktisa are
still
ananta.
Aloktikasa
is
that increase or decrease of a single space-point is an no encroachment from loka on its infinity is possible.
impossibility. Again,
Has aloknkrisa any from ? No. it has no form. But it may be conceived as having the form of a parabola. Parabola is a symbol of spatial infinity, So, we may say that infinity of aloktikasa is represented by a
parabola
put on
tiness
ail
the highest
is
represented
end oUokakftsa. And we may further say that its empby a sunya put in the parabola, But we cannot
have
included the parabola (with a iunya in
line of loka over
it.
say
it)
As
Ttka'sa
is
a real
According
to Jainism
a^real
persistence and decay. Ac. Kundakunda actually applied this criterion of reality to Jfva, Pud gala and Kvla. But Pejyapsda, Akalanka and later
logicians
to
Dharma,
these substances
Adharma and Akasa. Of course, the had to be shown not directly but
i
through those of living beings and matter. This difficulty s due peculiar nature of Dharma, Adharma and Alcasa which are rue
to the
out any movement and pervade the whole universe. Their associatio'n the different moments of Time also makes possible their modes or
each,
with-
with
changes
running parallel to the moments of Time, A mode of the entire space at time moment t is different from the next mode of the entire space at time moment /, because they are associated with two different time-moments. Except this there is no other difference between two modes of
space.
Some
20
might
Nagin
j.
Shah
urge that j|as there is no substance - not even alokskasa should not alok8ks$a, undergo changes
Time substance -
in
should not be
alokzk&a
substance
entire
and consequently regarded as a real. The Jajnas contend that loktik&a and time being not two zktisa individuals, the effect of the
is present throughout the one Zkasa, Again, they maintain that akv&a undergoes changes through the rhythmic rise and fall in its
lit.
neither-heavy-nor-light-quality).
30
Section II
TIME
1.
Introductory
idea of
we
find the
Time
and power governing all things. In the Atharvaveda we come across a hymn which extols time as the basis of all things; it creates all things and it 1 destroys all things. This idea of Time further asserted itself. We find discussed in philosophical works the doctrine of Time
all
doctrine the
"Time
creatures to ripeness.
Time again
is
things,
Time
keeps awake
among
the sleepy.
is
It
hard
to
transgress
Time.
cooked,
even when a
man
through Time."2
destroys
all
things.
man knows that it has occurred Time ripens all things and Time
systems
Closes
its
the doctrine of
But in the days of philosophical Time (Mavada) remains in the background and
ground of Time and others
all
things.
Some
it
philosophical
th-it
accepted
recognized
it
ground of all things but merely as a condition of their temporal aspect. We need not enter into the exposition of the various conceptions of Time, found in different philosophical
systems.
2.
Time and JaSna Agamic Works on the nature of time are some maintain that it is
In the Xvasyaka Garni, three different views referred to. Some say that time is a
quality';
30
vs
21
opine
that
it Is
modes of substances 4
still
some
others
five,
an
independent substrnce
namely,
Jiva (Soul
Substance),
Dharma
and Adharma (Substances serving as the media of motion and inertia respOut of these three views, tiie first is, to the best of my knowledge, ectively).
15
neither referred to nor explained elsewhere in the whole of the Jaina literature.
The
last
6
two
old
and
find
mention
these
in
the
Bhagavatisutra.
The Svetambara
philosophers
refer to
both
views,
that
view
4.
Arguments
for the
Time
Substance
forward by the Svetambara and Digambara thinkers to establish time as an independent substance. (1) The existence of real Time is established by the incessant minute imperceptible
let
Now
put
would
changes (variant) that go on in the five substances; without not take place, as it is their auxiliary cause. 7 To
it
these changes
give a
concrete
example, we might
stone here does not impart motion to the wheel, but without this stone such a kind of motion would not have been possible.
movement
Similarly,
of the wheel.
The
Time
assists
uced in substances,
production^
though
or works as an auxiliary cause in the changes prodas a cause proper in their it does not work
(2) Jainas
should accept
Time
as an independent
substance.
Though spiritual and material substances are regarded capable by nature to move and to rest, yet they have posited t.vo indepandent substances Dharma and Adharma serving as the media or auxiliary causes of motion and inertia
respectively.
Similarly,
though
five
capable of
transforming themselves
modes some
auxiliary or general
4
301
5 6
$3
or
5531011
^q^fafrlfxr
q% ^[cfR^ ^RRFRI
-ITiltoRfT?
n
cause
like
Nagin
J.
Shah
Time
no
mations.
Were
they to reject
right to
would
is
have
on
to help them in their transforTime as an independent substance, they posit Dharma and Adharma. The case of Time of Dharma and Adharma? (3) Though all the causal
should
be
posited
conditions arc there, the mango-tree, etc. do not bear fruits all at once; this suggests (hat there is Time substance, with varied capacities which the effects expect for their fruition." Time su b s atnce is a
(4)
controlling
for.
principle.
it
Without
it
temporal
there
be accounted
Were
place
(5)
not
an
independent
substance,
serial
effects
would
take
would ensue
Without Time substance, how can we have particular divisions of Time ? Division implies something of which they are the divisions**. (6) Simple uncompound word 'time' presupposes an independent entity, namely, Time.ia (7) Activities like cooking etc. are conventionally referred to as 'cooking time' etc. But in this traditional usage of 'cooking time' and so on, the name of 'time' is superimposed on activity. The term 'time' really
s'igni.
fies
is
(8)
changes
and Mere movements of the sun and stars could substances. Even in regard to movement we
is
is
nothing but
movement of
the sun
say
'it
IS
past',
'it
is
present',
'it
future.'
Movements
-
re
im P
ssible
10
M:
*S
ft
^
,
12
14
^,.
23
movements
real
could not be explained if Time were not posited as an independent subst ance. 115 (9) It is untenable to maintain that Space (nktlsa) can
very well
reject
perform the function assigned to Time. In other words, to as an independent substance we cannot legitimately maintain that Space serves as an auxiliary cause of the minute changes (vartanS) in the five substances. Space merely contains or gives room to the substancs. For
Time
it cannot instnce, a pot can at the most support or contain the rice but cook the rice; for that we need flre. 16 (10) Some might even argue that
'Existence' (Satm) itself can perform the function of time; and hence there an independent substance called Time. But this is no need of positing
view
is not sound. Minute imperceptible changes nature of 'Existence'. So, how could it be viewed
minute changes.
ing but activity
17
(H)
theory
is
propounded by some
explains
it
noth-
(kriyn).
Akalanka
as follows.
is
Movement of an
an
'instant'.
spacepoint to the next space-point above nothing like a minute time over and
this instant.
called
this
movement
to
mea-
The
called ucchiOUa
and
so
on There
activities
no
entity called
Time.
In our overy
cows
When one
is
activity
to the latter
15
ffq
wm
-%*<
i
<o3raif&5
ft *
16
srrwr
17 18
....
rife*
*****
24
Nagin
refutes
'he
J,
Shah
Akalanka
are no
this
it
He admits
it
that the
usages like
did
within a breath'
doubt based
on
activities.
of the term 'time' to activities of 'winking', 'breathing' etc. could not be without any ground whatsoever. Take an example of our application of the term 'da n di' ('staff-bearer') to Deyadatta. This application of 'dandf to
Its
basis
is
danda
(staff)
and Devadatta.
Similarly,
we should maintain
something like Time which, being in relation with activity, makes possible our application of term 'time* to activity 19 Moreover, if we were to consider
.
time as Identical
existence
with activity,
the
contingency of
the
absence or non-
of
the
would How ? In connection with present ensue. only two alternative states, namely, activity either done
is
or undone. There
no
third state in
its
done nor
undone. Thus
And
past
woud be
of the effect to
might be suggested that the collection of activities from the beginning Us completion is called present. But this stand is very weak. The activities being momentary, how could there be any
possibility
if it were argued that time Is not accepted independent of activities on the ground that it is not cognised as distinct from activities, Akalanka retorts that similar logic should be applied the
by
opponent
to
activities.
When done
so,
same
they would be nothing over and above agents or substances as they are not cognised as distinct from them. 22 The last
19
m
3-^rret fa^rret
gftf
?f?t
^su
ft*
^RraWPflWR
*Rfir
sfft
20
atsfcP
nift^ fensflci
^HF%
21
25
adduced by Akalanka against this theory is that an activity cannot limit or measure another activiiy. Only persistent or perdurable can measure another such things. But activity being momentary things how can it measure another such activity ? A thing which itself is 3 momentary can never measure another (momentary) thing.2
argument
4.
to
Digambaras
According to the Digambara thinkers, time is atomic. There are one spaoepoint of the innumerable time-atoms. Each time-atom occupies cosmic space. Thus time-atoms are confined to cosmic space only. They 24 They do not combine to in the space beyond cosmos. are not
present form molecules as the material atoms do. Nor do they constitute one single Thus they have no spatial extension (tiryakwhole as the spacepoints do. are termed Only those substances that have spatial extension
pracaya).
astikaya.
assuming different
ble.
Hence time is not counted among astikuya. Time-atoms go on modes all the while. All these modes are not measuraThe smallest measurable mode of a time-atom is termed samaya
'
'
(instant)
which
is
a unit of space by not simultaneous, a time-atom being modes. 2 ' Though these modes are modes are not discrete, a substance pervades all of them. That is, these
atom to traverse defined as the time taken by a material slow movement.** Each time-atom has infinite such
time-atoms a r e
them. This is the reason why without any permanant substance underlying Time. said to have temporal extension (urdhvapracaya)?*
23
fts,
fwr
24
27
28
^rqqiRq:
29
03 Bwntt ftP^Ts
6,
gambodht
3-4
26
Nagtn
J.
Shah
atoms are motionless2o and hence each of them for ever occupy one particular space-point in cosmic space. They are immobile entities arranged in
close proximity to
one
8" space. They are eternal as they are atomic and do not form aggregates. Origination, persistence and decay in their case are explained through the 34 and origination, persistence It is also decay of other things. said that eternal in the sense that they never they are give up their own nature
and
tise
and
fall
and decay in their case is due to the rhythmic of their agurulaghuguna (untranslatable term, lit. means neither-
heavy-nor-.]igbt-quality.)2 Ac.
Kundakuuda maintains
and
decay
at
that a
time-atom
the
undergoes
origination,
persistence
one
and
same
moment. 83
are devoid of physical qualities like colour, etc. and In sense only they are called amurta.^ They are subtle and impercepThough other substances require time as an auxiliary cause in the emergence of their modes, time-atoms do not require any other
Time- atoms
this
tible.^
substance
as
an auxiliary cause
In the
production of their
own modes.
Digambara thinkers recognize two types of Time - Absolute (mukhya) and Conventional (vyzvahtirika). A time-atom with Immeasurable minutest is Absolute time. In other words, a continuum of immeasurable minutest modes of a time-atom is Absolute time. so But modes of a time-atom, that are measured by motion of a material atom or a heavenly luminary constitute Conventional time.s? Absolute time has no reference to motion of a material atom or a heavenly luminary whereas
modes
Conventional time has pointed reference to it. So, time does not require motion of material
it
is
sa id
that
Absolute
heavenly
atom
js
or
luminary
so
for
its
manifestation.
Absolute
time
the auxiliary
cause
31
32
ft* an*
TO* OK*
33
34
35 36 37
17
of the
immeasurable
is
minutest
modes
over
the
of substances
tional time
measurable modes
entire
As
time
time-atoms
is
spread
cosmic
space, the
Absolute
a
present
everywhere
is
in the
cosmic
space.
As
motion of
material
atom
available
is
throughout
the
cosmic
the entire
space,
samayi
also present in
cosmic space.
is
But
as the
not available
human
beings, the
divisions of Conventional
Time
having reference to
space.
30
cosmic
it
motion are confined only to this portion of Absolute time being what it is, usage or division of past,
this
to
it;
but
5.
to Ssvetambaras
who
ependent substance favour the Digambara foremost among them." 1 But others reject
not atomic.
It
is
view. A"c.
the
Hemacandra
is
the
them time is it pervades the entire cosmic space. Though to have spatial parts. It has extension over
not a
this
one whole,
it
can be
said
the cosmic space and the space covered by it are obviously understandable in terms of parts of the parts of time substance. Consequently time substance is entitled to characterised as an extensive substance (astikfiya). Tradition however
being
this does not restricts the use of this notion to five substances, but
annul
Though
etc.
it
cosmic
space, its divisions, viz. day, month, year not possible outside human region because planetary planetary movements are 48 As it pervades the entire movements are available in human region only.
cosmic
space,
it
is
motionless.
38
39
40
41
4.2
43
$3
jfagia J.
Shah
Time substance
is
constitutionally
it
conother
intrinsic
nature
ISRe
cannot assist changes in other subnot changeless. Thus time qua substance is
modes
is
never loses
its
identity. It
extension (urdhvapracaya)
The ultimate measurable unit of time is called samaya (instant). It is measured by the movement of a material atom over tue space-point. Hence
it
is
defined as the time taken by a material atom to traverse one spaceTime substance has infinite samayas, As a samaya is
it is devoid of temporal parts. not bereft of time substance. But the time substance contained
A
in
samaya
it
is
Hence a samaya is devoid of substantial parts also. But as a samaya pervades the entire cosmic space of innumerable space-points,
is indivisible.
it
may
Again,
it
assists
various changes
proper to infinite number of subsances. These capacities may also be conceived as its parts. 45 All the samayas are not absolutely discrete they are related to one another by an 8 underlying time substance.*
;
6.
It
is
interesting to have
some idea of
that the
the
relative subtlety
is
of units of
time-
time, space
and matter,
It is
space-point (pradeta)
subtler than a
point
(samaya}.
contended
is
numbers
of space-points of a
small space of
countless
one
aiigula
equal
to the
number of
cycles
of time.
infinite
An
45
rr
03
r,
46
47
2p
Time
identical
with Change
We
which
have studied
assists
is
view time
Time
is
the view that Time is an independent substance changes in various substances. But according to the other nothing but modes or changes of substances. In other words, identical with change and nothing over and above The
change.
minute
changes
And
the
and gross changes are merely the modes of substances. Jamas being the upolders of the theory of non-absolutism (Sjzid-
Gda), believe that there obtains a relation of identity-cum-difference between a substance and its modes. In other words, according to them, modes are way identical with the substance. Hence the name 'substance' (dravya) is secondarily applied to them also. As a result of this, time which is nothing but modes of substances is also called substance. The statement, occurring in the Bhagavatisutra, that J'iva and Ajiva substances themselves are called Time means that modes of these substances are called
!n a
and above these modest Substances undergo incechanges by virture of their intrinsic nature, An independent time substance is not required to assist them in their modification or change. These minute changes or modes are not measureable. the Jainas
is
Time
Time;
nothing over
ssant minute
So,
seem
to have
conceived a
mode
sufficiently thick to be
measured. This
is
called samaya or
moments
mode
of a substance.* 9
measured by the slow movement of a material atom over one space-point. Were the movement fast, the thickness of the mode would get reduced to such an extent that it would not remain amenable to
is
This mode
and
called Walikn, muhUrta, etc. short series of the ultimate measurable modes,
The argument that the case of an independent Time substance is on par with Dharma and Adharma is not sound. Dharma and Adharma are, of course, posited to account for motion and inertia But respectively. motion and Inertia of a substance are not eternal. Sometimes we a
find
it
at
rest.
must be some condition of motion and inertia over and above itself. And hence the Jainas posited Dharma and Adharma as
48
conditions or
SPIIS
%sfq-
W
CT,4
5(13
49
30
Nagin
intertJa.
J.
Shah
Those who posit Time as an Independent substance do so to account for mainly the incessant minute changes. But according to the Jainas such changes are eternal - without beginning and end. Hence it is not necessary to posit a causal condition to account for it. What is eternal beginningless and endless has no cause whatsoever.
Again, the argument that without an independent Time substance the world could not be explained; that in its absence, the seed, the sprout and - is also very weak. The order of the fruit would emerge simultaneously
the universe
is
is
The and
description of
every material
the
The temporal order Time as an independent substance is superfluous. Time substance as atomic seems metaphorical. Each atom could be called time-atom. And this well
very
statements
explains
scriptural
regarding
the
absence
of
its
spatial
extension (apradesi).^
is
vitiated
The conception of Time as an independent substance by many contingencies. The main one is as follows Time is
:
minute changes other substances, account for the changes in the Time substance itself ? be said that the modification of Time substance is natural a n d hence
in
requires
other causal conditon, the same logic should be applied to explain modification of other substances. If some other auxiliary cause is to posited explain changes in Time substance, it would involve infinite regress. Hence the view of an independent Time substance i
s
no
unsound. 61
w eak and
8.
Jaina
Cycle of Time
According to
moves on.
It
represents the period of progress with the gradual increase in happiness. And the other half repre. sen s the period of decadence with the gradual decrease in Each happiness liacfi ""Hf'i'vss. nprind to a^air. J!..:j.j i^^ six parts
.
the
and eternally
(1)
The
by
(4)
The part
characterised
bv
vet
so
51
s
fe
(<f.
PTSTT^)
go.
31
The The
no happiness
(6)
It
is
misery (dusama-dimmt)
noteworthy that the Jainas have not recognised the possibility of the following two parts (i) the part chatacterised by absolute absence of both happiness and misery, (2) the part characterised by exactly equal quantities of both happiness and misery. The abovementioned six parts in the reverse order constitute the 8 ix
:
the
During
beings
period
of
progress the
bodily
strength,
gradually
increase.
their
During the
period
of
decadence
bodily strength, bodily height and life-span. Each such period of progress and decadence is ten crores of crores of ocean Time. The two periods together constitute one
gradually lose
complete round of
Time
is
called Kalpa,
JINESVARASURI'S
V.
GAHARAYANAKOSA
M. Knikarni
Ancient Indian poets, as a class, were extremely reticent about theif that shaped personal history, education, environment, the influences and failures. Poets like Bhasa, Kalidasa
hardly speak of anything about themselves. This suicidal indifference on the part of ancient Sanskrit and Prakrit poets and authors was most probably due to their strong belief that what really mattered was their poetic creation and not their own personality. The thought, idea or feeling embodied in a
the time
is
poem alone was important and not the poet who wrote it or when he composed it. Alamkarikas too held identical views as
their
clear
from
poetic products as
created and finished facts never bothering themselves about their authors.
It is this
responsible
for not
preserving the
authentic
names of poets
Hala (Sattasai
however,
be grateful
preserving
who
Prakrit
Kosas are
stanzas
compilations of stanzas of other poets barring, of course, a few of the anthologists themselves.
The L. D. Institute of Indology (Ahmedabad) has recently brought out an unpublished GTihirayanakosa. This is compiled by Jinesvarasuri towards the close of the 12th Century A.D. In a short Preface Pt. Dalsukh Malvania,
the Director of the Institute, points out the importance of the present volume which presents three gathssangrahas, published for the first time and thanks the Joint Editors Pt. Araritlal M. Bhojak and Dr. Nagin J. Shah who have taken great pains to make the edition useful and have tried
to present the text as flawlessly as possible.
first
give
a des-
MSS. They then dwell on the importance of SubhSsita-sangrSuch anthologies rescued from the oblivion a large number of floating verses. They pro red of help to religious teachers and preachers in their didactic works or lectures in clarifying and corroborating the point
has
:
common
mind. They
Jinesoarasuri's G'oh'Grayanakosa
33 and
classified
carefully
arranged
them
The Editors then note the glory of Prakrit SubhSsltas Sanskrit was sistas, Prakrit was the language of the people. Prakrit writers were in close contact with the people. They naturally felt the of the people, identified themselves with their pulse joys and sorrows and reflected them in their verses. These verses have a of spirit closeness to life and common realities which we often miss in Sanskrit poetry. The Editors show on the authority of Uddyotanasarj (the author
the language of the
of Kuvalayamalv) how in old days the verses from Hala's Gnthasaptabatl were recited even by farmers when ploughing their fields. For the importance and the general theme of the Prakrit Subhasitas the Editors refer readers to the Introductions to the Gatha-Saptasatl fed. by Dr. Parmanand
ShastrS, Merath, 1965), the Vajjabgga (ed. by Prof. M. V. Palwardhan, Prakrit Taxt Society, Ahmedabad 9, 1969) and (Saptasatlsara with Bfrava-
dlpika of Vema Bhupsla along with) Chapparmaya-Gahao (ed. by Dr. A. N. Upadhye, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, 1970). They, then, very Gnharqyanakosa pointing out that though the compiler was Jain there is nothing Jainistic about the work except the first section devoted to the prayer of Jina. This prayer is followed by that of Brahma, Visnu, Mahegvara, and Saravati respectively. They further point out how Gnharayanakosa contains material, arrangement and divison of subjects similar to those of most other Sanskrit and Prakrit anthologies.
briefly deal with
According to the compiler's own statement the present Kosa contains 800 gathas. The Editors, however, point out that their lone MS ontains 822 gathas and conclude that these 22 gathas are later
additions.
Finally, they describe Jine^varasuri's spiritual lineage and give a few other details about him (pp 8-11). Pages 12 to 14 set forth the table of contents in Sanskrit. Then follows the text of GnhTirayanakosa (pp 1-66), arranged according to the 58 different topics. They deal with a of
variety topics such as Invocations, poetry, the ocean, the sub-marine Fire, Krsna the Good, the Wicked, the Master, Laksmi, Charity, the miser, poverty,' politics or statesmanship, the clever or shrewd, riddles, harlots, eroticism'
moon, night-lotus, dawn the sun-rise, day-lotus, bee and Malati flower {or creeper), the cycle of women, various trees, mountains, lion, elephant, camel the excellent bull, miscellaneous things and finally S"anta rasa (the mood of quietitude). More than 30 topics out of the 58 are common to Vaim"
seasons, unchaste
eyes (glances), affection, female messanger, love, jealous anger, lovers' flattery, msnini (a woman offended with her husband), separation, the sunset, the Cakravaka bird, the glow-worm, the
Sambodhi
6,
3-4
34
lagga,
V.
M.
Kulkarni
are
and as pointed out by the Editors 'Nearly one hundred gathas common to this Gahnrayanakosa and the Vajinlagga"
.
unpublished tiny collections of gathas, each based on a single MS. They bear the titles : and Subhnsiyapajjasangaho (pp 75-82). Subhasiyagahasahsaho (pp 67-74)
two,
hitherto
They then add gatha-index of all three anthologies separately (pp. 83-98). Index No. 1 records over 35 Dssl words that occur In these three anthologies and are rather difficult and of rare frequency along with theie
meanings in Sanskrit or Gujarati (pp 99-100).
Index No. II gives a Table of gathas that are common to Gaharayanakosa and Vajjalagga (pp. 101-102). At ttu end they give a list of corrections (pp. 103-104)-
this
The Director of the Institute and, especially, the Joint Editors of volume deserve warmest congratulations on their bringing out this excellent edition. It is no doubt a welcome addition to ths existing anthorare
logies in Prakrit.
MS
all
is
Having regard to the fact that the edition is based on a would agree with this reviewer that the performance of the
Editors
excellent.
more
useful.
aning words.
sion
As
it
passes one's
why
left
the
order of
Comparative Table.
are
disturbed
common
to Vajjalagga
Kosa (Treasure) by its very nature contains stanzas picked up Whenever the MS presents doubtful readings or gaps it is possible for us to hunt the sources of these stanzas and restore the original readings. The present edition contains about 1040 gathSs. Most of them present no difficulties. Still a fair number of gathSs
from different works.
contain
doubtful readings (indicated with a question-mark by the Editors) or gaps. restless. He is anxious to get at the correct reading. It is too much to expect of the Editors to trace the sources of such gsthss and restore the readings, especially when the anthologists have nowhere indicated their sources. As the Editors have pointed out about 100 verses are common to Gsharayanakosa and Vajjnlagga. comparison with Hala's Gtithssaptasatt would show that 45 gathas are common to
Gahgra*
yanakosa. This comparison would help us to restore some doubtful read* Ings. For correcting the rest of the doubtful readings of filling In the gaps we will have to go to the very sources of these gathas of course,
jinesvarasiirfs
Gnharayayakosa
33
how
tion.
themselves were well-read and their power of selection and appreciaIt would also enable the readers to understand these gathas better
with the help of commentaries on these souices or their translations in English or regional Indian languages. The scope of this review article does not permit a thorough or comprehensive or exhaustive of this kind.
What
study
follows will
indicate to
the
readers
merely
ths
direction
in this
regard.
The
common
10
Gahsrayanakosa
and
Appendix
Gathasaptasati, Vajjalagga (verses not included in the Table given in II). Gaudavaho, Ulaval and Kwnnrapalapratibodha :
TABLE
Gahnrayanakosa
Gallmsaptasatl
Gmtm
14
No.
... ... ... ... ... ...
cmhn
I.
No.
135
266 293
303
II.
V. 21
I.
...
..
99
HI. 100
IV. 6 IV. 24
I.
...
... ... ...
339 342
355 358
361
100
II.
I.
99 25
...
...
...
... ...
IV. 41
363
VI. 6
I.
390
391 404
91
H, 82
II.
...
...
409
1-53
III-4
410
411
..,
...
11-24
... ...
H-42
1-10 1-74
II.
...
...
44
...
...
1-27
VI. 64
453
36
455
V.
M, Kulkarnt
H= 92
VI. 21
... ...
456
467 468
VII. 15
I-
85
469 470
471
VII. 65
V. 89
903
(Weber's edition)
473
IV. 76
V. 51
941
II.
I;
(Weber's edition)
47
48
... ...
...
494
499 504
505 506
507
IV. 97
837
I. II.
(Weber's edition)
53
...
...
29
...
...
IH. 22
IV. 63 IV. 77 VI. 2
508
509
... ...
630
683 698
... ...
...
II 39
VI. 42
IH. 29
II.
705
...
...
64
edition)
724
728
741
...
...
edition)
783
to 55,
TABLE
Gvhnrayanakosa
_
GmhTi
27
54
JVb.
...
Gmhn No.
18
printed Table)
...
...
605*
35
74 92
P. 13
f.
...
118
n.
No.
...
133
581 175
155 178
...
270
...
617
Jinesvarasuri's Gshftrayanakosa
37
272
283
...
...
616
567
702 746
751
JH
159 195
759
225
67
782
The
total
number
of
common,
is
15.
TABLE HI
Gfthnrayanakosa
Gaudavaho of Vakpatiraja
Oath's
...
... ...
Gatha
JVo.
No,
5 6
3
1
9
10
16
18
...
6
87
...
... ...
...
127
173
281
931
976
959
1182
593
This table shows that the
...
total
number of gathas
common
to these
to
.9.
TABLE IV
Gsharayanakosa Gmhu No.
71
81
...
.
Lllsvai
Gmhn No.
60
13
104
329
16
..,
423 222
571
373
501
.-
519 520
521
.-
262
516
."
.
438
522
523
.
442
443
446 448 439
524 525
-.
.
526
*8
528 529
557
V, At.
Kulkami
451
1071
31
...
... ...
558 559
... ...
...
470
526
528
560
581
... ...
... ...
1086
1090
1091
582
584
585
1092
590 607
681
...
...
675
472
74*!
87
to
... ...
684
The
comes
total
GBhSrayaqakosa and
to 28.
TABLE V
GahZrayat)atcosa
Kumarapalapratibhodha
Gmho No
24
65
>
Page
...
...
(Verse No.)
(9)
77
4 (41)
66
...
150 214
215
...
...
237
365
...
...
..
305
23
84
...
.
255
116
307
...
...
249
9
to
556
The
Gnhnrayanakosa and
A
v.
12
ThisgmhSis
Mahar S?t r!
version of the*
ia _
beginning of Brhatkaths of
Jineharasuri's Gztorayanakosa
v.
39
his
166
This Gatha
is
first
cited by
Anandavardhana in
Dhvanya-
418
This occurs
readings.
in
ft
v.
428
This gatha belongs to Hatnavall, the wellknown play of Har$a. It occurs at II. v. 1.
This gaths
is
v.
443
cited in
Kavyaprakasa (IV.
v.
kikar's edition).
v.
477
This gatha
is
cited
kikar's edition).
T.
703
(III. p,
352,
Banaras Ed.
v.
707 786
236~|
This gaths
This gatha
is
cited
in
Dhvanyaloka
(I.
p.
76).
v.
is
cited by
Kuntaka
20)
v.
also in
Chappannaya-gahss
as
galha
v. 238J
No. 74 (with
variant readings)
respectively.
This comparative study helps us to correct some of the doubtful readings indicated with a question-mark by the
editors.
P. 2
v.
is
drawn from
Gaiidavaho
(v 3)
needs to
in the list
:
of correc-
II
2>.
v.
Vakpatiraja
commences
his
work
with this
gSths
third
paying
quarter
;
homage
to the Self-born
god
(Brahma).
The
far
to
GaMaaaho
(v.
18).
Our
text differs
is
from
concerned,
40
V.
M.
in
Kulkarni
2,
v.
10
Gaudavaho
(v.
6),
The second
half should
P. 6
v.
54
The reading
35=15 preserved
in
Vajjalagga
(v.
605 * 1)
is
far
superior to 34 $#,
P.
v.
Vajj'sl(As pointed out by the editor?) this gatha occurs in agga (No 600). The words f% and ^rf|T must be read to S e-
ther
dess
as
2.
fonf|;sf
(Sk
1.
l%5ri%^f-f%5rrat-
name of
a cowher-
'.6
v.
56
by the Editors, occurs in Vajj'nlagga The second quarter of this gatha presents much more than what we find in Vajjtilagga. With convincing reading
598).
there readings
^^
for f%erf|ir
f^ )
there
is
no need to
text of Vijjglagga as
proposed by
Prof.
Patwar-
his notes to
(598), p. 546).
The
(
third quarter in
g%
j%
f%<rrzffi[ir|qr
j%q3T-ct^)
quarter
in
the
gr^lirf^trri'HFfaTli
most
probably
a corru-
ation of
P,
v.
59
747).
more Kosa
pointed out by the editors, in VajjaThe second half of this gatha presents a far what we find in the present
This
line
must be
the
original
one
for
it
also occurs in
Rayanfiyara-vajjti itself in
another ratna
P. 8 v.
(the
gatha No. 756 with reference to moon) churned out of the ocean.
editors,
91
This gatha
is,
as
noted by the
common
)
to
Vajjalis
agga (No.
115).
The reading
g^
^
(
2
crf^rat" in VajjZlagga
much
P. 8
v.
%g TO^.
devil.
It
92
obviously a printer's
should
P. 11
v,
Jineharasuri's Gshttrayanakosa
4J
in
"?F
thus
f%
:
qftf^saer
our
is
Ko&
stands
patently a cor-
sense.
12
v.
3.39
The reading
As
it
'^'
is
obviously a
list
printing
mistake
it
for
Is
qf^.
noted
is
of corrections
here.
p.
15
v.
to
GaMavaho (No.
976).
There we have
"n^Tt^ f^ft"
Kosa.
reading gjgf
(
instead of
"j^q^ ^
ft$ft"
in the present
c
p.
16
?.
^3
to
expand
bloom, open)
of lotuses
suits
a bed or assemblage
blooms
at sun-rise.
is
The
editors'
happy.
not construe well.
it
-17 v. 213
The
gatha, as
it
stands, does
is
With
:
slight
emendations
if it
rewritten,
(
?
yields
good sense
fofa;
(
!
ft
fo )
f^to
"Laksmi and
she
is
Kirti are
looked upon
as King's
two wives.
naturally,
embraced by Lak?ml;
of jealousy, as it were, (and out of jealousy, anger) she wanders over the whole earth. O King, look." It is a
fine instance
p.
19
v.
called
We
GahSrayanakosa
Chappaannayagabao
and
3.
The
three things,
1.
Vijftana. 2.
Jflana
Saundarya
are generally associated with rajakula, gurukula and Ve^ySs will have to correct the text accordingly. respectively.
We
p.
23
v.
is
quiggtrf
non-sensical.
Probably,
it
is
a corru-
8ambpdhl6-3 ? 4
42
V,
M. Kdkarnl
sense
-
p,
23
v.
293
Spflgaraprathis
237, N.
S.
Ed.) contain
'
gStha.
his edition of
GatbasaptaSati
-'J
(No. 954).
p,
26
v.
329 This gatbs belongs to Lilavai (No. 423). There it opens with the words 'ft 33% frtffw' whereas here it opens with gT
cH?ff
fafo^r"
is
)
?
The
reading qrsflgzr
osf
s[f|^
and
the
'
.3fw5qTjRT
uncalled for. 1
is
p.
27
T.
unintelligible.
sjs^i
sjtpsrgfQ
sfoft
27
y,
339 There
this
Is
slsnft.
Read
on G.
In
S.
Shastri
sjrg:
VI- 24...
^
the
(ftjjg,^
g^el^^
|"
Nsed
p,
p.
268
in
27
v,
present
Kosa
in
be corrected to
(^^)
([I,
^^
^^
needs fo
reading in GfithasapttiSaH.
p.
28
v.
355 In Gathnsaptatatt
(p. 373)
99) as well as in
have
"^
is
himself
that the
^ ^ ^, whereag ^ ^ >", The reading ^ woqld mean the nSyaka whereas ^ would mean speaker female
we have
the reading
hef<)
SarasvatikanthSbharana
s^
the speaker
is
the .reading
nayiks.
P.
29
v.
(%te
to
emend the
f.
text as
p 21
[ ? SJ
v.
339) there
h c r e also.
is
no
need to
30
v.
383 Raniranayarujjaduccalaehlrf,
raorakasa
presen-s a
texts
(p.
1067).
n ^rnga-
fe
incorrect readings.
^storing
the
help^usjn
1
original g at ha.
The
reading
Jinesvarasurfs (jfahnrayaifdkosa
43
"ranaranaarajja dovvala..,'- in SP gives us a clue to correct the doubtful reading in the presnt Kosa as 'ranaraUaya-rujjadubballaehirh.'
p.
31
v.
390 The
editors' proposed emendation well agrees with the ponding reading in Gmiiasaptasafi ( ira^ ),
corres-
p.
34
v.
430 The reading in Vajjalagga (v. 346) is j^; sr^r^OT I^" n tne present Kosa.
>
in P'ace
p.
35
v.
occurs
in
There
the
is
'bahohabharia' and
foot-notes.
i
rading
latter
'bahulla-phuria'
recorded in the
half in
The
GS
reads
'Savahtivattham
of the
add
Koa
'Satahftvattham
SP
(p.
reads
gae psmme.'
p.
39
499 Tne opening words of this gatha present corrupt readings. The editors' emendation ^ fq q [? ffcf^ijsqiWQ; too is not help-.
ful.
We
qH
Is
qrr^girrU;.
f?[5^
second
half of
this
gatha
obviously a
misreading or
p.
39
where
this
gstha
is
picked up
It
is,
p.
39
v.
SOS Gathasaptas'ah
readings
:
53)
presents
somewhat
different
ft*
bette* sense.
40
v.
516 The
first
and'
p.
72
v.
73
The
first
p.
41
v.
519
m $
?
should be corrected as
44
V.
M.
Kulkarhi
v.
521
3}(
)of
3$55f[t
should be corrected as
v.
522
522
v.
v.
524 The
first
v.
525
jftgpr(
)cr(rfT
should be corrected to
be
corrected
to
v.
qRg
on
the source Lilsval.
Note
p.
AH
43
v.
^frff^
(
is
quoted in Alamknra-Kaustubha
reading
^1^
).
36).
Sk
^j?[^
in
place
^q
f3? t
(Sk
44
v.
^^TR^
needs to be corrected to
p.
46
v.
1091) reads q 5
instead
of
%^ g?
and
in
our
p.
46
v.
675)
reads
orf^^
for
^^
fof
p,
46
v.
is
corrupt.
Gaadavaho (No
"
p.
p.
48
v.
617
gq^
to
should be corrected to
49
v.
^4
found in Vajjalagga
Kosa.
(v.
252)
is
far
superior
gfgq
in the present
p.
49
v.
JinelsvarasiirVs Gfthftraydnakosa
4$
p.
49
v.
in Vajjn\a ss a
is
somewhat
different
p.
53
v,
680 The
list
sq^
g^q),
to
Most probably,
p.
is
58
v,
741
The reading
ptasati
fts^S found in
edition of
Gathssa-
much
58
v.
746 Vajjalagga
(v.
159)
reads
ft|^ ?rqT
in
place of
fg|
of our Kosa.
p.
Wm
as
59
v.
in the present
;f}
Kosa
is
not
happy
OT f%
in Vajjalagga
(No.
782 The
fourth
quarter
presents
difficulties.
The
emendation
'3^3
3^1 tr q^
cg
To trace the sources of the rest of the galhas in the present Kosa would prove an interesting and illuminating study, it would improve some doubtful or wrong readings. One would have to take into account some
Important Prakrit (Mahsra?trl/Jain MsharSstrl) works composed entirely in gstbs metre or works in prose and verse (containing gathas) or other
Kosas
like
the
close of
with the which was almost closed to Sanskrit language and Sanspeople. The vista krit writers was open to Prakrit language and Prakrit writers. This is the reason why those elements that capture the hearts of common man predominate In Prakrit literary works.' This view, however, cannot claim to
be universally
poets and
true. If
their Prakrit
his
Vakpatiraja and
Gaudavaho,
we take j|into consideraiion the topmost Prakrit works, for instance, Pravarasena and his Setubandha t we have no alternative but to admit that
in
an ornate,
pompous
style full of
all Sanskrit turned into Prakrit by the poets. These first put their ideas in a Sanskrit draft and then poets thought in Sanskrit, in the from of 'Prakrit, verses, Common people apart, even 'presented them of Prakrit languages and literatures 'well educated post-graduate students
V.
M.
Kulkarni
diffi*
fully
commentaries or translations in view holds good in English or a modern Indian language. The editors' works the case of poets like Hala SatavgbaOa, Jayavallabha and their Gmhtfsaptasan and Vajjtiagga.
or two,
valuable publication
on a point Notwithstanding few deficiencies and diffeteaces of opinion all lovers of Prakrit language and literature will welcome this and extend very warm congratulations to the Director
of the Institute and the joint editors for presenting to the world of scho. of genas.* lais of Prakrit language and literature this treasury
JTnesvarsari's
Gaharayanakasa; edited by Pt. Amritlal M. Bhojak and Shah, Published by Pt. Dalsukh Malvania. Director, L. D. Institute Afomedabad 9, 1975. Price Rs, 12/-
Dr. Nagin
of
C. Sikdat
The conception of Reality, as permanence-ja-change (parmnminitya) is touched upon by the Sgama Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajflapti in connection with
.its
dealing with the problem of eternality and noa-eternality of Soul (Jiva) and of ultimate atom (paraimqupudgala). It is explained that souls and Ultimate atom ate both eternal and non-eternal from the point of view
ol Dravya (substance)
ctively.
and Bhtvai
i.
e.
Dravya (substance) is identical with and different from its parytsyas (modes).a Therefore, it Is conceived on the basis of this metaphysical principle that a real entity is both permanent and non-permanent or eternal
substantial (dravyttrthika) and
respectively, e.
g,
(nayas)
Matter
(Pudgala),
modal (paryByllrthough
permanent as substance, undergoes transformation of colour, etc., for it Ss non-permanent from the modal point of v!ew. 8 In this way the problem of permaneace-in-change (parintitninityatti) of all entities has been dealt with In the Xgama in its peculiar manner by showing the relation of identitycam-difference between Dravya (Substance) and
its
Patyzyas (modes).
Each and every element of Parinnma (change) has been explained by UmSsvsti and later Acsryas in a clear and concise manner in the light of
other Indian systems of thought. Parinama Is the changed state of an entity brought abqyt by a process of change in it. In other words, the change
in the character of the attributes of a substance
Is
"Ji\>&
nafit
Bhamte klm
sasaya. asasasa
Gtryama
jlva stya
am&
273.
fh&sapajjavehim asa$e'\
Ibid., 1 4_ 4. 512.
&*, Bhag*V*tiU
I, 9.
9.
80;
AcSranga
Sii'ra 1, 5, 5; BhS.,
v,, 12,
12.
10.
468;
. ,
Sc, Kundakunda,
PravacanasSra
II.
18
and
its
90-9ti
ed by Pandit
Rasa,
Sukhlafti Sanghavi, v. 37
UpSdbySya Yasovijayajl
Esa yafn Bhamte \poggale titamanamtant- ssfayath samayanf lakkhi samayatn aluklcfa ea nW karaneanafa anegavannam ayegaruvam samayatn lukkhl v3< atukXthi v puwam partyamai", BhS., 14. 4. 510.
48
J.
C. Sikdar
There are various states of an entity because of its transformation undergone by the process of change. The triple nature of Reality
formation).*
i.e.
origination, decay
a characteristic
mode
to a
its permanence through the pro. of origination and destruction. The autocommentary of the Tattvarthadhigama Sotra explains that the nature (SvabhZva-svatattva) of the six
substances, viz.
Dharma
i.
(Principle of Motion),
Adharma
KTila
(Principle of Rest)
and
attainment of another
state, is called
nsformation)^ This Parin'sma is not at all a separate entity from the substances or the quality, but it is its nature (svabhfiva) or its own tattva
(essence), for a substance attains a particular
state without
is
giving
up
its
own
a mode.
lies
The
finition
of permanence-in-change
is
in the de-
of Reality as 'Sat-
"Existence
traction
and permanence'* 8, UmgsvSti makes the conception of Parin'sma (change or transformation) comprehensible by defining 'Nitya* (permanence)
of the essential nature of the substance.' The entity
is
as the indestructibility
destroyed and will not be destroyed from the essential nature (bhaod) of Sat called permantent (nitja) t a i.e. (Existence) is there does not become the non-existence of an entity. The beginningless tranformatlon (parlntuna) takes place only in the non-corporeal substancer-
which
not
Dharma
of Motion), Adharma (Principle of Rest), Afania (Principle 9 (Space) and Jiva (Soul) , while transformation of many kinds, having a beginning, occurs in the corporeal nonliving substance-matters, such as, transformation of touch, etc. 10
Kundakunda throws
(transformation) of
that flows
(i.
welcome
by
all
light
Reality
defining
its
e.
p.
436.
There takes
5
place-paries
etc.
gandhaparinama,
in the qualities of a substance such as varnaparinama, There ate ten kinds of parinama, viz. varnaparinama and others.
'
"Dharmadtnafn dravyanam yathoktanam ca gunaiiam svabhavah svataltvam parinamsh" TS. Bha,, ch. V. 41 p. 437,
' '
'
6
7
"Utpadavyayadhrauvyayuktam
V.
29.
"Taffbhavavyayam mtyafri", TS.. ch. V. 30, p. 391. "Yat sato bhavamia vyetl. net vyesyati tanhityamtii", TS., ch. V. 30, ' "Anadiradimaihsca". TS. ch. V. 42, p. 438;
' p, 391'.
'
>'
.,
10
"Tatraitadirariiptsu dharmadharmskasajivesvtti", TS. Bha., ch. V. 42, p. 438, "Rupfsvadiinati", TS., ch. V. 43, p. 439.
ch.
'
TS BhS
'
''
49
nature
and and
co-extensSve
is
(kramabhuvak
and
sahabhuoah) by
.
its
general
ensible
51 It is also comprehinseparable from sattn (existentiality or being) from the definition of Dravya as embodied in ther Tattvsrthsdhigama
iSatra that
Dravya (Substance) is not separable from Us guna (quality) and 12 Dravya (substance) bereft of them can only be imagined pafySya (mode). through abstraction in thought." As the nature of entitles is characterized of by origination and decay, Acarya Kundakunda deals with the concept
parimma
'utpnda and
(transformation
or
change)
involving
origination (utpnda)
and
decay (vyaya) and permanency (dhrauvya) into two parts by bringing (i) vyaya (origination and decay) into relation to parynya (mode) 14 That is^ the natand- (ii) dhrauvya (peramanency) to Dravya (Substance) ure of an entity is characterized by origination and decay, for there is no
,
destruction of an
cat|se origination
ervtjty
entities
and destruction in their qualities and modej,". Draq/a has qnly reality can neither be originated nor destroyed; It, an4 permanent substantiality. But its modes cause destruction, origination of the substance? from is examined aspects perrflanency. Here Dravya mode respectively. 4 and Naya) (Paryyynrthika Maya) (Dravyprthika
(substance) in
its
substance
is
origination
is
not,
destruction in
Jt
fjqm
substantiality. It
changing as
p^ry^,
frpoj
the/aspect of
permanence,
g^oJ4
it secures the triple qualities pf (ParyUyarthika], I. e. Its modes. Fqji e^ampje, origination and destruction through
mode
made of gold are tj^e is a substance, ornaments like ear-rlng8 etc,., "These may change, one ofnamen|; may be Parynyas (modes) of it. and new one be made." The disappearance of, ths previQus ipfUed the new ornament Is ornament is vyaya (decay) and the appearanqe of (permanent). and yet all the while there is the same g,old-f)hriiva
^
uip'adq,
So
in a substance
some modification
originates,
".Dayiyadi gacchadi
taiAi
Daviyant
tarn
12
13
37.
14
15
"Dravyajiva iti gunaparyayaviyiiktab, pra]nsthapito an^ifSriyami^kSwyHls^ TS- Ehg,, ch, I. 5. p. 43. / ". ceva uppado] Bhavassa natthi naso natihl abhovassa II", PS.. 15. Gunapajjayesu bhavS uppadavae pakuvvamti
ticyate
atthi sabbhavo
//
16
-
tasseva pajjaya
Ibid., 11,
17* "p&dubbhavadi
anno
//
PravapanasSta,
II.
IV
SambodhJ
50
J.
C. Sikdar
Siddhasena Divakara further developed the doctrine of parinzma (change or transformation) to make his -logical foundation of non-difference of Guna (quality) and paryaya (mode)" on the basis of the
agamic eviden-
ces.
He
splits
up parysya (mode)
with the
in his
into
two
kinds,
viz.
Arthaparyaya and
for
Vyafijanaparyay& to deal
the first
problem of permaaence-in-change
time
Sanmatitarka. Arthaparysya
series
to it; while Vyanjanaparynya indicates a of changes which has such similarity as to allow it to be stated by
an
entity
is
continually
permanency.
a characteristic
mode
is
different.
A"carya Pujyap a d a , Akalafika and Siddhasena Qania explain the view of Umssvati in regard to Arisdi parinnma (beginningless change or trans* formation; and Aditmn parirtama (change or transformation with
a
In
own
the non-corporeal and corporeal substances ways. According to Acarya Pajyapsda, Parl^ma
movement
etc.,
of Dhartna
general
point of
view; the
.
same
is
of the contention of his predecessor, Akalaflka clarifies the point i n que, stion In this manner parinamas (changes or transformations) like motion' - Dharma etc., of the substances (principle of Motion), etc., are beginning.' less with them, while origination, etc., of these
ditional
In support
upon
(changes or
take
rmatior,s with a beginning),'! for both the permanent substances from the
place in
points of
(Draaysrlhika
and
Parytynrthika
Nay as)* *
respectively.
But
(transfer
Dharma
intangible
(Principle
of Motion),
/
Adharma
(Principle of
"Davvatthito
tti tarn/la
Na ya
19
pajjavatthio
Sanmatiprakarana,
I,
9 p. 408.
20
"Vafnjanapajjayassa 'puriso'...tti niccamavlyappo / Balaiviyappam puna pasal se atthopajjaa //", Ibid., HI, 34, p 440 "TatrenadSrdharmadinam gatyupagrahadiif samrmyapeksaya'l
.
21
sa evadimam'sca bfiavati visesapeksaya iti", Sarvarthasiddhi, p. 317 "Anadiresam sambandhahl Sdim3m'sca bahyapratyaySp Sditotpadaf,
RSjavartika
22
Nayadvayavatit tanatra
51
are
known from
the
Sgamas, while
are
these
in Jlva (Soul) 28
interpretation
of'
theStttra "ftidbhnvdh
Parlwmap*
feeing
or Becoming (bhavandm)
is
of the
l[ie
substances like
nature of tHo&J
Soul,
in
Ttidbh'Gva'h
is
hme
known
to be
"Tadbhavah
mode,24'
be observed that 'Tadbhavak parinnmah' is here exptalParinfima (change or transformation) is the later form of
Drvvya (Substance) born of Jahadvrtta, owing to the giving up of the previous nature of it. The same (Parinfimd) is Parynya (mode) which is the successive
In agreement with the auto-commentary of Siddhasena Qanin accepts the view of Aaadi
Parin'sma (beginningless change or transformation) occurring In the four non-corporeal substances-Dftarma (Principle of Motion), Adharma (Principle of Rest), Aknsa (Sapce) and Jim ',(Soul), a but he differs from it on the
is Anndi parinsma (beginningless change or transformation) taking place in Ksladravya (Time-Substance) 87 also, for it is a non-corporeal substance (arupT,dravya) like Dharma (Principle of Motion), etc. The present, etc., are the parinumas (changes or modifications) of Ksla (Time);
occurs
in
the
non-corporeal
substances, 28
(change
or
transforma
smell
and touch,
as,
etc.,
and the
characteristics of origination
taste, smell, colour, etc.
such
transformation of touch,
transformations)
visesah
and
(beginningless
23
like
dravyatva
(substantiality)
martatva
"Ayam
p.
tu
dharmadiu
catursu
dravyesvatyantaparoksesvanSdirndimam'sca
pi
iti
parinamah agamagamyah,
503.
jivapudgalesit kathaflcltpratyaksagamyo
j",
Ibid,,
24
''Jivaditiafn
I"',
440
dravyasyottarakaral}
"Ptirvasvabhavapa'-itycgajjaliadvrttotpado
parhamafr
sa
eva
t .
Ibid., p. 440.
prainamo
(lharmadftarmaka'sajivesii,
TS.. p. 438,
27
p. 438,
28
29
"Rupfsli
p.
tu
dravyejit
spar'saparinaniSdirlti /".
TS
439.
J.G. Sikdar
(existenfia'fHyj.
According to Sid 'hasena Ganin Adimsn parinttma (change of transfermation with a beginning) like yoga (activity) and upayoga .(consciousness)
takes place even
in 'the
:
in'
the nori-corporeal
Souls; similarly
it
is
also operative
etc.
31 non-Corporeal substances
like Principle
of Motion,
The
or transformaall
substances-
corporeal and
non-corporeal, while considering their substratum. They have been studied in the Digambara works like Sarvarthasiddhi, Rsjavartika, etc;, from the points of view of generality and particularity respectively,
while they have been dealt with in
the
Tattvarthadhigama
of
all
Satra-Bhasya(pravfiha)
points of view
series
are occurring in
critical
subsatnces.
appears
clearly froiu
the
above
analysis
of the
paryaya
(mode) and pariifama (change or transformation) that Arlhaparysya corresponds to Arisdi parinama of a Dravya (Substance), while VyanjanaparyHya
is In harmony with Adimnn pariifsma. Besides, it is revealed that these two parinamas are related to Knla (Time). Parinvma (change) is understandable only with reference to it, whatever may be the varieties and kinds of
manifestation.
It
means
destruction of one
characteristic
and origination
NATURE OF PERMANENCE-IN-CHANGE
Age of Indian Philosophy or transformation) took a new turn in
thpu|J!t
In the
the
concept
field
the
with
the
onward
march of
its
progress, as
of
intsrpr.ejtatipn
of
aphorism
'tadbhsvah
PQJy a pa da
as
'pratyabhijasnahetum' api
by
AcSrya
of
the
recognition
& '"DravyMamWalvasatttidayoanMy
hafn vleinastt, TS., p. 439.
31.
pudgaladravye
parhamafy santvyamumart.
"E^m
tarhyprwlsvapl d^vysivsdimSnapi
JWW
32
paramo
astu, astyeva
vaksyamanah
Marmtfiwibhwati,
tadvadeveti,
partnSmrUava^namWesu dharmSdi S u.
pariiamabhiimh
ny~ay
rfrw^r^aWaw^^
bkaianapradar'sanerthamevam
sutranyasal,,
aparlnZm
itvacctnirdhoryammrasvabhavalnyur dhqrmadayah, wata utpadavyayaparlmmaLvatv-', tasmat sarvetra kecidansdySli k^ldadimant^ parinamZ fti ah
r^karlna tl
k r ta Hi
/",
Ibid
pp 439 4
53
non-occurrence" and
In
the
explanation of
Sfltra
'Tadbhtivah' given by the auto-commentary of the Tattvarthgdhigama as simply 'Sato bhavah". He explains Identity subjectively, so to say,
epistto the
Smologicaliy
on
the
ground of knowledge of
recognition, contrary
auto-Commentary's grammatical objective explanation of the principle of identity as non-deviation from the s'.ate of being Sat (real), in connection with the expounding of the meaning of the aphorism 'Tadbh'Zv'nvynyani nityain'
in this manner; "It
is
that
which
is
The remembrance
'This is that only,' is recognition. (This is the same thing I saw yesterday), that does not occur accidentally, that which is the cause of such a statement
is
its
intrinsic
nature (tadbhftva).
Existing
is
existence.
Tadbhsva
is
Us
thing Is seen as having the nature with which it was seen formerly. recognized In the from 'This Is that as that (very thing).' If it be considered that the old thing has completely disappeared and that an entire-
"A
Is
So
It
new thing has come into existence, there can be no remembrance. And general behaviour or relation based on it would be disturbed. Therefore, the indestructibility of the essential nature of substance Is determined
ly
as permanence'
1
.
36
suggestion of his
predecessor
In
regard
to
the
point "Tat tu kathaftddveditavyam",** Akalanka explains the which may come in the way of the three aspects of Reality,
contradiction
viz.
utpnda
(origination), vyaya (decay) and dhrauvya (permanence) with the help of the principle of relative points of view of substantiality (dravyfrthikanaya) and modification (parynyftrthikawya). As to the point of this contradiction 'that" which is destroyed is not destroyed, that which is born la not born"
(that
is, destruction
origination and
permanence cannot
an
may
be con-
by which
calling a
the conception of permanence (nityafn) is made by the view e. g. the case of decay and origination (vyqyodaya) are conceived,
an
subject
34
man father and son from onerand the same point of view. But here and anitya (non-permanent), i. e, entity can be called nitya (permanent) and modal points of to origination and decay from the substantial
I
"PratyabhiManahetuta
ttti
tadakasmsnna bhava-
yo' asya
hetuji
sa tadbh&val}
bfiavanam bh&vab
teaya
bhdvastadblitvaf,!", Sarva
thasiddhi, p. 30?.
35
'
-vastu tenaivgtmans
punrapi
W'aW
tadevedamltt pratyabhtfrii-
vs,sya< tata^ smaran&nupayadyatyantunirodho abhinavapradurbhitvamatrameva virudhyate I tatastadbh&vennvyayam tadbhwvyayam pattij, tadadfnno lokasafavyavaha.ro
nttyamiti ni'sciyate"
Sarvarthasiddhi", p. 302,
36
Ibi4.
54
J,
C. Sikdar
view respectively. So
Reality.
37
there
is
no
contradiction
in the
three
aspects
of
Acsrya Pujyapada
defines
and
of Reality in this way : "Origination dhrauvya (peramanence)-tbe three factors substances by means of is the attainment of other modes by souls or other external and Internal cause, without giving up their essential characteristics. from clay. Similarly, the loss of the production of a pitcher For
instance,
the former
mode
!s
destruction, as for
instance,
the loss
of the
is
is,
lump
perma-
shape of clay in
nent.
As
there
no annihila*
it
tlon, or origination
It
is
lasting.
That
is
The quality of being permanent is permanence. For instance, clay 8* continues to exist !n the lump, the pot and its borken parts."
Akalanka deals with the problem of the identity or difference between Dravya (Substance) and utp~ada (origination), vyaya (destruction) and dhra>
89 while giving a further explanation of the three aspects uyya (permanence), of Reality. According to his view, there is somehow difference and somehow
non-difference
between utpvdavyayadhrauya
like
parynyas
(modes)
and
Parynyldmvya (changing substance), for if utptida (origination), etc. are regarded as different from satta (being or essentiality), there will be no existence of Dravya (substance) and in the absence of Dravya (Substance)
there will be the non-existence of the uipUda (origination), etc.,
on account
if
and laksana
(characteristics),
charactersitics"
!s
In the auto-commentary of the Tattvarthsdigama Sutra the term 'Nitya'U explained in the light of the changing nature of objects. But the
Term
'Nitya' or
ment aspect of
37
entities. Nevertheless,
their interpretation of
appears to
."Vlrodha
ill
cet;
dharrna'saryanat.
notpadyate
It!
virodhah; tato
sy&nmatam viyadva na vyeti utpadyamsna eva na yuktamlli; kim karanam ? dharmantara'srayanat / yadi
38
ycna rapena vyayodayakalpana tenaiva rupena nityata pratljflayeta syad virodhaft, jqttakatvapeksayaiva pitaputravyapade'savat, na tu dharmaitarasam'srayanat." RV. p. 497 "Ctitanasyacetanasya va dravyasya svain jatinmjahata ubhayanimittava'stid-bhavSntarriveiptiriitpadanamutpadah mftpindasya
ghafaparyayavat
tatfia
purvabhavavigamanam
ghatotpattau pindakfteh / anadiparinamikasvabhavena vyayodayavyayah / yatha bhavud-dhruvati sthin bhavat;ti d/iruvvyasya bhavat, karma va dhrawyam / y.ath& niftp-
indaghatadyavasthasirmfdadyanaya]} /"
39
.
Sarvar:!iasiddhi, p. 300.
/
"Utpadadfuam
dravyasya
cobhayaths,
anyatvananyatvam pratyanekantopapatteh
/"
cet;
no;
40
"Yadyarthantarabhavah
syat
I
tcalpyeta;
tani
vali
tato
iti
anyalv&t
dravyasyabhavaj,
tadabhave ca
niradharatvat
utpadadinamalhava
laksyalaksanabhavo. notpa-
dyate",
41
RSjavartika, p. 496.
vyeti nn vyesyati tantiityamiti", TS,,
Bhaya,
p.
891,
Principle of Permanenace-in-Change
in
Jalna Philosophy
55
be
(nitya).**
Acsrya Kundakunda made the actual application of the doctrine of parinSma (change or transformation) to the cases of /iva (Soul) and Pudgala (Matter) and Kzla (Time)," while Scarya Pujyapada," Akalanka"
and the later Acaryas used it in the Adharma (Principle of Rest) and
Pariqnrrias of
these
substances
cases of
Dharma
(Principle of Motion),
have
shown
only
Pudgala (Matter),
nature.
As to the nature of permanence-in-change (parinnminltyatt) It Is explained that an entity which; is not lost of its own condition of Sat (Existence or being) is permanent. Sat is coupled with the three potent factors, viz. origination, decay and permanence. 48 But here the question arises how
It is
'.entity
which
is
permanent
is
impermanent
at
the
same time and that which is impermanent is permanent at the same time. In one and the same substance there cannot exist at a time two elements of being opposite permanence and im permanence like cold and heat because
permanence is indestructlbilty of the'essential nature of the substances. 4 ' For this reason, here the idea is to explain the nature of to each other, as
the
the
principle
of permanence
of
Jalna
philosophy
in order
to
avoid
self-contradictory
statement
the
And
way
would become
of
meaningless.^
If
like
the
accepted
the
is,
nature
an
entity
as kutasthanitya
an
object exists
by any means
42
'
without
there
would have
arisen
vyafn
tat ,u
kathandd ve&Ua-
43
logassa
Paring iHyaMe
samghadado va
iti
44
45 46 47 48
"DharmSdini
vflte"
dmvyw
sa yenSfmart bhavanti
p. 317.
tadbhtwtattom paringma
..
.
SarvSrthasiddhi.
iM
V. 29, p
374,
Tamil
nityutva anyath
SarvSrthasiddhi, p. 302.
56
the contradiction of
j. C.
Sikdar
permanence aad impermanence in this unchangeable no because of there being of eternality (ku(asthanityats) possibility impermanence (anityatva). Similarly, like the Buddhist Philosophy', if
the Jaina system of thought would have accepted
an
entity as
momentary
by regarding each entity having the factors-origination aad decay at every moment, even then the contradiction of permanence and impermanence would have arisen because of there being no possibility of permanence
(nityatva)
in the case of
Metaphysics admits an
change, even having
Therefore,
entity as
momentary change. But on the other hand, Jalna permanent~in-change without accepting It as
undergoing
are
remained
permanent
the
in their
respective categories.
characteristics
UmSsvSti
explains that
contradictory
Scsrya Pnjyapsda
racterized
this way.
by an
is
Infinite
number of
attributes.
prominence
se are of
given to certain
characteristics
Is
from
one
point of vfew.
And prominence
need
no use or
at the
Thus
tradctlon In what
expressed, as these are of secondary importance (anarpita). There is no conIs established by these two points of view. 60 "Just aa the
!s
of his son
and
Is a son from the point of view of his father, just so a substance is permanent from the aspect of general properties and Impermanent from that of specific modes. 61 Hence, there Is no contradiction. These two, the general and the particular, somehow, are different as well as identlcar'B
Having
change
In his as
corporeal substance, then it ia permanent, because It never gives up corporeality or substantiality. When that entity, having many charactbecomes eristics, prominent by the mode of only form (mrtpln da) t while making corporeality and substantiality secondary, It is Impermanent, for the mode of lump is impermanent. If only the objective elements o'f the
43 50
TS., ch. V. 31.
minent
'**"*
51
Tadyatha-ekasya
Devadattasya pits
piitro..BtitrSDekwv3
/,-
52
57
accepted, there
will
take
ranee of phenomenality, because only substance like entity devoid of des is not an entity, nor is only the objective element of the modal
of view an entity, Lokayatra (worldly
life
mopoint
by such an
cannot
be Paryzya
Dmiya
having
substantl-
and modification,
i.
e.
On
:
6* explains the problem In this ahange as given by AkalaAka, Vidyananda way "As an object, substantially prominent and modally secondary, Is permanent, so an object, modally prominent and substantially secondary, is
impermanent.
of
Therefore, in each entity no contradiction arises In its occurrence from the substantial aspect of permanence and the modal aspect
Impermanence"
S, e.
not
like that of the Sariikhya system of applicable only to the non-living reality thought, but it is applicable to the Sentient Principle ( Jftatatattva) also. Here lies the difference between the Jaina Parinftmavnda (Doctrine of
transformation) or Paryttyavnda (Doctrine of mode) and the Ssrhkhya Parinnmavnda (Doctrine of evolution or transformation).
change or
According to the Ssrhkhya philosophy, the starting point of an equilibrium (Prakftf) consisting - Sattva (Intelligence - stuff), Rajas diffusion of the Reals
evolution was a state
In the cosmic
In a
uniform
(Energy-Stuff) and
Tamas (Mass or
Inertia).
58
of Patafijali defines Parirfama VySsa, the commentator of Yogasutra permanent matter after an ear-
all-pervasive;
it
is
end
of time.
exist
There
is
the finest
rest in
it
and
It
cannot
even for a
moment
without
undergoing
transformation
into
newer
53
RSiavSrtika. p. 497.
54
55
56
"Sattvarajastamasam
samyavastha Prakytih
",
SfirhkhyapravacanabhSsya, VijfiSna-
/'
YognbMsya,
III, 13.
Satnbodhi 6-3, 4
58
J. C.
Sikdar
It
preserves
its
such nature In
There
is
the
capacity of exparw
e.
to
undergo
finest
conditions Instate
to fine conditions
and from
the
grossest
It
material
by
is
by self-generated
capacity without
impetus
of any
place everywhere,
reals are
from the
smallest and
from what
any
moment
is
different
In the Buddhist philosophy it is found that a method of critical analysis of Pudgala (personality or soul) and Rup'oyatana (External world or
matter) into
Buddha
their respective Dharmas (elements) was followed by Lord to determine the problem of eternality and non-eternality (sassafa
and asassata)** in the light of the principle of permanence-]n-change. the denial of substance (drmya) 1. e. permanent reality, only modes of feelings,
sense-data,
place.
etc.
On
Its
have been
admitted
by
the Buddhist
philosophy
not
in
So
the Pitakas
advocate the
doctrine
of Non-Substance
is
(analta)
According
to Prof. Stcherbastsky,
"The
possibility
precluded
that
It
was
laid before
Buddhaii as
Kathopanisad. ^
1
evidence that the Buddhist doctrine; arlness (ftwffcuMfa) was influenced by the doctrine of
this
appears from
ficatlon (pratikwaparinnma) as
advocated by
the
thought.
The word
anence
nence)
,,
it
But here
is
was used by the Buddha in the sense conveys a special significance that ancicatci
always associated with anatn (non-substance). The word </csana>* also occurs m the Buddhist works to denote the unique moment The doctrine of prantyasamutpMa (dependent origination)M by the Buddha to relate one moment to another in the negation b of r an underlying substance.
'
WM
58
59
B r ahmJ;il
History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, p 250, Dr. S Dwgupt. " tta and Gala M..u ftUyM u t, Majjhimani^a
I
'l'...
V.
'
V^ndKU.
45,
Principle of Permanence-in-Change
in
Jaina Philosophy
5$
Some statements
existence
of the
Buddba appear
to be contrary to
the doctrine
of Tnomentarmess, as he speaks of origination (j&ti), decay (vyaya] and of a Samskriadharma (non-eternal elemnt), 86 and he says (sthiti) the past, the present and the future exist. e. i.
(decay),
forces.
The school of the Sarvastivadins viewed iitpTida (origination), vyaya sithiti (existence) and anityata (impernianence), as objectively real
87
that
these
forces
operate
simultaneously
upon
an
Here the problem arises how origination and destruction could be simultaneous in the case of a momentray entity or element (dharma), It is
solved by the Sarvast'wanins by showing the relation between the real essence of the element (dliarma-svabhnva) and its momentary manifestation future. It Is (dharmalakrana). "The first exists always in past, present and
not
eternality
means
absence
of change,
but
It
of the element into phenomenal existrepresents the potential appearances ence and its past appearances as well. This potentiality is existing for
ever (sarvadnstif
The problem of
of
an
element
and
its
manifestations
detail.
Dharm.
trata,
Ghosaka, Vasumitra,
and
Buddhadeva propounded
four theories to
of existence), Lahja* BhVoanyathatvavVda (Doctrine of change it, viz, of change of character), AvasthZnyathntvavMA naayathntvavacta (Doctrine and (Doctrine of of AnyalhTinyathikavnda of condition) change (Doctrine
solve
relative change)"
respectively.
all
According to Kamalaslla,
lists)
of the changing manifestation Samkhya theory which contains the principles eternal matter Prakrtl. or modification (paririsma) of one
and permanent
entities
differ
have real
not
from the
The
objective
reality
of origination
etc.,
was
as mere subjective notions (prajfiapti sat) of stream, but not etc. point to a series
because the
to a
moment."
fiR
Ahh
II
46;
The
II.
69
33.
70
71
60
J.
C. Sikdar
rejected
the
reality of the
supposed polnt-
i. e. doctrine of tnomentarinsss, OQ the ground of an appeal to common sense and maintained that every separate object and every notion are dialectical, relative and illusive"^ The Yogacara
school
reinstated
the
is
doctrine
real
of
is
momentariness
In
and
advocated
that
consciousness
alone
but
soul was
house of consciousness) through the backdoor. Later on (his concept of banished by Dingngga and Dharmaklrti from the Buddhist
kingdom.
It
is
73
in the Arigu.
Nikaya implies the suggestion of the admittance of parinarnimtyata (permanence-in-changej in early Buddhism. According to the Vedanta, as revealed in the Upaaisad, the external world is a transformation of
ttara
Brahman.
as
permanent-in-change throws
in this
way
light upon "The unitary Brahman transforms and vital universe without
:
1
losing
"' 6
It
The trend of the Indian metaphysical thought shows the evolution of parinumavVda of the Ssmkhya-Yoga system, leading into Kijanikavnda of
the Buddhist philosophy
Illusion)
and
into
Mayavada (Doctrine
of appearance
or
of
the Vedantlst
Ankara
Brabmapa-
rlnsma.
To wind up
the discussion,
an identity
is
essential
in
the case of
all
changes, 1, e. no relations in time are possible in the absence of a permanent entity. The relative permanence is implied by the occurrence of any succession as advocated by Jalna philosophy. The doctrine of change (par, iwmavvdd) is conceived in this system in this manner that an entity has got two aspects-permanent and changing, static and dynamic, it undergoes change without giving up its essential nature. It seems to
tory that
some aspects of an
all
be self-contradicIs
entity are
static
or
to
changing, for
parts constitute
one
organic
explained
is
remove
static,
an
entity
not really
to
with
regard
that
72
Buddhist Logic
73
74
75
Anguttra NifcSya
of.
I.
The
school,
ofBhartrprapafica, Bhfckara,
I,
76
77
laopanijad,
V.
in the sequel" n
1.1. 26.
61
Here aho the idea of homogeneous change is contradictory Q terms appears that permanence of Jaiaa philsosphy bears negative connotation'
I
It
denotes not to cross certain limits in the process of change. in the process of change; it can change
i*
An
entity
itself
into
Conclusion
different
views of Indiaa
philosophical
that
schools in
In
all
of
permanence-in-change reveals
the
doctrines of Reality the prominence of the knowledge of the subject is experiencsd for the admittance of the principle of peroianence-ln-change In a comprehensive form. la the experience of life thereicomes up no such reality which is only unchangeable or only changeable on its observation with the subtler point of view. All or
entities-external eternal, appear to be permanent-in change- If all entities are momentary then no experience of the same class comes ia due to the cause of the origination and desire ction of newer and newer entities and there cannot be the
recognition,
its
i.e.
the lcnowledge-It
is
perception
current er
again because of there being no permanent substratum series of momentary changes. Just as the state of
objective entity is
in that
permanence of the
the permanence
necessary
i.e.
just so
the subjective entity also, is necessary to recognize the former. Similarly, if the living or non-living substance were devoid of modification, then there would have never taken place the variabilities in the universe as the combined form of these two realities. Therefore, Jalna philosophy regards the principle of permansnce-in-change as logical,
of the seer-soul,
1.
The
Without clearly
live his life
aspects,
ficance'
may
meaning and d e ep significance. meaning and signiGcaocc, ooe cannot The development of man in all In correct and proper way. be described as an attempt to know this meaning and signilife
upon
earth has
great
understanding
its
In other
words,
it
is
an attempt
to
discover
himself.
Whether
we take
seems
2.
sans
principle
to
be the
underlying urge.
When we
look to
is
the West,
we
find
that the
beginning of the
spiritual philosophy
To know
as
'<
the development
traced to pre-Socratic period of Greek Civilisation. of thought ih West, one will study the Greek
Socrates and
will
philosophy propounded by
Socratic Dialectic."
know about
his
process
known
He
his
immortal Dialo-
He will study the Christian thought Aristotle. gues and he will study and the Scribes that the where Jesus appeared and told the Pharasee* the movement knOivn as Renaiwill He within. study is God of
kingdom
ssance
1
he
will
study the
different
which 'took
two
intellectual development just after Renaissance forms -one associated with Francis Becon and
He
will
Of Locke,
Berkeley
and Home;
and he
study the English Empirical philosophy will study the German IdealiM
of
Hume,
3.
self
available
information about
The
the
first
source
consists of
the Samhitas,
Brahmarias and
sacred
Upanisads.
(li)
(Ill)
aid of God, prayer Involving the The second source is Jain Literature secular and religious. The third source is Buddhistic literature secular and religious.
For this conference which has been organised with a view to 4. to cultivate the spirit of have intensive search in the matter of God and that I should throw Universal brotherhood, it has been desired of me
light in
(1)
relation to
Jajnism on
the three
questions
namely
?
What
is
the
* Paper read at The First All India Religious Conference, Bombay on llth and Juns 1977.
I21h
Jaina Answer
(2)
(3)
to three
Questions
63
?
Can God be
Is
it
realised
If so, to
absolutely
necessary
preacher
Guru
for
realising
God
is derived from the word "Jina" which means one who conquered the passion such as attachment, aversion, ignorance and attained absolute purity, perfection and Omniscience. In the
The term
Jainism
dialogue
between Vasistha and Rama, given in YogavSsisiha, VairSgya Prakarana, Sarga 15, Rama referred Jina thus:
ca na
jino
me manah
yathn
/(
Rama; desire; my mind is not in any other I only want to establish bliss in myself as of Una." The faith or the belief propounded by such Jina, from time to time since beglnnjtime is as known Jainism. Shrimad ngless Rgjacandra, the spiritual
I
"
am
not
have
no
subatance;
guide
faith,
of
Mahatma Gandhi,
states
:
gave the
name
Satya
Dharma
als.0
to this
when he
yath/a hetu je
It
is
re......
not a
faith or religion of
race,
caste, creed or
nities of
ancient
followed
this faith.
community. Men of all India- Brahmin, Ksatriya, Vaisya be news to some that It may
the twenty-four
As
this
belief
is
non-sectarian
in
its
true sense,
the
approach
according
like
etc.
questions will also be non-secterlan, philosophic and to the teaching of the great saints and spiritual
Masters
AcSrya
in
Kundakijnda,
the
Amrtacandra
Tlrthaftkara.
6.
In order
to appreciate
it
the answers to
the
questions
bare
before us,
outline?
In relation
to Jainism,
is
necessary
to
know,
with
at least,
it,
facts associated
for instance
is
the fact
a
mass
(matter),
rest),
is
(Dravyas). They are Jiva (soul), Pudgala Dharmfistiknya (medium of motion), AdharnastlkUya (medium of
%k$sa (Space) and z?/a (Time). The essential nature of JIM or soul Cetann (knowledge, awareness). It is different from ail the other five kinds of substances which are not characterised by Cetaria. They are fchown as Ajiva in Jalna Metaphysics. The Akfffa or the space substance
64
Is
D. C, Mehta
one but
is
it
known
as
Lokukt&a
one
which
all
found.
The
Lokakv'sa
Alokskn'sa.
as to
six
kinds of these
The
souls are
multi-infinite in
are found in
than the
The Pudgala or the matter substances are infinitely more in number souls and they are found in the entire Lok'sknh. The smallest
which cannot
be further divided,
in
is
is
known
it
as
Pudgala
the whole
number and
one
in
occupies
it
number and
LokaMa,
and occupies
its
The AksSa
is
one in number
two
sub-divisions
and Alokskalia.
are innumerable
and
Each of these
attributes
six kinds
of substances
have
infinite
number of
their
common
gunas)
(Snmanya
gunas}.
all
They have
three of
specific attributes
which do
not exist in
of them
but are
the
found in
(VUew own
substances only.
We
will take
now
is
common
)
attributes for
(
our present
the second
is
purpose.
The
first
ths attribute
(
of Existence
Astltva
third
),
Dravyatva
virtue
and the
the
is
the attribute
Existence,
of Areaness
PradeSatva
).
By
of
attribute of
on changing
ever existing.
every
of
will
permanence
be able to
:
we
utpfida-vyaya-dkrauvya-yuktaip sat
Sat or Existence is characterised by appearance, disappearance and permanence.' In other words, it is a permanent reality in the midgt of change of appearance and disappearance.
9.
Thus
the
universe
(i.e.
all
the
six
It
kinds
has
of
without
destroyer;
a beginning
and
it
without
an end;
no
continuously undergoing changes. In other words, the existence of each of the six kinds of substances, composing the universe, has three vital characteristics namely appearance ( ut
diga ppearance (vyaya)
however,
is
and permanence
(dfirauvya).
Jaina
10.
Answer
to
Three
Questions
is
6$
peculiar
to
JaSnism.
for
worth knowing
occasion.
light,
But we
will
have
to lea?e it
her
some other
The modern
have reference
in
found
in Jajna literature.
11.
By
common
attribute
of the six kinds of substances have always some shape or form. The specinature of the sou] is CetanZ which means fic attribute or the essential
or the knowledge. consciousness, the power of cognizance, the awareness Some of the other specific attributes of soul are faith (DarSana or Sraddha), attributes is condiof these The growth Bliss
Conduct
soul,
(Cvritra),
(Sukha).
knowledge
the universe.
manifests
itself
infinitely,
whole of
He becomes
Omniscience. The
The
Infinite
number
of souls
are
(1) worldly
souls
(2)
the
souls
(Slddhas).
Those wordly
who
oneness
of attachment, aversion with other substances and with the thought activity of Karmas, are subjected and ignorance, which is the main knot of bondage of are born again in four states to the cycles of birth and death. They lower animal (Tiryaltca), exiatence (Gatl), namely Hellish being (Nnraka), are associated with Human being (Manutya) or Divine being (Dm). They
in auspicious karmic-bondages and pass infinite time, indulging souls. are Samfan-Jivas, the wordly thought-activity. They
and
evil
what Is the to the first question namely 13 To understand the reply the term 'God means of God-one must know what holy name and form He !s Included sou] and perfected God according to Jslnlsm is a liberated s
are All Go souls known as SW*. fn the second category of the God is not the creator or destroyer AS the universe is Anndi and Anarte, the uaiverse. making substances, of nf the universe or any of the six kinds and changeability as observed above, attributes of existence
5^.
"
B V ttue
destroyed.
an end; only
its
states
or
condi-
Sambodhi
6-3, 4
66
of things. Everywhere
ft.
C. Mehta
and growth. Whether we look to the world of plants or of animals, the field of history or biology, this description of existence is clearly born out. Let us take the case of the life history of a a plant. It begins itself in the form of a seed. The seed which is planted in the soil breaks the shell and sprouts out. At find we every stage, change
find development
we
of appearance of a
being
new
state
shed
off
and
is
the
and disappearance of old state; the old leaves new sprouts coming out, the plant or the tree
is
remaining.
What
the six
existence.
is
We
find
illustrated
these changes in the different substances, including the sou]. God cannot be the giver of happiness and misery to the soul or beings. If God Is said
to
be such
giver, godliness
of
God
passes
away and he
will
be
involved
and aversion.
/
"There
is
no necessity of God
Karmas. The
Karmas
nature (due to the attribute of changeability) and they shed away on the enjoyment of their fruits.
fructify by their
15.
own
auspicious
Those souls, who being unattached to and getting rid of all the and evil thought activity, have freed themselves from all the
their unfettered, intrinsic
pure nature. They cross and go to the top of the Lok'sk'n'sa. They are Gods. Just as there is plurality of souls, there
plurality of
selves,
who have
Gods. They are souls, who have completely liberated thenu attained Moksa. The individual worldly souls who are
Gods, have limited themselves by the Karmic Condi* The Karmic conditions are also known as Upfidhis. They are the associating cause or Mmilta Knrana for confusion between the pure nature of soul and the thought-activity, between the soul and non-soul substances. The pure nature of soul can be compared to some extent with the
tions.
potential Siddhas or
shining
sun
in all brilliance
layers of clouds,
and the worldly soul with ;tha sun hidden by dense which bids (he sunshine. The rays of the sun will perin
meate through the clouds, according to the variations the clouds. These variations in the appearance of the
the various stages of
the
density of
the
spiritual
dispersed
the
shine,
without
any
different
jaina
nature
Answer
it
Three
Questions
(tf
become
the
obstructing
delusion
of the
rid
self-shining sou!.
of,
When the Karinic Upadhis get destroyed God also emerges and shines in his
and become
prestine
purity.
Dear
fi
first
part of the
qustion, namely
is
that the
as
name
of
God
now give the correct reply to the What is the name of GodYou can name him
Paramatma, Isvara, Bhagavana, Siva, Buddha and by number of such names indicating the absolute and perfect manifestation of any of his
attributes.
last It is correct
to
name him
liberated
as well
by
the
name
of the
body,
occupied Mahavira.
by
such
soul, as for
17. The second part of the first question God ? God is, as we have seen above, a pure He cannot be perceived by any of the five
is
what
is
the
form
is
of
soul substance.
He
arupi.
senses as
he has no
such
one ol the
(
corporeal or concrete form, which can be the subject of any of the five senses of taste, touch, smell, seeing and hearing. However, as he is also six kinds of substances, it has also, the attribute of Areaness
this
Prade&atva). He has, therefore, a form of particular Areaness, consisting of innumberable space-points (prade&as), equal to those of Lokfikasa. But form expands and contracts in accordance to the size of the body, the
soul occupies.
have now come to a stage of understanding where, you can 18. yourself reply correctly the second part of the question that the form of the liberated soul i.e. the form of God Is Arupi (not visible by any of the senses) and of little less in size than the last body occupied by him,
19.
We
Due
contemplation
helps a
good
have
well.
We
pure nature of soul, a liberated soul. It means God is not some other thing, different from the soul. They are not two different but
is
God
The
reply
to
the
first
part of
Can God
is,
be
God, which he
himself
by being
free from the belief of oneness with other substances like the body he This belief of oneness with them is occupies and with his thought-activity. the main knot of the bondage of material and Karmic impurities.
illustrations
of
our
is
daily
experience.
city to a village
where there
no water-works and
water
is
68
>.
C. Mehta
is
and
mud mixed
either
with
in its condition of
by putting
it
by allowing
tion
pure water, even So you start the process of filtering it or by putting alum or Katakaphala in it, or to rest for sometime. You then get pure water. If a quesit.
You
a
muddy
it
iA
filter
in the bucket is put to you whether the water in the muddy water brought from the lake and the pure water obtained after filtering are two different waters or the same water, you will at once reply, it is the same
water.
21.
Sometimes,
water,
in
it
the
muddy
your
water "some
the
bucket
happens that before you start the process of filtering young daughter happens to see the muddy in your absence. She requires a bucket for
other
it
purpose.
She
muddy
that
knowing
this,
you
the
reply will
know
of the
be
had in
that village
from
it,
by the process of
22. In day to day worldly life, all our actions take place because of our knowledge about the inherent or potential perfectness of the aim. You did the filtering of the muddy water In the above illustration, as you know
its
condition of muddiness.
You brush
your teeth in the morning, as you know their intrinsic whiteness or cleanliness. You wash your dirty clothes because you know and have faith in their
intrinsic
If
that
even
in
condition of dirtiness, the characteristic of the cloth is only a combination which can be removed
white
by applying
the
worldly existence. His urge must be so strong that he prays and worships Siddha, the liberated soul and meditates on him as a model or an pure self that he too might reach and manifest
slmiliar condition.
He knows very
favour
is
or
cure
by
way
ofjgift
known
faith
well that he cannot receive any boon, from Siddha, The ever-existing pure self
as Trikali
Buddha Atma
Tattva.
and
Then he must concentrate or meditate on his ever-existing pure means he must withdraw his conscious attentivenegs from all other
realities
Jaina Answer
to
Three
Questions
69
and turn It to his ever-existing pure self. The first two - faith and knowledge - when they are right are known as Samyak Darsana and Samyak JKsna and the third concentration (conscious attentiveness) when it is right
known as Samyak Cnritra. Mokfa Mnrga (Path of Liberation) is denned by Acsrya Unaasvatt in his monumental work known as TattvartbaSQtra thus
is
:
SamyakdarsanajnanacftritrZni mak$am3rgah
//
"Right
constitute
faith, right
knowledge and
the path of liberation". Tattvas which are seven in number, require an elaborate discussion. But we will have to leave them here for want of time for some other occasion.
24. In
conduct, these three together, The deflation stated above and the
right
tion,
order to be receptive of the teachings about the path of liberamentioned above, the state of the aspirant for realisation must be
is
such
there
that there
is
embodied
existence;
compassion for all beings, including aptly stated by Shrlmad Rajchandra thus
:
and
there
himself.
This has
been
Katjckyarfi upa'sHntatn,
tritltra
mok{a-abhila$a
//
('Atma-Siddhi' stanza-38)
As long as his soul does not attain path of liberation and his inner disease
this state,
he
does
is
not
get
(he
of ignorance of self
not removed.
When
his soul attains such state, the teaching which he gets from True Guru
effective.
becomes
He
from from
from the body, mind and speech; distinct the thought-activity of attachment, aversion and ignorance; distinct the fragmentary knowledge of all of them. All the impure and are momentary. The present imperfect modifications of the attributes of soul
knowledge and
bliss, distinct
existing.
but the soul is everstate or condition appears and the old one disappears, Karmas, free from thoughtIt is absolutely pure, free from all
activities
and
free
in the condition
infinite
of their
union
bliss.
with
him.
and
knowledge and
All
These
souls,
nature.
the
Infinite
insect are alike. Each one of them is like the right from the smallest If one contemplates liberated. Siddha as they have potentiality of being
'
over
cease to cause slightest hurt, knowingly, to any this, he will certainly or by words. He will see a similar God being either mentally or bodily the right faith and knowledge of selfleads Thus is. himself in them as he universal brotherhood in the to cultivate the spirit of love and
invariably
70
>,
C. Me'hia
whole universe. This love and brotherhood will not be limited only in the case of man with man but also in case of man with all the beings.
25.
its
essence
is
absolutely
pure,
enlightened
bliss.
However, in the
is
so intimately attached
to matter
and
is
absorbed in
mundane
pleasures
is
and pains. He
self or
mind. In
fact
the inind
absorbed
in thought-activity
above
that
when
the teaching
becomes
effective, the
self.
aspirant
for
realisation
gets a clear
picture
of ever existing
It
is
before
theft
him
first.
Let us understand
this
by
some
illustration.
There
is
in your neighbourhood. The police is informed. The police comes and records the statement of all the available persons who were present nearby, at the time of the alleged theft to ascertain the presence of some
person and his exact description as far as possible. The investigating staff of the Police Deptt. has now a picture before them about the alleged thief
from the recorded statements before them. Then they start further invest!gation to find such person. You want to construct a house. First you get Then the construction starts according to prepared a plan of that house.
that plan.
Of
course in the
cases of
the
there
is
a probability of the alleged thief to be innoccent and the plan of the house requiring a change. But in the case of self, there is a difference. based on your The picture of the self Is not only intellectual effort for realising self but it is also on the teaching of one who
has himself realised and experienced
it
is,
therefore,
being incorrect.
is
material.
When
before
him
of his
self,
the blissful
must have before his mind a correct the Sndhaka has the correct picture thinking arises. The process of turning
self,
and of withdrawing it from The knowledge of self the soul attains right belief and emerges. The delusion being destroyed, self or the his ever about existing godliness in him. The conknowledge
his conscious attentiveness
towards
this
own
thought-activity starts.
self,
with the
result
that
the
vows
namely
non-injury
(Ahimsfi),
Celibacy (Brahmacaryd) and Non-possessiveness (Aparigraha) becomes, by and by effortless with him. The seif-absorbslve conduct (Samyak aaritra) increases more and more. The soul attains the state of complete non-
development
is
Jalna
Answer
to
Three
Questions
71
shown by
Philosophy.
Though
the
body
is
present the highest state of knowledge (Kevala JftiHd) is experienced. Then on the annihilation of Ayufya Karma, the Union of the body with the soul
comes
soul,
to
end for
ever.
He becomes
the SidJIw
and perfected
God,
27. This
is
God
himself.
it
how, when and by what means one realises and becomes To summarise the reply to the second part of the second
question
can be said that the aspirant must first have correct knowledge and faith about his Triknli Suddha Atmatattm ~ the ever-existing pure self;
his conscious attentiveness towards
it,
withdrawing
it
from other substances and from his own thought-activity, which he realises and becomes God himself,
28.
as a result of
The
its
third question
is
>
Is It absolutely
i.
necessary to
have a prea-
cher {Guru)
tion in
for realisation of
God
let
To understand
proper perspectives,
us take an
illustration.
You
him and
in
happened to hear
whom we
When you
an
his
urge to meet
where-abouts
without
on
telephone
any
success. The urge in you increases as the days pass. From old newspapers, you find the names of the organisers of that discourses on that day,
You
your immediately information and the sketch, given on of the car reaching there, eater
his Dar&ana, resulting in
You
of the happiness, you get not only the whereabout but a sketch showing the road or roads leading to the place, from him. car and go to that place, with the help of the take
to
you by the
organiser.
You come
out
29.
You
feel
able to reach
from using yourself the information and the sketch, even after having them out of the car him, you would not have reached there; had you not come
and entered
the house, even after reaching there, you would not have met
his
Dartana.
Now
all
in the path of realisation. Only please apply this analogy who himself has realisation can show you the nature of your
soul with
of realising
it.
If you.
7^
b, C. Mehid
natiire
of your soul
and
p'atbl
for
realising
!t^
from
tfad
wno
himself
has realised
and
have realisation.
31
It is
therefore, absolutely
experienced It, you will riot necessary to have the True Gun/.
However,
it is
you who
from
about
it
will
have to
make
It
endeavours to understand
all angles,
as taught
by
is
the
true
Guru
and
have a clear
In
your mind.
such
self
these endeavours
you Guru
will
is.
own thought-activity. If you do not make not be able to realise your soul, how-so-ever
He cannot
Nobody on
give you realisation. You yourself hes the face of the universe can give you realisation,
32. the
question
may
occur to
some of you.
May
the Scriptures ? They should knowledge which the Guru gives, from remember what Plato said in the West and the great saints in the East be obtained from books and to of knowledge values the about comparative
the knowledge to be obtained from
first
is
True
the
Guru, by
without
life.
The second
is
result
of the
to
all
are actual
the path
solve
them.
The
True
out,
Guru who himself has walked on the path, takes his deserving disciple the deluded self-notion. step by step from
Manydika
jTitfim
chande na marOya
sadguru-saranamtlm,
alpapraySse jftya
//
"The great enemies such as passions of anger, pride, deceit and greed cannot be destroyed by deluded self-guidance. But by accepting the protection
of the True
33.
Gum,
they pass
away by
:
slight effort."
To
it
is
absolutely necessary to
time,
have a True
Gum
to
for realising
you
self,
will have
make
effort yourself to
know
correctly
your
ever-existing
as taught
by him and to
to realise
self in order
34. It
good
that
occur
to
raised and discussed in this ConThe organisers of the conference deserve admiration for it. However, the extent of its real success depends on the degree of understanding that we are devine, ever-existing pure nature of
self;
ws
are infinite
knowledge and
bliss;
we are not
and
this
body, mind,
inte*
we are
distinct
perish)
Jaina
Answer
to
Three
Questions
73
body of flesh and bones; we are distinct and different from the mind llect and thought-activity, which are finite and changeable; we are Infinite and unchangeable. One who knows and experiences his gelf as such is so
happy that he exclaims
in delight
:
aham
ekah khalu suddhah nirmamo'tah jnZnadar'sanasamagfah tasmin sthitas taccittah sarvSn etan k$ayam nayami //
really one, pure, without the sense of "mineness"
fixed
etc.
"I
am
and
full
of
complete knowledge and perception. Firmly self, I shall lead all these passions of anger
and absorbed
In such pure
to destruction.-'
by
Miss
Yasliofihara
Wadhwani
it
Is
in only
two passages of
Veda (=AV) that we come across the phrase hgatasya panthsh an Irregular accusative form pantkmri) 1 This phrase poses an exegetical problem because none of the meanings tbat are attested elsewhere for agata
.
seem
nings
to
fit
Let us
first
in a chronological order
1
The vocable agata is generally used adjectival y, with connotations both active and passive. In the active sense, we have the following varied shades
of meaning
:
1A who
(or which) has not gone (physically), e. g. i not moved to or reached some place, n not left a certain place, and Hi (rare) never absent from a place;
(or which) has not
IB who
gone (figuratively)
e. g.
tii
not accomplished
something,
experience.
H not
attained
some
state
and
1C which
(e. g.
future time)
sufficiently
far
ID
(in
Miniamss)
who
or
is
lagging behind.
2 Ai
2
(rare) that
which
is
difficult
to attain,, unattainable
AH
is
5 that which
Apart from
these
senses, agata
.
is
"the future'' 8
let
With
this
picture
In
mind,
its
us
now
5s
hgatasya panthnh.
One of
occurrences
found in
AV
xi.
10.16*
prdti
dftcatu/indra
iSakan
esam bahan
bhanaktu
ma
pratidham isum/
Agatasya
Panthsh
last
75
quarter in
the
Commenting on
:
this
following words apmptasyajigamhatah satrok ... pantlffinam asmat-praptyupnyabhutam yuffim tatah pfthakkurutsm; Tndrsam mT/rgam satrur na pa'syalvitji-arthah. Bloomfield (SEE XLii 126)follows Sayana and translates thus:
:
"Candramas
(ibid. p.
(the
moon)
shall
not
He
offers
no
remarks on
this
verse
in
his
"Notes"
637
ff.).
Whitney (1904 657) translates differently: "Let the moon put them on the track of what is not gone". He is not sure of the exact connotation of the last phrase and remarks "The last clause is very doubtful aad
:
:
difficult".
PW
of
(
-iu full(
meanings
agata,
Nichlkommen
i.
= non-return
Roth
that
&
death ?), both given wilh querry-tnarks which indicate Bohtlingk were not sure of or satisfied with the meaning suggese.
ted by themselves,
Before offering comments, let us also survey the available explanations of the other attestation of Agatasya panthTim, viz. AV xiv. 2.74 :
yedclm purvagan ras'anaydmana prajam asyai dra"vinam
tsrh
vahaiitv
cehzi
dettva/
agatasyanu
pantham
Sayana has not commented on this verse while Bloomfield has excluded the whole of AV xiv. 2 from his Hymns of th<; Atharvavcdu. Whitney, "She who hath come hither before girdling herself (?), however, translates
:
having
her let them given fo this woman here progeny and property carry along the toad of what is not gone; this one, a viraj, having good : "This obscure verse is not annotates He then hath conqered." progency,
made
be
clear by
if
Kausika Sutra
used
...
another
third
road
The
pada
to 77.4, though the latter perhaps means bridal procession goes athwart the track at a crossa mere ill-wish with contempt: "She is
it
perhaps
may
go to grass."
quotes
this
PW
verse
also
for
the
as are
noted above.
To begin, now, with a perusal of the various interpretations suggested that none of them above for agatasya panthsh by various scholars, we find 'but. is unable to bring are really satisfactory. Whitney translates it literally, to explain not have attempted and Bloomfleld cut any clear sense. Sayana c AV xiv. 2.74 and their rendering of agatasya in xi. 10.16 as (an enemy) a not is very happy who has not yet started but may turn up in future'
%
one.
Firstly
of the term requires supplementation involves a number-discrepancy with the secondly because this explanation reason for third the enemies repeatedly in this verse; the plural used for the probability of a better interpretation. Its non-acceptability is
'satroh
and
the other explanationa available. This probability compels us to review The first, Nichtkommen, of agata Let us begin with PW's neuter meanings be meant by saying that a bride be led to would is not very clear. What
:
other meaning suggested, the path the meaning of 'coming back' to Nichtwiederlcommen, requires us to assign to reach' but If the to 'to move, means go, the root gam which normally is death, then the same could still ultimate sense Intended by 'non-return' different explanation given by Monier Williams' stand, with a slightly the dominion of death'. The idea is that Dictionary : 'not yet frequented, us some day, although we may the world of death is sure to be visited by This idea has even been clearly expressed with so
of non-coming (
AV
xlv. 2.74
The
AV
itself
maiUm pantham
tema
ett
purusa
dnu gS bhltnd
1
esa"
yena
pSTvam neyatha
ta"m
/
bravimi
mi
1
pi a
pattbg
te
7 //
of agata, we could explain AV So, by accepting 'death as the meaning as saying "May the moon connect with them xl. 10.16 (last quarter) - the enemies the path of death, i. e. may she lead them to destruc:
tion". This
meaning
Satra
(
AV
xiv.
2.74 provided
)
we
agree
with
the
Kau&ka
AV
as regards the
situation
noted
along
with
mean ; "That Whitney's interpretation. Accordingly, the Mantra" would one who has gone (by this same patfi) girdling herself- earlier (i. e. married
earlier this very day), her
may
they lead
wealth,
along the path of death after Tnis one, having good progeny
mind with
regard
to
the
above rendering of
(1) What
-c
)
are the grounds for holding that its first three quarters (a- b and that other bride deserves to perish ?
pitrVagan ra&annyam'nrm could also
first
Yedam and
mean
"This one
who
has
the pronouns yn, asyai, tftm and iyam in a-b-c-d respectively might have reference to one and the same single bride.
Agatasya
"1)
Panthah
j?
are the stipulated agents of the verb vahantul The Kauilka Sfltra etc. do not make this clear. But since the preceding Mantra
(
Who
AV
xiv. 2.73
refers to
,
bridal car
it
if
that
seems most appropriate that the same be Inten. is so, then why not insist on application of
viz.
?
10
upon
one
In these circumstances, we must accept that Mantra 74 refers only to bride whom the manes (of ancestors) would have come to see, and
they
are
since
expected
cannot imply anything inauspicious, I, therefore, suggest for agata a favourable meaning which is merely a nominal extension of the meaning 2 An
above
:
destination'';
accordingly 'agatasya
goal'.
p&nthcih
mean
'a
Cp.
tfasya panthtifi
Path of /leading
Even
bride
that
(
if
we
of
stand; for,
the
other
happened to pass
)
"Let them
- the manes -
lead her
this
may
one
good progeny".
With all this, we have won only half the battle; for, how will this not difficult 7 Well, that is newly suggested meaning fit in AV xi. 10.16 because its last quarter has the root yu which could convey both pining 'May and separating. Acceptance of the latter would give the meaning
:
the
moon
the
1
path
'.
leading
towards
their
here cannot find direct suggested meaning of agata is no other passage except the two discussed here, that - vedic in most of the attested cases criterion for rejecting it. Firstly because, as a it uses our while an adjective phrase or non-vedic- agata Is used as a neuter noun (see fn. 3), we do not noun- even when it is rarely used as it is a mere logical extention of find It connected with panthah. Secondly, of agata. Thirdly, it fits well with both the one of the adjectival meanings -where the phrase Agaleaya p&nttom contexts enemy and of bride
Although
the
support
from any
-of
:
(accusative)
is
used.
Footnotes
!
This statement
(
of Bloomfleld (1906) and V^vabandhu is made on the authority An Encyclofrom the scriptorium of the project on 1942-1961) and data available the author the Deccan CoHege. Poona where at Sanskrit of paedio D t ona ty
8
works.
first
volume of
this dictionary,
so far;
on
its
way.
:
few specimen examples for the various meanings are given here
1 Ai
Prdcyutdfh va
elfad
ydcchrutfim
havlr tinabht-
gharitam
1 Aili
Kim
jaya
iva na
5.8.
pramadaya
vana'sriya
sakalabham
gurave'gatayasakft
Haravi-
Bhaskari on Isva-
>'
agatam hy anupajnta-gamikriyam anSgatam ucyate on. Mala-Madhyamika-karika 2.1. TaddM durm apt praptam ekam apy agtafa padam /
Itarena
Comm.
Prasannapada
gatenadsv
sUtra
ekantenaivn
jiyate.
//
Tantra - VSrtika
on
Jaimimya
Mlmamsa
1.3.3.
2 Ai Vide Mahabharata iii.272,6 (BORI publication-edition) 2 AH na hi pakvapakva-lan^uksv-iva gatagata-gramesu vailaksanyam Siddhanta Kaumidl 2766 (on p. iii 1.68).
iipalaksyale
IB
2C
3.
14.21.
(2)
etc.
-4.34;
Tattvaaangraha
gatagatam
RamSyana
vii.51.23;
Horasara 32.17.
4.
5.
6: 7,
the
number
xi,
12.16 in
PW
and
in
Visvabandhu (1942-61)
-syabhl in
AV
1.10.
!
8,
Yedafn
purveti
(AV
xiv.2.74)
lenSnyasyom
Tiflltayani
9,
10.
vadhuyasya da'tam catus-pathe daksinair abhiti$(liatl. The Mantra reads : ye pitaro vadhu-daria imam vahatum agamam. / Vide Sayana in his introduction to AV xiv; With reference to xiv. 2.73, he says
Sma'sane drffe japati.
Select
Atharvaveda Samhits
(with
Bibliography
comm. of SayanScarya).
ed.
by
S, P.
Pandit,
Bombay,
Bloomfield,
1895.
M.
1897.
Hymns
of the Atharva
Uni.
1906.
Press.
Vedic Concordance.
HOS
1964.
MotUal Banarsidass)
(The) Kautika Sutra
of Atharva Veda.
ed. by.
M.
Bloomfield 1889.
JAOS XIV
Monier Williams
(ed.) 1899.
Sanskrit
Unl. Press.
PW
= Sanskrit
Ilng
Worterbuch
(published at Petersberg)
pt. 1.1855.
by Otto Boht-
ViSvabandhu
l^astri (ed.)
Vaidika-padttmikramako'sah
Whitney,
W. D.
1905.
Atharvaveda Samhitn
(tr.)
Indian
reprint
1972,
WORD
KAGINI*
*
M. Upadhye
in
Desya
Jaina
The Prakrit language ample material on very rich words. The Paumacariya of Vimalasurl is a Prakrit work on the Rsmayana and we come across so many words which deserve our
at
affording the
attention. In the
ces viz
Paumacariya the Prakrit word Kagin! occurs at two pla4-76 and 118-107. The meaning of the same word differs at
these two places. The word kagim at 4-76 means kaglnt-ratna which is one of the 14 jewel 5 of a sovereign king and which has six facets, eight angles and 12 sides; the word kagim at 118-107 means a cowrie. Both
in to the P. C.
reference is made thereM. also does not record this word as a Desya-word and the DesJnamamsla of Hemacandra menword kainj as a Desya word meaning Gunja-fruit. 1 It says tions the How ever the Desinamamala does not f ^fefT $T|fi 31 3*31t*fr
these meanings are recorded in the P. S.
M,
but
nu
P. S.
W^
arj d
refer to this
word meaning a
is
jewel.
in
of a
says
jfsrftjflijjj
the sense of a very small coin 2 The word $ [j%oft in the sense of the fourth 'pana'. The ^s^^qg-if explains it as qupggsjf'sr: and cff^q?qtj by etc. The SRSft jjsmjE? ^tStlSKr^ also
used
HfR^q?^ record
the
a^m^sr
explains the
this
word
a
in sense
of a cowrie.
word
^r(%uf|
is
stated
one kakini copper can be mixed in gold etc. One Gufija measure is about 2 3/16 grains and therefore kakini in the sense of a Gunja berry fruit can be
is
easily
quite well
it
known
understood as a negligible coin or even as the smallest coin. It that a cowrie was used as a coin In ancient India. In any
a very small
case
means
for
example a
cowrie,
tf3$l in
Marathi or
^q|
Sanskrit.
rightly the
word
at
gf^SPI
sense of a cowrie.
The
line
means
it is
!
hold of a cowrie'.
*
How true
5 away the jewel, the foolish take However when the word kaginl is used in
'casting
Wl
*tn|fa
fiflMt JJ5T
!nthe
PrSkrit
and
Jainism
India
Dharwar
in
Nov. 76
Sanskrit
Dell 2-21.
2.
3.
3TRrrcsi
Dictionary,
P.
Kangle.
Note on
the
Word
Kngini
si
of a sovereign king, the difficulty arises as to how the same the sense of a jewel bad got currency in the Jain literature in both the senses viz.
word
ffliprfl
a cowrie
work to refer to
to this
and a jewel of a cakravartin. The Paumacariya is not the sole this word as a jewel of a king. The qpn^f^aft refers
as
in
word such
same sense
^1^3*^
sqcfrzrjjTpf.
etc
in tbe
first
Cna P ter
II
also
this
OCCUM
word
in the in
the snqjisp:qiF|T37t is
as
follows,*
scorer
$!spft5fcF<jFT
is
From
sou etc.
this context
it
The
atfiMTO^f^
~
and
also
^^foTf^TW^"
The kagim
is
WRIT
8>2> etc
facets, eight
angles
one of the 14 jewels of a sovereign king and it has 6 and 12 sides but here its medicinal value Is not men:
tioned.
The 14
7lT
and
C
-
the sovereign king The Paumacariya says at 4-76 that the help of ksgini jewel men who came to his house by
Bharata marked
etc
lUs
the
and one of them a sovereign king has 14 jewels belief of the Jains that
a kagini jewel.
as jewel
is
^-*n*a*Rt*roa
Sains
* ven
this
in the necklace.
the Buddhist
ford Is
record the
The sanskrit
or a jewel
worn by
?*
and Dictionary explains Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar Al^g with this word the S-krH
~
f
the
es
word
and
meaning a
jewe,.s
The
P. S.
M.
records
Ghasilal Maharaj
C1963)l
^5,
6.
See
Volume
5 page 1102,
Vide
BJtffl^ltar
Vol. 3 p. 1102.
82
the
P.
M. Upadhye
It
as a
Deya
word, The
that
3rWT$
the
is
Ja ' n
Muni
Ratnachandraji
Maharaj
also says
word ksgin! means ^5^ or a kingdom. It further explains that s^fe one of the 14 jewels of a cakravartin king by which he draws a circle
produce
light in
to
sfojjjr
7-1. etc.
The word
kaginl
in
of a kingdom or a jewel
From
these references
it
Sanskrit
and
to
Prakrit
word ksgini
literature, as seen
mean
be
brought nearer to the meaning of jewel, because a kingdom belongs to a king who has a privilege to put on various jewels and enjoy a 14 jewels etc.
It
may be
some
ivory
articles
was
believed
that
these
articles
had some magical, mysterious and medicinal effect on a man who wore them on his body. Even today among the tribals of various parts of India
there are such notions about these articles
metals
siffit
etc.
Ratna
is
made of ivory copper and other defined as anything best or excellent of its kind
|
9 If <his meaning of the word is taken word kaginl meaning a jewel can be explained. First of Sanskrit as well as Prakrit accept the word dictionaries all ksgini to mean a cowrie or a small coin or Gufija fruit and in that sense the word kaginj as a worthless thing or most negligible thing can be understood. Secondly when the word ksgini denotes an excellent shell or coin or cow-
*&&
<RS*Wft*fl^
-^
rle,
It
As an
excellent
coin or
a
in
cowrie
it
even
above. Moreover
earlier
such a cowrie
evil spirits,
or
coin
it
or
when
is
an
has medicinal magical effect to wrad off excellent one, not otherwise. Kings are considered
shell
as ertjoyers of jewels
^ggu
be
no
exception
to this belief.
He
enjoys
all excellent
coin
or
in the sense of a cowrie or a Gufija berry as well as in the sense of a jewel of a king is quite peculiar to Jain literature.
Note on
Turner's
dictionary
the
Word
Kagitti
83
word. Moreover the word
does
not
record
this
kagini is a Detya word and must have been taken In, later on, in Sanskrit language in these two senses. It is interesting to note that the word kagini is recorded as a jewel in Sanskrit dictionaries but it is not a jewel of a sovereign king alone as found in the Jain literature.
This study will reveal as to how a Desya word like k ag ini it is and thereby the languages are
Is
incor-
enriched.
gfifcatawtoft
ftg
m:
"fJjs^"-^ i
^T
JIFR
ftsfiMlfa
fl%
^ SFiftft 5T1
II
(0
?n%5Rr stofft
Si
n? 5
^ ?^
f ft
"j^t
H&P ifN
^tr^r
? ?
qrfrivRT
sir
&,
rtft
M ^M s%
f^l
'^ JIRW
afaRT
55^TOqa qft
c?W
Self
3?r -ufa
srr
errr
^-flRRr
"
^ctni
?rr
"f^^^cr
surtf
I
"
s%"
l^n
?Fr^
arta^ ^
awr saf
51
^roft ;r*ft
jl
,
im
rr
&
s^tf ct
q ^RT3Tt
^ ^^
?i
^f ?
1
i,
Rrar4
HT^fl
-Pfl
^rfrra
qsfrrt
cf*rr
RtfJr
wt
ft
at.
%-
%f3r,
^3377
.srrsrr
5$
fife
Ik
II
?r| info
fsffjT,
oil
Minn
gaft
II? ^11
"I!
rpjft
f%|f
sR'
ff
f%|f
5Erf?r
f ftqfc
lho|
3?r
cf?l%
% f
f Rrg'
newt
s.
(f.
H,
?rt:cr
\
\
He???
or
gPr
f^f
'
v.
^
a?[32jr
Pwr
*RT?
vs.
fcrfl
I.
\. m,
?.
?U.
f^xff
?.
9.
V.
'R5
.
551.
5.
^.
^f.
v.
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REVIEWS
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Reviews
15
I
IR
3*
if
SETS
Shrimaj Jafacarya
spiritual Apostle,
Sampaimal
Bhatulari,
Out of 230 pages actual life of Shri JayScSrya, the fourth pon'iff of Terapantha begins at page no. 81. In the introductory pages the tenets of Jainism such as Ahimsa, Karma and tyadvada are discussed. As regards Ahimsa and daya the view
point of the Terapantha Jaina
Jayacarya's original nama a monk at the age of nine in
sect is discussed in detail,
was
Jeettnalji
and he became
V.S. 1869
is
talks of this event as mystery because it standing that how a boy of that age
and
can have
the under-
the soul power (ch. Ill) standing of the mundane world and author has tried to solve this problem by giving etc. The
some example of the persons such as Dhruva, Hemacandra and others-, but we are not sure of their understanding of the
world. thereby renouncing problems of this world There may be influnces other than the understanding of of the life as a and training their own. After proper study monk in V. S. 1908 he became the fourth pontiff of the Terathis
and
(This date
for
is
no
on
132).
He
is
respamible
all
the Acarya on
all
the
monks
to
be initiated in the
sect,
and
new responsible for creating etc. He is also old mss. and also by profor use of the monks by copying new treatises. He was the first to learn Sanskrit ducing the of Sanskrit in Terapantha. And introduced the stuiy
literature
the sahgha,
to renain with the property such as books or rnss, etc. no individual monk can have his own books or
mss.
and
thus
new image
Reviews
JayScarya died
V.
S. 1938,
Dalsukh Malvania
=5?:
tf
i
r,
s^sran
fofT,
aror
<r.
s v=<>
1=7
dta"?
g?*?l
fl
qr%<fc STRAIT
3$^
"5;
?*<r irat
ft
arrsrr?
S&
1
1
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^ft
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if |
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9$
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^f
grff^,
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%?r
who
is
nda Lath and notes of paintings by Dr. (Smt.) Ghandramani Smgh. Published by Shri D. R. Mehta, secretary, Prakrit
Bharati, Jaipur, 1977, price Rs. 125.
with Hindi Tra. by Mahopadhyaya Vinayasagai a so the Editor of this volume, Eng tr by Dr Muku
]
illustrations
Prakrit Bharati should be given credit for reproducing 36 ia original colours fro.ii the ms ; in
copied
V,
S,
Reviews
\$
1563 preserved in- Rajaslhan Pracyavidya Pratisthana, Jndhpur No. 5354. The Introduction by Shri Vinaya Sagar gives information about not only all the commentaries on Kalpa f Otia
but
Dalsukh Malvania
Dictionary of the
suiras,
Vedic
Rituals
based on
Sen,
the
Srauta
and
Grhya
Rs, 100-
by
Ghitrabhanu
published by
Concept
Grhya
divided
into two
terms.
The
and Grhya. It enlists and explains nearly 20^0 author does not claim it to be exhaustive. But he
to include all significant terms.
The author
to domestic rites are intere* on social customs and secular beliefs. ting as they throw light the author writes; 'rite of While explaining the term afcufcm, or the lO-.h tithi from the death collecting b^nes, done after collec. an odd number, of the dark fortnight.,
the bare meaning of terms but gives not only in public as well as domestic rites. Exp-
on
with to the or female sex marks accordiag ted in urns having male round the cremation ex of the deceased. The performers go and sprinkle milk direction, spot three time, in prasaya a sam? branch, gathenog beg, with water on it with * bones are punfia "with the fee, fir* head la* a P Ut the urn is put "> and basket, back thty go urn kumbha} without looking
md
ba
p.^
<i
Reviews
with a garment or thread; the staff is removed on the 4th night with appropriate mantras. ApGr. VEIL 8-10'. The explantion of the term qia^ is 'a chariot with a seat, drawn by
:
is
his own comments at. places. Under the he comments that the preference for the child marobviously a later development-., otherwise tho f^r^cf be-
usages,
with
purport of the term, its different other cognate concepts and its
sacrificial
or social significance.
evinces his humility and honesty by acknowledging that he has drawn upon the excellent dictionary of Louis Renou Vocabuloire du rituel
:
The author
vedique.
1'he Introduction to the dictionary is illuminating and revealing. It shows how the sacrifice which was the centre and source of social activity in ancient India lost all its
gradually
of society.
It bee.
me
meaningless
monotonous performance. The mantras employed in the sacrificial ritual lost the accents and consequently meaning also. The author writes "The sacrifice once represented the social acti:
It was a web of practices, emanating from the social thinking and emphasizing particular aspects of life. But with the decay of the society and the change in the
vity
of
worshippers.
in
death.
"
abstraction, drifted to
its
natural
The value of the dictionary is enhanced by the photographs of the sacrificial implements and utensils as also by the of the sacrificial arena plans showing the position of the sacthe rificer, priests, sacrificial utensils and. materials. The work is a valuable addition to the existing literal-ire 0,1 the vedic rituals and the domestic rites.
Nagin
J.
Shah
Der Kathakosa
Anmerkungen by
C.
bibliographischen
Hoffmann,
Munchcn,
1974
H. Tawney's English
translation of an
annoymous Kathtikosa
(1895)
narrative literature, but original Sanskrit text did not become available till Jagdishlal Shastri published it in 1942. Shastri's text, besides being based on two very late Mss. only, is full of mistakes. For the text in the worx under the
review,
editor has used four Mss., two of which were from the Mss. collection of the L. D. Institute of Indology. The text is carefully prepared and so far as the Sanskrit portion is concerned it can be taken as satisfactory on the whole. Only the non-Sanskrit verse passages contain numerous errors, which shall have to be removed with the help of better Mss. materials and the
to the tales.
German
and explanatory
notes
add
which
the work is typical of late Jain narrative a kind of substandard, popular Sanskrit (usually called Jain Sanswas considerably influenced by Prakrit, Apabhramsa and
oifer here
our observations on
1.8
lavai
is
interpreted
PSM.
(=P3iasaddamahai.iija\'o).
But
from
Slieth
the
it
Siiryaprajnapti
is
Pahuda
20, where
transitive
(te
it
no
is
etc.),
while
here
which
is
Most probably
:
(SamdesarSsaka 140
141;
Turner's
we
p.
1 1
:
and Panjabi).
some pie-Kiimni'apjilapratibodha source for the Dsvapalakatha. It is also found ihe version (called Dhanya-kathanaka) contained in in
of Pradyumna-sttri
The
Devacandra-suri's commentary on the Mitlasuddhi-prakaraija1 (p. 79). The commentary was written in
I,
1.
Mula'&uddhi-prakarana Vol.
15,
ed. by pt.
A.M.
1971
Reviews
is possibly a wrong reading hattha 'even then, the 'moved, stretched', to vi na vlldha means 'a hands did not stretch', kavvadia (or kabadiya)
for viidhii
wood-cutter.'
Gujarati.
p. 75
:
It is
etc. - dirhbhadai is seems to be a corrupku ku is a reiteration of ku karei means possibly. 'enjoy or show off' dugu dugu
p.
335
etc.
The
is
yield better
p 439
giranara (Girnfir)
is
the current
3,
name of
508)
is
the
hill
Gujarati.
p.
commonly
p.
485
1.18
p.
540
in the text
is
a Sanskritiza-
tion of
doha.
from Jain and non-Jain In the introduction the editor has indicated of the Kalhvkosa. Eight Kathas sources numerous parallels to the narratives they can be in the Kumsrapalapratibodha have very close correspondences translations of the corresponding Prakrit tales regarded almost as Sanskrit she could not find any parallel to the sixth tale. But.
:
The
editor says
of the tale of Kapila given in e.g. nothing but an abridged version of the Utlaradftyayana. Neinicandra's commentary on the eighth chapter
it
is
different versions
and
Sugandhadasami Katha (1966) is indisversion of the Sramasobha is found in Devendrasiin's pensable. The earliest version in the Samyaktvacommmentary on the Mulasuddhi. Sarhghatilaka's version and is obviously an adaptation of Devendra's
Sramasobha
saptati
commentary
The
'
Sanatkuniara (no.
L. D. Series No. 42, 1974, studied by tins reviewer (SanatukwnSra cariya, a short English version of this was published Gujarati Introduction, pp. 3-13); Culture to Indian Jainism (ed. R. C. Dwivedi, 1975) Contribution of in,
(pp. 26-29). The editor
text
.
is
to
and
H. C. Bhayaui
OBITUARY
Pandit Sukhlalji
Pandit (Dr.) Sukhlalji Sanghavi, an eminent Indologist and great thinker, expired on 2nd March, 1978. Indology has suffered an irrepairabld loss. Pandit Sukhlalji has dominated the world of Indian philosophy arid
religion for the last sixty years and
more
by
his
deep
scholarship and
noble personality.
He had
and
fruitful
human
thought. His
deep scholarship is reminiscent of Rsis of old. He was free from all of dogmatism of sectarianism. His thoughts were not bound by any
narr-
owness
as he
to
view
things
in
historical
perspective
following strictly pure reason and rationalism. His simplicity of living, his nobility of thinking, his sensitivity to all aspects of a problem and his He was a indefatigable persistence in the search of truth were exemplary.
scholar, a teacher and even a preacher embodying in himself the best of their qualities; and he was all along struggling to educate the society round about him. Above all he was a teacher par excellence. He payed so
much
of
his
pupils.
He
was never
but students, satisfied with the superficial know'edge of his of the subject, himself always insisted on their acquiring thoroughness for even in arranging pecunary every way, helping them as far as possible
help.
in a Jaina Sthfmakavasi family in a small village lost both the eyes at the Surendranagar District, Saurashtra, he to a virulent type of small-pox. He left the idea of age of sixteen owing his life. His real brahmacarl throughout and remained naisthika
Born on 8-12-1880
in
Limli
blindness.
He had
a genuine love
He went
Nyaya under
the study the Late whsre he found a true teacher of Navya Nyaya he travelled to Mithila After Mishra. fialakrishna acquiring Knowof Navya Nyaya in. Mm. Pandit and here for some he came back to Benaras, ledge' of" Navya Nyaya and literature. different branches of Sanskrit philosophy years he studied There he engaged himself in editing, with From Benaras he went to Agra.
Pt.
Mm.
as well as his
own
valuable introductions
some
he was
highlv
interesting
religious
and
philosophical
books,
such
as
PaKcapratUlirmana,
in
&
ame back
to Gujarat,
Me was
in the Pufatattvarrtandira
rsity established by
Mahatrria
appointed a Professor of Indian Philosophy of the Gujarat Vidyapitli of the National UniveGandhi. He undertook and completed a
critically editing a voluminous Work, covering riot less 900 pages, of Abhayadeva's commentary on the Sanmatitctrka of Siddhasena Divakara, The work Was so stupendous that he had to devote fieafly eight years to it. This was a miracle performed by a completely blind
tremendous task of
thati
the work,
Qandhiji
advised
him
to take
From Gujarat he went to Benaras Hindu University in 1033, being appointed there as Professor of Jaina Philosophy and retired voltuiatarily from service in 1944, During this time he wrote and edited a number of valuable works in Sankrit, Hindi and Gujarati. His commentary and translation
work both in
Gujarati
and
Hindi of
Tattvftrthasutra
are most
who desire to understand the real significance of the and lucid language elucidating all the knotty points in the work, The introductions to his editions of the Jffinabindu and Pramayaimportant for those
text in clear
mimsmss
works.
His
edition of
in the
Gaekwad's
Oriental Series
He
it is the systematic work from the Carvaka point of view refuting all the different Indian philosophical systems. edited in the same series Dharmakirti's Hetubindu along with Arcata's
Misra's
Sub-commentary.
BHU in 1944 he gave his services Vidyabhavan, Bombay. In 1947 at last he came to Ahmedabad and joined B. J. Institute of Research and Learning, as an Hon. Professor. He was an academic adviser of the L. D. Institute of Indology,
After voluntary retirement from
to Bharatiya
Ahmedabad.
Distinctions and
Honours
Sahitya Gold
VijayadharmsUri Jaina
Medal
He was
in 1951.
and
Jainism
section
in
of the
16th session of
All
India
Oriental Conference
which
met
Lucknow
on
'AdhymmavicZmntl' in
the
Shri Popatlal
auspices
Prachara
Saraiti
for his
Obituary
f|
delivered a series of five lectures onShtiratiya Tattvavldya (Indian Philosophy) in 'Sir Sayajirao Gaekwad Honorarium Lecture Series' under
He
the auspices of
M.
S.
delivered a series of five lectures on Samadarn Zc$rya HarfbfuujrQ under the auspices of Bombay University in 1959.
He
him
Gujarat University,
bestowing upon
in
A_hnj|E-
at
Bombay
in
1957.
On
this
occasion Panditji's
1
Hindi
pneral
title
'Dqr&anv ane
Cmtana
and 'Dar&M9
ottr
Cintantf (one volume Hindi). Panditji was honoured with a, purses of Rs. 70,000, With this amount he founded Jflanodaya Trust for the dissemi-
nation of knowledge.
He was elected president of the Gujarati section of the Indian philoin 19^8. sophical Conference which met in Ahmedabed
In 1959 he was elected president of the
Tattvajnana
section
of the
Akadami,
in Ahmedabad. Gujarati Sahityaparishad which met Again, in 1959 he was awarded a prize of Rs. 5.0QQ/- by SaMtya considered Delhi, for his 'Darsana ane Cintana.' The work was
to be the best
among
fei his In 1959 Gujarat Government awarded him a prize of Rs. 2,000 Dar&ana ane Cmtana, considering it to be the best work of the yfar,
He was
and Philosophy
seffion of
in 1961. All India Oriental Conference held in Kashmir of India a certificate of hqnour In 1961 he was awarded by the president
Qujarat
VidySnagar
hpnaur^ him
hono-
by Awarding Hon.
the
title
oft
him
and
'Yidyavaridhi'
Degr^
74
Obituary
His Works
1.
AtmUnu&Vstikulaka -
translation
'.-,-
- A Prakrit work First Four Books by Devendrasari Karmagrantha edited with Hindi translation, commentary, introduction and appendices. Published by Shri Atmanand Jain Pustak Pracarak Mandal, Agra;
:
:
1917-1920.
6.
Daydaka -
Prakrit
Publisher as
above. (1921)
7.
PaRcapratikramaria
translation,
Hindi
publisher as
above. (1921)
8.
YogadarSana Yogasutra with Vrtti by Up. Yasovijayajl, Pataftjala and Ac. Haribhadra's Yogavimsika (Prakrit) with Sanskrit commentary
by Up. Yas"ovijayaji
:-
commBechar-
dasji Doshi) with notes and appendices. Pubished in five volumes by Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad, 1925-1932. The Sixth volume conta-
ining the
Sanmatitarka
(Prakrit),
translation and
explanation
and
Introduction by Panditji
1932.
was
also
publshed by
in
The English
Conference
Jaina Drftie
by Panditji in
11. Tattvnrthasutra by
extensive
Umasvati - Edited with summary, commentary and introduction (in Gujarati and Hindi), 1930. Gujarati Edition
editions.
Published by Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad. It has run into four Hindi Edition (First) published by Shri Atmananda Janma
Shatabdi Smaraka Samiti, Bombay. Hindi Edition (Second) published by Jaina Sanskriti Samshodhan Mandal, Benaras. English translation of Hindi edtion, prepared by Dr. K. K. Dixit, has been published by the L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad in its L. D series
(No
44) in 1974.
12.
Nyvytvatnra by Siddhasena Divakara - a Sanskrit work on Jaina' Logic edited with translation, notes and Introduction. Published in "Jaina Sahitya:Samshodhaka" in 1925.
Obituary
13.
ft
Logic
Pranltiya^Mimlimsa. by Ac. Hemacandra - a Sanskrit work- on edited with extensive Introduction and notes in Hindi;
published in
Singhi Jaina Series, Bombay, 1939. English translation of these extensive introduction and notes has been published by Indian Studies Past
:
in
Jaina Tarkabhafi by Up. Yafovijayaji - Sanskrit work on Jaina Logic edited with Hindi introduction and Sanskit notes. Published by Singhi
JKanabindu
by Up. Yasovijayaji - a Sanskrit work edited with Hindi Introduction and Sanskrit notes. Publisher as above, 1949.
Gaekwad's Oriental
16.
in
Hetubindu by Dharamkjrti, with a commentary by Arcata and a commentry by Durveka Misra- Sanskrit works on Buddhist
edited with English introduction in the abovementioned
Series,
sublogic
1949,
18.
VedavndadvWimsik'G by Siddhasena Divakara a Sanskrit work edited with summary, commentary and introduction in Gujarati. Published
by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1946. (Hindi translation has also bem published by the same publihser in 'Bharatiya Vidya'),
19.
the Jaina
concept-
Published
by
Shambhulal
Shah,
Ahmedabad
in 1927.
20.
- a study of some historical problems Nirgrantha Sampradvya (Hindi) Published by Jaina Sanskriti Samsho'dhan Maudal, Banaras, 1947.
a collection of his essays on Rsabhadeva, Cnra Tirthahkara (Hindi) Neminatha, Parsvauatha and Mahavira. Publisher as above, 1954. work has also been published). of the translation (Gujarati
:
21.
22.
on Religion and
Adhyntma-vicararM
Popatlal
(GiTJarati) a
series of three
lectures
delivered
in
the
auspices of
Gujarat Vidyasabha, Ahmedabad. Published by Gujarat 1956, (Its Hindi translation has also been published).
24.
Vidyasabha,
delivered
in
Honorarium Lecture
under
the
auspices
of
M.
S.
University,
work, prepa
Institute
by the L. D.
76
of Indology,
Obituary
Ahmedabad
in
its
L.
is
D.
Series
(No.
58) in
1977.
The
also availiable.
Panditji's Gujarati on Philosophy, Religion, Literature, Social and National Problems. Published by 'Pandit Sukhialji Sanmana Samiti' in 1957.
atir
collection of
26.
Darsana
Cintana
collection
of Panditji's
Hindi
writings on
Philosophy, Religion, Literature, Social and National problems. lished by 'Pandit Sukhalalji Sanmana Samiti' in 1957.
27.
'..
Pub-
Samadarsi
Ac'srya
Haribhadra
(Gujarati)
Lectures
delivered
in
the
'Thakkara Vasaiiaji Madhavaji Vyakhyanamala' under the auspices of Bombay University. Published by the Bombay University in 1961.
Jaina-Dharmano Pr'ana (Gujarati) selection from 'Darsana. ane Cintana! and 'Darsana aur Cintana,' Published in 'Shri Jagmohandas Kora Sma:
in 1962.
The Hindi translation of the work has been Sahity Mandal, Delhi, in its Shri Vallabhasmriti
May
Nsgin
J.
Shah
Professor Dr.
Alsdorf
Professor Dr. Alsdorf, Professor Emeritus and Department for the Culture and History of India
former
at
Head of the
University of
the
Hamburg
of Germany, passed
'
away on
March
25th, 1978,
aged 73.
Professor Alsdorf, an
authority
on Jainism,
was
wellknown
in the
Indian studies unattained by the younger generation beyoad the realm of traditional Indology and included the phenomena of contem-
porary India.
Born in 1904 in the Rhineland, he studied Indoiogy, Comarative Linguistics and Hamburg, as well as Persian and Arabic at the universities of Heidelberg
His teachers
in Sanskrit were Heinrich
who initiated him the latter having been the leading western Jainologist from Hamburg University in Jain studies. Prof. Alsdorf got his doctorat*
in 1928 for
thesis
dealing
with a
his
Jain
studies
Apabhramsa
in
text
(Kumar-
apalapratibodha).
He
was
continued
the
Berlin
under Heinrich
LUEDERS who
however,
then
foremost
German
Indologist. It was,
Hermann
JACOBI, wellknown
subject of his in 1936). (published
who
Jain Harivamspurana
From
;
,
French in the
served as a lecturer of German and 1930 to 1932 Prof. Alsdorf b e travelled During this University of Allahabad. connection with several leading ,11 over India and established
te
lo^m
Indoiogy
.
at
Berlin
University
and
Prof.
" f<
ofMuenster. In
1950
mi
of Indology at
1972
Hamburg
he
had
been professor
18
Besides several articles
on the
Uttaradhyayana
Satra,
Prof. Alsdorf
in German has published language a number of books and extensive Apabramsa Studies (1937); The Indian papers, the main titles being: Contributions to the Subcontinent: Bharat, Pakistan, Ceylon (1955);
(1961); History of vegetariaism and Cow Worship in India Between 1951 and 1959 Separate Edicts of Dhauli and Jaugada (1962). Prof. Alsdorf completed and edited in two volumes unpublished papers left
Asoka's
of his by Heinrich Lueders under the title "Varuna." On the occasion 70th birthday, a comprehensive volume containing his articles, lectures and Glasenapp other contributions was brought out with the assistance of the Foundation in Germany. He was Editor-in-Chief of the Critical Pali and Western scholars Dictionary, a stupendous project in which Indian work was concentrated are participating. In his last years his scholarly on
the earliest
was an active member of the Academy of Sciences and Mayence as well as of Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and India about twelve times after World war II and has visited Letters. has been the leading German delegate to a number of Sanskrit Conferences
Prof. Alsdorf
Literature of
He
and
to the
An Important
I".
B.
Institute of Indology,
Ahmedabad-9.
'
As
different Jaina
BhandaTas
of
Gujarat.
Among
Paper manuscripts
pertaining to
various subjects, illustrated manuscripts, Paintings on Cloth, VijBapUpatras, Paintings on paper, Bronzes, Book-covers and other art articles, Many
of the items are brought to light for the first time. The work contains fascinating coloured pictures of 36
Moreover,
art
it
items (82
and
light
culture.
made the work indispensable for the students of Indian The importance of the work lies in the new vista that it
opens.
It reveals so
many
hitherto
unknown
of
on the Art
and. link
activities in
Gujarat
describes
in Medieval
up gaps The
32
up broken
traditions.
510
Bhandaras.
Many
different heads.
of them are very important. They are classified under Non-Jaina Palm-leaf works, Some of the heads are
:
Gita,
Silpa,
etc.,
Non-Jaina
works on
Sanglta and Nrtya, NonJaina works on Kavya Nataka, Alankara, Kamasastra, Chanda, Non-Jaina etc, Philosophical works, Non-Jaina works on Syurveda, Jyotisa, Svapna
Mss. of
authors,
Mss,
copied
by
with Sanskrit commentary, Nonprominent persons, Works in Gujarat! Jaina works in Gujarti and Vrajabhasa. The Notes on Art (nearly 64 pages) by Dr. Shah explain the pictures
the items under descriand art articles. He brings out the importance of work are revealing. Thus this section of the present ption. His comments
is
very valuable.
:
Size Price
Double Demy
:
Rs. 250/-
One more
Pub
Royal
MAHAVIRA AND
HIS TEACHINGS
50.Plates 37, Sketches 7, Price Rs. 8vo, pages 8+462, Ahmedabad-9. L. D. Institute of Inddology Sole Distributor will speak for the value of The contents of the work, given below,
'
tb6 W0rk
CONTENTS
Exegetical Literature
And The
History of
80
....
. .
Channel of Mahavlra's Teachings Dr. Miss V. Muthuccumaru (35-40). 5. On Some Noncanonical Subhasita Collections in Jaina Literature Ludvyik Sternbach (41-76). 6. Variant Forms of The Locative in Middle Indo-Aryan: L. A. Schwarzschild (77-88). 7. Towards A Lexicon of Old
mani,
:.
"trujp,rati
ll t
.-
"->''
Abhavyatva
Jain Doctrine
of
'predestination,'
9. Fasting Unto Death According to Aysraftga Sutta and To Some Painnayas : Colette Caillat (113-118) 10. Jaina mystigjsrh 'Kamal Chand Sogani (119-132). 11. Relevance of Jaina Ethics jn
P. S. Jaini: (95-112).
The
Present
Age
Shasi Bhushan
Prasad Sinha
(133-144).
12.
Jainism
And
li'ung
Influences
:
in
Gandhiji's Weltanschar
Heimo Rau (145-156). 13. Hindu & Jain Concepts of Mahapralaya Versus Modern Science G. R. Jain (157-166). 14. How it Works
:
S.
Gajapathi
:.
(167-180),.
III.
Leona Smith Kremser Rejoice (Poem) (181-184). A. L. Basham : Mahavira, The Great Propounder of Jainism (18517. Lord Mahavira and The 186). Anyattrthikas J. Deleu (187-194) 18 The' Age of Mahavira Adris Banerji (195-198). 19. 'Thus Spake Maha:
16.
vira"
A.
S.
Gopani
(199-208)=. 20.
Vardhamana Mahavira
K. R. Chan-
dra
And His
:
Teachings
K.
:
M, Patel
(223-224)
IV. Philosophy
23.
N. Mukerji
Jhaveri
(225-
234). 24. Consideration of Self in Jaina Philosophy 242). 25. Concept of Substance in Jainism Bashjsth
:
B. J.
(235:
Narayan Sinha
(243'
252) 26. Niyativada (Pre-pestination, Fatalism, Determinism) : V. M. Kulkarni (253-258). 27. Accounts of the Jaina Taken
:
enth'
R. Williams
:
(259-270).
:
The
30
Genesis of Digambara-SVetambara Split Buddha Prakash The Ascendency and Eclipse of Bhagavan Mahavlra's Cult Land V. Ramasubranmaniyam 'Aundy' (279-346). 31.
:
(271-2,86)
in the
:
Tamil
'
Nair
i
(347-348). 32.
[g
j&~3 /UJ
VI. Art
... -...-....
:
Antiquity of Jainsim
ia
Iconography of Parsvanatha
Brubn
Klaus
Maharashtra
Sankalia
H D
now
(389-395). 35. Jaina Metal Images in The State N. P. Joshi 36. J itta i raages in (395-408). The
:
Museum' Luck
Archaeolodcaf
Museum, Khajuraho Prasad Tiwari (409-428). 37. Mahavira Icon Indian Archaeology B. Upadhayay (429-436). 38. Farther-Eye in the Indian And Nepalese Painting: Anand Krishna Is
:
An Opponent
(437-456). 39.
'
of Hinduism
D. N. Sliukla (457-462),
iT
103
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(Sanskttt'j Edited'
'
BhcyanL
^lopad^aram wlt&^'^iafAbodha
:
of
M@fteatoa-
'Cb^t (Old
ft
Oft}rtO
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'
6,
'?'
-
San4WtearyasamtJccaya-
(pW
<Jaiarair)"ttJltd by,
O ^
M,. Siiifa
IIW
:
by Dt^'Ki'M, K;tawr4
PadmasMdara^
Safl'dra-pf
'
:
:
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