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Introduction to organisms

13/04/2010 00:48:00

Characteristics of organisms Continuously exchange materials with their surroundings Transient islands of negati e entro!y "hield themsel es from fluctuations in their external en ironment o Thermodynamical #actors Tem!erature $ressure o Com!ositional #actors "olid% li&uid and gaseous com!onent of en ironment o HOMEOSTASIS! 'egulators "hield itself from en ironment Cannot regulate at extreme tem!eratures (ust stay within )one of sta*ility Conformer "ta*ili)e internal cell "et !oint +, de iation +, sensor +, am!lifier +, signal +, mechanism +, negati e feed*ac- +, de iation is re ersed +, return to set !oint +, !ositi e feed*ac- +, de iation increased +, drastic !urging +, set !oint .row and /e elo! o .rowth 0 irre ersi*le increase in si)e o /e elo!ment 0 &ualitati e changes that occur during life /e elo!s it1s sha!e +, morphogenesis

/e elo!s s!ecific structure +, differentiation

'e!roduce o 2a!loid generation and di!loid generation 3lternation of generations during life cycle

$rocesses of organisms 3c&uire energy o 4ltimate source is the sun and hydrogen5 o 3utotro!hs (a-e their own food from inorganic com!onents o 2eterotro!hs 6eed to use organic molecules for car*on Trans!ort of materials o /iffusion 7ow concentration to high concentration 8s 0 +/s 9 C/x : 0 +/s 9 3 9 C/x ;ul- flow t1/2 0 <=distance>?2 / /s #aster when "mall molecules 6ot iscous 2igher tem!erature @ery fast o er short distances% *ut ery slow o er long

"maller thic-ness% higher concentration gradient 0 fast o Asmosis 3llows sol ent *ut not solute to !ass (ore water hitting mem*rane outside than inside Bater goes in o Con ection /ucts% tu*es% essels in which fluids mo e stuff 6eed concentration gradient : 0 =$1 C $2>/' ' 0 87n / =!i> r?4 ' 0 hydraulic resistance 7 0 length n 0 iscosity o 3cti ate trans!ort 3gainst a concentration gradient 4"D A# D6D'.E5 $rimary acti e trans!ort /irectly cou!led to 3T$ hydrolysis Dsta*lishes a !roton gradient "econdary acti e trans!ort Dnergy from !roton gradient dri es it "ame direction for *oth solutes0 sym!ort A!!osite direction for *oth solutes 0 anti!ort Ane su*stance in one direction 0 uni!ort

o $assi e trans!orts Carrier !roteins are integral mem*rane !roteins Channels Can o!en of close 7et1s a s!ecific ion through "!ecific stimulus for o!ening @oltage (echano+sensiti e or stretch+acti ated Chemical ligand *inding

o Dndocytosis ;rings material inside the cell In agination of the cell wall and forms esicle inside o Dxocytosis @esicle to cell mem*rane and fuses to it "ecretes su*stance outside the cell

;ody !lans of organisms 4nicellular organism (ulticellular animals o Dctoderm "ensory system and s-in o Dndoderm Inner lining of organs o (esoderm

(uscular% excretory and re!roducti e systems (ulticellular !lants o #ilamentous *ody o Circular flat o (odular structure (odule 0 !hytomer

"tructural organi)ation of multicellular organisms (ulticellular cells are highly s!eciali)ed o Can only li e together in a system 3nimals o F ty!es of tissue e!ithelial connecti e muscle ner ous ascular

$lants o 3 *asic tissue systems ascular conducts fluids dermal external !rotection ground

su!!ort% storage% and !hotosynthetic structures

Im!lication of si)e of organisms "urface area cannot -ee! u! with the increase in olume o @ 0 7?3 o "3 0 @ ?=2/3> Isometry and similarity o =31/32> 0 =;1/;2> 0 =C1/C2> 0 3llometry o "ha!e changes as si)e changes Intercellular communication Cells can communicate with each other o Interconnections o .a!s Gunctions which let small molecules !ass Cells can *e com!letely isolated o ;lood+*rain *arrier

Dnergy% light and life

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#ood and energy needs of organisms Dnergy is needed to dri e assem*ly and organi)ation $lants only need CA2% water% and minerals 3nimals need com!lex organic food o (ust degrade food into monomers o 'eassem*le them according to genetic instructions o Digestion converts non-self to self Information H 'aw materials H D6D'.E ++ A'.36I"( $lants are the !rimary !roducers of food5 7ight and it1s interaction with matter D& 0 hc / lam*da "hort wa elength% high fre&uency 0 high energy 2igh energy o 6on+s!ecific disru!ti e and damaging effects (oderate energy o Cause chemical reactions 7ow energy o "mall effect on i*ration and rotation of molecules 7ight rece!tors and !igments 7ight must first *e a*sor*ed *y a rece!tor !igment5 $igments are conGugated to s!ecific !roteins

3ction s!ectrum of !hotosynthesis and a*sor!tion s!ectrum of !igments 7ight is con erted to *iochemical energy ia !hotosynthesis Dach !igment has s!ecific a*sor!tion s!ectrum o /egree of a*sor*ance of light as a function of wa elength 3ction s!ectrum of !rocess 0 a*sor!tion s!ectrum of !igment o $igment or grou! of !igments mediates acti ation !rocess

Chloro!lasts Bhere !hotosynthesis occurs5 Arganelle surrounded *y a dou*le mem*rane .round matrix% stroma thykaloid mem*ranes stac-s of hollow mem*ranes =s!ace inside 0 l men>% stac-s 0 grana SEE !"#$

$hotosynthetic !igments Thy-aloid mem*ranes contains the !igment conGugated to !roteins anchored in the mem*rane 4 different ty!es of chloro!hyll o all eu-aryotes ha e chloro!hyll+a% *ut ary for other !igments ha e alternate dou*le *onds o create a cloud of !i electrons o loo-s li-e an electrical cord o Three !hases of !hotosynthesis $hoto+!hysical !hase o light a*sor!tion and excitation transfer

o ultra fast !rocess =in !icoseconds> Dlectro+Chemical !hase o Dlectron transfer to !roduce 63/$2 o $roduction of !roton moti e force dri e 3T$ synthesis o @ery fast =less than a millisecond> ;iochemical !hase o 3tmos!heric CA2 is ca!tured and reduced o #ast !rocess =less a second>

$ath of excitation transfer Dxcitation energy is transferred from one !igment to the next o in the direction of longer wa elengths cannot *e sent in o!!osite order 7oss of energy *y fluorescence o Ten thousand transfers can occurs *efore loss *y fluorescence o 3*out 10I of energy is lost through fluorescence

Argani)ation of !hotosynthetic machinery 6eed 8+10 !hotons to e ol e one molecules of oxygen (aximum rate of !hotosynthesis 1 Axygen for 2F00 chloro!hyll Ane &uantum is a*sor*ed *y 300 chloro!hyll o wor- together as a grou! or unit 2 !hotosystems interconnected and wor- together synergistically o 1 A2 can *e !roduced from 2 220% so would need 4 &uanta

*ut we need 8 &uanta5 o 'ed /ro! "har! decline in yield at J80 nm 3dditional mechanism for light at shorter wa elen o Dmerson enhancement "ynergic of wa elengths% one KJ80 and J80K one ,L00 "u!!lied at same time% rate is greater than addition 2 se!arate *ut interacting light reactions L00 nm reaction cannot *e dri en *y J80 nm &uanta o The cytochrome %f comple& is red ced %y '#(nm and o&idi)ed %y *((nm 7ocated *etween two !hotosystems SEE !"'+ Two !hotosystems Argani)ed into grou!s o grou! has reaction center and antenna !igments reaction center 0 s!ecial form of chloro!hyll+a antenna 0 a*out 300 chloro!hyll and accessory !igment can only a*sor* on !hoton at a time $"+I o 'eaction center is $L00 $"+II o 'eaction center is $J80

M+scheme of organi)ation of !hotosystems 'elease of A2 needs 4 !hotons a*sor*ed *y each !hotosystem o $"+I Dlectrons remo ed reduce 63/$H o $"+II Dlectrons remo ed re!lace those in $"+I ;ecome a ery strong oxidant Can snatch 4 electrons from 2 22A M+scheme is the reason it need 8 !hotons% not 4% to release 02 Bhen only $"+I is acti e o Cyclic electron flow re!laces electrons Dlectrons remo ed flow to ferrodoxin which returns to cytochrome *f com!lexN Then are returned to $"+I 6o 63/$2 is !roduced "ome 3T$ is !roduced 3T$ synthesis Dlectrons flow through chain of trans!orters $rotons !um!ed into lumen of thy-aloid mem*ranes ;uild u! of 2H in lumen creates !roton moti e force $ath of esca!e is channel mem*rane anchored 3T$ synthase $art that synthesi)es 3T$ stic-s out into the stroma $assage of !roton !roduces tor&ue 3fter 2+3 !assed% enough tor&ue to stic- $A4 on 3/$ forms 3T$ Ance 3T$ is formed% tor&ue is dissi!ated "ynthesis can *e dri en in the dar- *y artificial !roton moti e force SEE S,MMA-. O/ !"'$

Car*on 3ssimilation
$hotosynthetic Car*on 'educing cycle

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4ses 63/$2 and 3T$ o 3T$ acti ates molecules of some intermediates o 63/$2 reduces car*on 3cce!tor molecule is needed to incor!orate CA2 o 'i*ulose+1%F+*i!hos!ate 'u;$ o 4ses CA2 to form 2 $.3 3+!hos!hoglyceric acid =$.3> o first !roduct of the cycle when no light o no 3T$ and 63/$2 are !roduced o $.3 accumulates 6ot con erted to glyceroldehydes+3+!hos!hate o 'u;$ is consumed *ecause still CA2 !resence Bhen light% *ut no CA2 o 3T$ and 63/$2 !roduced o $.3 consumed o 'u;$ accumulates Three !arts o Car*oxylation =addition of CA2> of 'u;$8 ;y '4;I"CA most a*undant !rotein on the !lanet Can add either CA2 or A2 to 'u;$ Car*oxylation creates 2 $.3 =3 car*on molecule> C3 !hotosynthesis

In C4 !hotosynthesis CA2 fixed in cyto!lasm 1st in 4 car*on molecule Then trans!orted to chloro!last o C3 fixation o Car*on reduction Con erts $.3 to 3+!hos!hoglyceraldehyde =.3$> 1st acti ated *y 3T$ 1%3+di$.3 di$.3 reduced to .3$ with 63/$2 $roduct of light reactions are used5 o 'egeneration of 'u;$ .3$ is intercon erti*le with /23$ Com*ine to form #J$ "!lits into D4$ and OF$ D4$ and /23$ com*ine to form "L$ Com*ines with .3$ forming 'F$ and OF$ 'F$ and all OF$ are con erted to 'uF$ 'uF$ con erted to 'u;$ with 3T$ /23$ is ex!orted for synthesis of other constituants #J$ can *e con erted to .J$ #J$ and .J$ com*ine to form sucrose If !roduction exceeds need% transformed to starch

$hotores!iration

'esults from the oxygenase function of '4;I"CA =add A2 to 'u;$> '4;I"CA has a much greater affinity for CA2 than A2 =a*out 20O> o Be don1t see !roduction of CA2 in light *ecause it1s consumed *y !hotosynthesis 1st reaction o !roducts 0 $.3 and 2+car*on !hos!hoglycolate latter oxidi)ed in !eroxysome into glyoxylate Axygen is consumed Then con erted to glycine =attach 622> "ent to mitochondrion 2 glycine serine !roduce CA2 release 622 sent *ac- to !eroxysome serine sent to !eroxysome serine hydroxy!yru ate glycerate glycerate to chloro!last glycerate $.3 using one 3T$ $hotores!iration occurs at the cost of !hotosynthesis To %e active0 -,1IS2O m st %ind to 2O3

C02 concentration mechanisms C4 !lants o $.3 is not the first !roduct of car*on fixation 4+car*on acid instead

o Increase to concentration of CA2 around '4;I"CA o CA2 first fixed in cyto!lasm of meso!hyll cells 3dd CA2 to $D$ malate or as!artate o (alate trans!orted to *undle sheath cell =;"C> /ecar*oxylated in cyto!lasm !roduces *urst of CA2 o Chloro!lasts of ;"C carry out fixation of CA2 *y '4;I"CA (eso!hyll cells do not ha e C3 en)ymes li-e '4;I"CA o The 2 car*oxylations are separated in space % t not time o $roducts of !hotosynt loaded in ascular *undles for trans!ort Dxtensi e cyto!lasmic connections =!lasmodesmata> o 7I<D C3 $C' cycle% !roduces 3 $.3 o 7ittle or no !hotores!iration "ame 22A% C4 assimilate twice as much as C3 (ore efficient users of water%not draught resistant

C3( !lants o 2 car*oxylations se!arated in TI(D 1st occurs in night 2nd occurs in day o stomata o!en during night CA2 fixed into malate to acuole for storage ;uilds u! acidity in cell o /aytime (alate trans!orted to cyto!lasm /ecar*oxylated into CA2 #ixed into 'u;$ *y '4;I"CA in chloro!last stroma o MD'A $2ATA'D"$I'3TIA6 "ome algae used 2CA3 as a car*on source for !hotosynthesis

CA2 com!ensation !oint and light com!ensation !oint Concentration of CA2 with no net car*on gain or loss 0 CC$ o C3 F0+100 !!m C4 0+10 !!m C3( 0 !!m 7ight com!ensation !oint intensity where C gained 0 C lost SEE !" 4( for s mmary of difference %et5een 26 and 2$

Bhole !lant and cro! !hotosynthesis 00:48:00


'es!onses of !hotosynthesis to light intensity

13+04+2010

3t 7C$ o In moles of &uanta !er unit surface area !er time o Mero net !hotosynthesis 3t 0 a*sor*ed light o Aut!ut of CA2 is dar- res!iration =o!!osite of !hotores!N> Dxtreme light intensity o $roducts of light reaction not consumed &uic-ly enough o Causes !hotooxydation of !hotosynthetic a!!aratus $hoto+inhi*ition of !hotosynthesis /amage to machinery de!ends on intensity and duration of ex!osure o Bhen it1s high chronic !hotoinhi*ition o (oderate !hotosynthesis increases slowly until o!timal /ynamic !hotoinhi*ition $lant can *e acclimated to different light intensities o 'es!onse to light de!ends on !re ious ex!osure $lants has a oidance or trac-ing mechanisms o If too much% chloro!lasts will hide *ehind each other o "ome !lant1s lea es trac- the sun for max irradiance

'es!onses of !hotosynthesis to CA2 "ee CC$ in 7ecture F Increase in CA2 concentration 0 increase in car*on assimilation o More prono nced in 2$

o 3t more than atm concentration 6o real effect in C4 $hotosynthesis limited *y light intensity $rogressi ely decreases !hotores!iration% rate increases in C3 'es!onses of $hotosynthesis to tem!erature 'ate is constant *etween 12C and 3LC in C4 'ate decreases with increase *etween 14C and 40C in C3 o $hotores! more res!onsi e to tem! increase than !hotosynth 'es!onse of $hotosynthesis to A2 C3 !lants show increased growth with lower A2 concentrations o /ecrease in !hotres!iration /ecrease in 'D$'A/4CTI@D growth whith lower A2 in C3 and C4 o "eeds need A2 in the air @ery energetically costly $lant architecture and !roducti ity 7eaf angle is the most im!ortant feature of !roduction of dry matter o (odulates extent of shading on lower leafs o Eield is highest when angle is 4F o D en higher le el to! at P0% !rogressi ely down to 0 3ll layers recei e e&ual light intensity o Bith ertical lea es% cro! density can increase

Community le el determinants of cro! yield 7eaf area index o 73I is dimensionless 4 1 m?2 is co ered *y 4 m?2 of leaf surface o dry matter accumulation is directly related to it $lant density =Q !lants / 3rea> o Controlled *y seeding rate /e!ends on !ercent germination of seeds o y 0 w9d o w 0 *9d?=a+1> a 0 1 at !lanting little interference *etween !lants a 0 0 at maturity lots of interference *etween !lants *eyond certain density% weight/!lant decreases Dfficiency of energy con ersion #ix JCA2% or 1 glucose% or e ol e JA2 o 6eed 48 !hotons of J80 nm o In!ut of 8J40 <8 and out!ut of 28L2 <8 (aximal efficiency of 33I 40I of solar energy is a*sor*a*le C 8I lost from transmission and reflection C 8I in heat C 1PI meta*olism 0 FI to car*ohydrates

/igestion and a*sor!tion of food 00:48:00

13+04+2010

6utritional re&uirements o*tained from food !roteins 3mino 3cids "im!le sugars energy% *uilding *loc-s cellular mem*ranes% storage 7i!ids Inorganic salts en)yme co+factors% water *alance cannot *e synthesi)ed @itamins sol ent Bater Dssential nutrients cannot *e !roduced *y the organism #eeding methods 4nicellular o "urface a*sor!tion in molec lar form5 o Dndocytosis If food is solid !hagocytosis If food is li&uid !inocytosis (ulticellular o 2ydra entangle !rey o 3thro!ods use front legs to ca!ture and hold o 7o*sters hold with one leg and tears !ieces with other

/igesti e system "tructural organs contained s!ace for digestion 3ccessory organs secrete en)ymes for digestion Can *e secluded groo e% sac% ca ity% or long tu*e

o 6ot internal to organism5 #ood is still outside the *ody o Cells secrete mucus all along to facilitate mo ement 2eadgut o /etect% ingest% !hysically *rea-down food Increase surface area o "ali a and mucus secreted "ali a has amylase starch degrading (oistening facilitates !assage of food "ali a may also contain toxins% !oisons% etcN #oregut o ;ehing headgut% includes eso!hagus Can ha e muscular structure cro! #ood storage ;irds !ut roc-s to *rea- seeds in it

(idgut o "tomach and small intestine o /igestion and a*sor!tion of food ta-e !lace o In the stomach 2ydrochloric acid acti ates !rotein digesting en)ymes o In the small intestine /igestion of !roteins is com!leted% car*s continue #ats are digested here 3cid from stomach is neutrali)ed

3*sor!tion of !roducts of digestion is mainly here

2indgut o 7arge intestine o 3*sor!tion of water and minerals *efore ex!ulsion of waster o (icro*ial community hel!s digest cellulose

/igestion (acromolecules are en)ymatically *ro-en down into monomers (outh o "ali a acts as sol ent for food molecules taste o Contains amylase degrade starch o ;icar*onate ions neutrali)e acid Dso!hagus o (uscular tu*e with s!hincter at the end o "wallowing is all or none reflex o #ood !re ented from entering nasal !assages or wind!i!e o "!hincter controls entry into stomach "tomach o Cells secrete hydrochloric acid and !e!sinogen o .astric Guices contain intrinsic factor essential for ;12 o 2Cl con ert !e!sinogen to !e!sin digests !roteins o !2 1NF "mall intestine o "ecrete en)ymes that hel! in digestion or acti ate en)ymes

o $ancreatic Guice Car*ohydrate% 7i!id and $rotein degrading en)ymes ;icar*onate neutrali)es stomach acid o ;ile ;ile salts are essential for digestion of fats o !2 L+8 7arge intestine o /igestion is com!lete o 3*sor*s water and ions o 7ength of the gut is reflects the digesti*ility of food o Contains ariety of organisms Dssential role in digestion mutualists "ome degrade cellulose for animals

Chemical reactor theory ;atch 'eactor o "ingle sim!le essel o 3ll reactants and catalysts are !laced in it for some time o 'eaction is sto!!ed and e erything is remo ed o 'eactor is filled again o /e!endant on holding time Continuous+flow% stirred+tan- reactor o 7i-e *atch reactor 'eactants continuously re!lenished

$roducts continuously remo ed o Continuously stirred o /egree of com!letion affected *y rate of through!ut o $roduction is higher with *igger tan$lug+#low reactor o 7ong tu*e o 'eactants enter one end and residual reactants exit at other o (ixing occurs across radius of tu*e o $roducts remo ed along the !eri!hery o (ixing is essential to mo e !roduct to !eri!hery

"tructure and function of the her*i ore gut Cell wall of !lants 0 30+FFI weight mainly cellulose o 6eed hel! of microorganisms to degrade it Carry out fermentation o (ulti+cham*ered stomach and slow digestion 'umination o 'egurgitating and re+chewing food from reticulum o "tomach si)e must *e increased "mall ruminants selecti ely only eat young !lants 7arge ruminants feed non+selecti ely o /igastric stomach #ore+stomach 'umen and reticulum

Dso!hagus o!ens into rumen #ermentation cham*ers 'ich micro*ial !o!ulations 7arge amounts of C24 and CA2 are released 2nd di ision omasum and a*omasum 3*omasum 0 true stomach A!ens into duodenum #i*er is ery im!ortant *ecause it !ro ides roughage in the gut

3*sor!tion of digested food (ost of it in small intestine% *ut 22A and ions are in large o Consists of e!ithelial cells In !roGections illi ;rush *order of micro illus 2a e cytos-eletal su!!ort 3dGacent cells ha e ery tight *orders Bhat gets in to cells is tightly controlled (ost are a*sor!ti e cells "ome are go*let cells "ecrete mucus Central !art of illus occu!ied *y *lood and lym!h essels is stored as glycogen in animals and starch in !lants

o o o #ood

/igestion of food in carni orous !lants 4se en)ymes com!ara*le to those in animals D olutionary and ecological as!ects of digesti e systems of animals 3lmost all !lants exhi*it a wounding res!onse o $roduce signals that other !lants detect $lants !roduce !rotease inhi*itors $re ent digestion of !rotein in her*i ore gut 6ot effecti e against large her*i ores $lant material ta-es longer to digest o 7onger digesti e tract in her*i ores 7arge amount of CA2 and C24 are lost in rumination o 7oss of 12I of energy of ingested food Co!ro!hagy eating of one1s feces to collect additional nutrients

3ero*ic and anaero*ic energy !roduction 13+04+2010 00:48:00


The nature of stored food $olymeri)ed form of glucose starch or glycogen o 6ot su*Gect to usual meta*olism 4nder extreme conditions use of fats and !roteins for energy (o*ili)ation of stored food and glycolysis "tarch and glycogen con erted to glucose first *y 2 methods o Con erted to glucose+1+!hos!hate *y !hos!horylase o Con erted to glucose% then to glucose+1+!hos!hate with 3T$ .lycolysis o /oes not need oxygen o Dach glucose !roduces 263/2 and 23T$ 6o !roton moti e force "u*strate+le el !hos!horylation o $roduces 263/2 and 3 3T$ Con erted directetly to glucose+1+!hos!hate o Dnd !roduct is 2 O !yru ate "till energy rich molecule #ate of !yru ate when A2 is a aila*le <re*s Cycle 6eeds oxygen $yru ate goes to mitochondria and is decar*oxylared =+CA2> Con erted to Coen)yme 3 $rogressi e decar*oxylation =+2 CA2>

'eleased 2 used to reduce 63/H 63/2 or #3/ #3/22 This ha!!ens twice since there are 2 $E'4@3TD (A7DC47D"

Axidation of 63/2/#3/22 and synthesis of 3T$ Dnter electron electron trans!ort chain =4 com!lexes of carriers> o 3nchored in inner mem*rane of mitochondrion In final ste!% electrons !assed *y Com!lex I@ on to A2% form 22A o A2 is terminal electron acce!tor 3s 63/2 and #3/22 are oxidi)ed% !rotons released in inter+ mem*rane s!ace o .enerate !roton moti e force dri es 3T$ synthesis o 3T$ made and released in the matrix I6 $736T" o 2 63/2 dehydrogenases in mem*rane 1 ex!osed to inter+mem*rane s!ace oxidi)ing of 63/2 1 ex!osed to matrix o alternate oxydase !re ents !assage of electrons from Com!lex II to III !assed from II to A2% forming water little !roton moti e force is *uilt little 3T$ synthesi)ed large amounts of A2 consumed uncou!led or alternate res!iration can generate heat

(any chemicals can inhi*it the flow of electrons in different ste!s

#ate of !yru ate in A2+defficient conditions and fermentation Arganism can sur i e some time without A2 o 6eeds continuous su!!ly of 63/H5 o (echanism for consuming 63/2 7actic acid fermentation !athway o $yru ate lactic acid *y lactate dehydrogenase Consumes 63/2 and !roduces 63/H "tores of !hos!hagens o $A4 transferred to 3/$ to form 3T$ $lants do not ha e lactic acid fermentation o Transient mechanism o 3s lactic acid increases% !2 dro!s 3cti ates !yru ate decar*oxylase o Con erts !yru ate to acetaldehyde and CA2 is !roduced o 3cetaldehyde con erted to ethanol *y alcohol dehydrogenase Consumes 63/2 and !roduces 63/H o Dthanol diffuses out of the cell .luconeogenesis o 'emo es !yru ate *y re ersing reactions of glycolysis 'egenerates glucose

'es!iratory :uotient and res!iratory su*strates other than car*ohydrates

': 0 @ol CA2 !roduced / @ol A2 !roduced o /e!ends on su*strate used for res!iration Car*ohydrates 0 1N0 7i!ids 0 0NL $roteins 0 0N8 Tem!erature has !rofound effect o 3t low tem!eratures fats are more used o 3t higher tem!eratures car*s are more used

Dnergy !roduced during res!iration .lycolysis o 2 3T$ <re*s cycle =for one glucose or 2 !yru ates> o J CA2 o 8 63/2 o 2 #3/22 o 2 3T$ =.T$ in animals> !roton moti e force o 24 3T$ from 8 63/2 o 4 3T$ from 2 #3/22 o 2 3T$ *y su*strate le el !hos!horylation TAT37 of 32 3T$ o If 63/2 from glycolysis enter% J more 3T$ !ossi*le (3OI(4( A# 38 3T$

Dfficiency of res!iration Dfficiency of res!iration is a*out 3PI o 'est of energy li*erate as heat Ca!tured *y endotherms 7ost *y !lants 2eat !roduction during res!iration 2eat !roduced !er unit de!ends on ty!e o Dfficiency of res!iration is almost 100I in endotherms 'eca!ture energy as heat 'ole of energy !roduced *y res!iration $art of energy used in maintenance and re!air o Continuous !rocess /uring early stages of growth large !art of energy for growing 3s organism gets older more maintenance is re&uired 'ole of res!iratory intermediates (any intermediates are di erted to ma-e cellular constituents

(eta*olic 'ate% "i)e and 3cti ity 00:48:00

13+04+2010

(eta*olism Totality of all *iochemical reactions o 3na*olism "ynthesis o Cata*olism ;rea-ing down 6ot all energy in food is extracted o "ome used to *uild structures o ;asal meta*olism% digestion and synthesis o 7ocomotion and communication Dnergy released in res!iration !ro!ortional to intensity of acti ity (eta*olic rate : conce!t 3ll energy is reduced to heat units are in heat =1 calorie 0 4N18 8> Dnergy *udget of animals has a huge im!act on *ios!here o (ethane from cows (eta*olic rate: (easurement /irect calorimetry o Calorimeter used to measure amount of heat !roduced *y the animal !er unit of time Indirect calorimetry o (easures content of inGected food% feces% chemical energy% etc ;y com*usting sam!les in a *om* calorimeter 'es!irometry o (ost commonly used method o (easures rate of A2 consum!tion or CA2 !roduction

o 3nimal !laced in closed cham*er res!irometer Concentrations of A2 in and out are measured (aGor confounding factor stress on animal /ou*le+la*eled water method o Can *e used in natural ha*itat of animals o InGected with water deuterium or tritium and oxygen18 o 3fter a short !eriod% *lood sam!le is ta-en o /ifference *etween oxygen and hydrogen .i es amount of CA2 lost measure of meta*olism ;asal (eta*olic 'ate =;('> o "tandardi)ation of meta*olic rate in D6/AT2D'(" o Bhen resting% not running or digesting o Intermediate tem!erature "tandard (eta*olic 'ate ="('> o "tandardi)ation of meta*olic rate in DOAT2D'(" o Bhen resting and not digesting o (easured at normal tem!erature for the s!ecies "hould ha e acclimated for some time *efore #ield (eta*olic 'ate =#('> o (easured in the field *y dou*le+la*eled water method

"i)e and meta*olic rate 7arger organisms consume more oxygen / time than smaller ones (ass+s!ecific (eta*olic 'ate =("('>

o 3llometric relationshi! *etween meta*olic rate and mass o ("(' decreases with *ody si)e (eta*olic rate increases with total *ody mass =slo!e 0 0NLF> ("(' decreases with total *ody mass =slo!e 0 +0N2F> (' 0 a(?* (eta*olic rate o 4nicellular K multicellular exotherm Kmulticellular endotherm Dndotherms use !art of meta*olism for *ody tem!N "urface area does not scale isometrically with *ody mass ;asal meta*olic rate o "ame s!ecies% different mass slo!e 0 0NJL o /ifferent s!ecies% different mass slo!e 0 0NLF

(eta*olic rate and acti ity Increase in acti ity increases meta*olic rate 'unning o "maller animal 0 higher ("(' ("(' increases linearly with s!eed "lo!e for ("(' is higher for smaller animals o /eclining net cost of locomotion with *ody weight (ore costly for smaller animals 7ower efficiency of muscle contraction o Cost of locomotion Cold li)ard K warm li)ard K mammal

(ammals can mo e fast and long% *ut at ery costly o 6o increase in meta*olic cost at maximum aero*ic s!eed 3*o e this% energy comes from anaero*ic mechanisms 3nimals with se eral modes of locomotion (o e at the most economical s!eed for each gait Transition occurs when energetics *ecome uneconomical "wimming o Cost increases with s!eed more ra!idly than running "!eed for minimum cost of locomotion (aximum range s!eed o @ery high cost to mo ing fast #lying o 2o ering is ery costly o #lying at ery low s!eeds re&uires a lot of energy o (inimum !ower s!eed ;urns fuel the slowest o (aximum range s!eed #aster with the lowest total cost of locomotion 'unning , #lying , "wimming o "wimmers ha e *uoyancy from water and flyer from air o 'unners ha e to carry all weight and center of mass is raised 6et meta*olic cost declines with *ody si)e ("(' increases with s!eed and more stee!ly in smaller erte*rates

(eta*olic 'ate and Tem!erature 00:48:00


Dffects of tem!erature on the rate of *iological reactions Bith increasing tem!erature o Increase in meta*olic rate o Increase in A2 consum!tion

13/04/2010

2ow a gi en tem!erature will affect reaction de!ends on the en)yme used as a catalyst and it1s o!timum tem!erature o Tem! has strong effect on tertiary structure of !roteins ;ecomes unsta*le when too high 7ower the <m% more efficient the en)yme

Dffects of tem!erature on cell structure 3!!ro!riate iscosity of mem*ranes must *e maintained o /e!ends on tightness of !ac-ing o /e!ends on num*er of dou*le *onds Increase in tem!erature decreases iscosity /ecrease in tem!erature will increase iscosity

Dffects of tem!erature on meta*olic rates of organisms Dndotherms ha e characteristic thermo+neutral )ones o (eta*olic rate stays constant in this )one :10 o 6um*er *y which a reaction rate increases *y e ery 10C increase in tem!erature If rate dou*les with 10C increase 2 o $hoto+!hysical reactions near unity tem!erature+insenti e o :10 0 ('2/('1 =2 tH10% 1 t>

o :10 0 =('2/('1>?=10/t2+t1> o 6ot always regular and consistent 3cclimation and 3cclimati)ation 3cclimati)ation induction of tolerance to otherwise lethal degree of stress *y !rolonged ex!osure to non+lethal degree of stress o Bhen occurs in nature o 3cclimation is in la*oratory Transient state that disa!!ears when normal condition returns 3t full acclimation o rate of meta*olism is the same as !re ious conditions (achinery of !rotein synthesis has to acclimate also Com!lete com!ensation *y acclimation o 3 lot more ri*osomes at lower tem!eratures to com!ensate o 6ew forms of en)ymes are !roduced more efficient o #atty acid desaturases induced dou*le *ound in mem*rane 'emo e in high tem!erature to !re ent melting

4!ta-e of water and cell water relations 13+04+2010 00:48:00


$ro!erties of water Ideal medium for life o "ta*le% trans!arent% high heat ca!acity% high heat of a!ori)a 6ot solu*le with li!ids allows *oundaries /i!ole5 o Can interact with each other and small or large molecules o 3llows 22A to insert themsel es *etween 6aH and Cl+ PPI of water ta-en *y !lant is returned to atmos!here #orces dri ing water .radient chemical !otential o (o es from high to low Ew 0 E! H E!i H Etau H Eg o E! $ressure !otential .reater or e&ual to )ero Can *e smaller than )ero when suction "ystem enclosed in a mem*rane o E!i Asmotic !otential or solute !otential /ue to !resence of solutes "maller or e&ual to )ero "electi ely !ermea*le mem*rane Bater can !ass% *ut not solute

o Etau (atric !otential $resence of colloidal su*stances that adsor* water "maller or e&ual to )ero o Eg .ra itational !otential /ue to weight $lays little role in cells% *ut great role in trees o Com!are to un+satiated thirst if you need to drin- 3 glasses of water% Ew 0 +3 $ressure+dri en *ul- flow of water o er long distances (o ement is usually in res!onse to a !ressure gradient @olume flow rate 0 =!i9r?4/8n>=deltaE!/deltaO> /iffusion and osmosis% and molecular mechanism in ol ed in 22A mo ement /iffusion Asmosis "ee different com!onents of Ew $athway of water mo ement and o!erational forces A er short distances o In soil% water mo es as *ul- flow o (o e through root intercellular s!aces u! to endothermic

Bithout encountering any mem*rane o Dndothermal cells ha e cas!arian stri! on radial walls Baxy su*erin that forces 22A into endodermal cells o Cellular mem*ranes se!arate soil from solution Autside of endodermis to Oylem essels o Ew at destination more negati e than origin o Ance water enter xylem% u!ward mo ement and esca!e to outside atmos!here occur through res!iration

/etermination of Bater $otential% Asmotic $otential and $ressure $otential Ew o Bater flux e&uili*rium o $sychrometer 3s water mo es from high to low !otential Bater a!or mo e from solution to leaf or in erse no mo ement if !otential is e&ual can also !lace sa! to determine osmotic !otential E!i o /e!ression of free)ing !otential o E!i 0 +deltaT=22N4>/1N8J E! o (anometric method 4sing a micro!i!ette% ta-e !ressure li-e in tires o "cholander1s $ressure ;om* Techni&ue In sealed metal cham*er Cut end stic-s out 6itrogen gas is allowed in $ressure increased until dro!let forms at end of twig .as !ressure 0 E! Can crush twig and measure E!i

4!ta-e and assimilation of nutrients in !lants 13+04+ 2010 00:48:00


Bhy do organisms need mineralsR

#unctional conformation of most macromolecules need mineral elements as cofactors 7ife originated in water with minerals in it 3ll need ery s!ecific concentrations of arious ions

Dssential elements 1P essential elements o 3 non+minerals o 1J minerals To *e essential% needs all 3 criteria o Dssential for com!letion of life cycle o It1s lac- is associated with a s!ecific deficiency sym!tom o 6ot *e re!lacea*le *y another chemically similar element

(acro+ and micro+nutrients (acronutritent o 6eeded in large amount (icronutrient o 6eeded in small amount #unctions of different mineral grou!s "tructural !arts of car*on com!ounds (aintain structuaral integrity "tore energy

'edox reaction 'emain in ionic form and form transient associations with en)ymes o To maintain their structural and functional integrity

3 aila*ility and ade&uacy of mineral nutrients Dxist in soil as mineral salts o Cations attached to soil !articles o 3nions in solution 3 aila*ility is !rofoundly affected *y !2 'ange of o!timal concentration for each element o ;elow deficient% a*o e toxic o ;road for macronutrients and narrow for micronutrients /eficiency sym!toms o (o*ile element =6%<%(g%$%Cl%6a%Mn%(o> "ym!toms not in young organs o Immo*ile element =Ca%"%#e%;%Cu> "ym!toms are systemic

3rtificial nutrient solutions 2oagland solution is used for growing B2A7D !lants 3ssimilation of highly oxidi)ed mineral nutrients 7ife is reduction and death is oxidation (ineral must *e reduced *efore *eing a*sor*ed

"ulfate assimilation o "ulfate H 3T$ 3$" $3$" H 3/$ Bith 3T$ sulfurylase% then 3$" -inase . 0 20 <8% non s!ontaneous o $$i 2 $i Bith !yro!hos!hotase . 0 +3F <8 /ri e the reaction5 o 3$" and $3$" can *e reduced to sulfite then sulfide "ulfide incor!orated into sulfur 33 Cysteine and methionine $hos!hate assimilation o $i H 3/$ 3T$ "u*strate+le el !hos!horylation Ar !roton moti e force 6itrate assimilation o Ta-en u! *y root and trans!orted to shoot ia trans!N systN o Dnters cyto!lasm of root and shoot ia nitrate/2H sym!ort o 'educed to nitrite *y nitrate reductase 6itrite is toxic5 o 'educed to ammonium *y reduced ferrodoxin and nitrite reductase o 624H H glutamate glutamine 6itrate reductase o It1s an induci*le gene

Anly acti ated when 6A3+ is a aila*le o It1s acti ity first a!!ears in the root% then the shoot o It1s a dimer Dach is cataly)ing the reduction of nitrate 63/2 *inding site near car*oxy terminal #3/ *inding site near car*oxy terminal 2eme *inding and moly*denum site near amino termin Dlectron flow occurs from 63/2 through #3/% heme and (A com!lex and !assed on to nitrate on 6+terminus 6itrate is reduced to nitrite 6itrite reductase o Iron+sulfur com!lex *ound to it Ta-es electrons from reduced ferrodoxin $asses them to heme /onates them to nitrite Con erted to ammonium

$lants with s!ecial strategies to ac&uire minerals "ome !lants form associations with mycorrhi)al fungi o #ungi gi es minerals o $lant gi e car*ohydrates Carni orous !lants catch insect o $rotein su!!lement *ro-en down into amino acids o A*tain already reduced nitrogen

;iological nitrogen fixation and assimilation 13/04/2010 00:48:00


Im!ortance of 6 in !lant nutrition (ost im!ortant constituents are nitrogenous deri ati es of car*on *ac*ones 3ll en)ymes% are made of amino acids /63 and '63 also ha e nitrogen D""D6TI37 TA ;4I7/% (3I6T3I6 36/ /D.'3/D 7I@I6. "E"TD(" 3*iotic fixation $roduced industrially *y 2a*er !rocess o 22 H 62 with catalyst 2 623 7ightning fixes atmos!here nitrogen into nitric acid ;iological fixation of atmos!heric nitrogen #ree+li ing and sym*iotic nitrogen fixing !ro-aryotes o Dxclusi e to certain *acteria Dxtremely sensiti e to A2 o Cataly)ed *y nitrogenase highly sensiti e to oxygen (ust maintain anaero*ic microclimate around it ;y intensifying res!iration /uring the night when no A2 *y $"+II "!ace !artitioning 'oot nodule 7eghemoglo*in *inds 20x than hemoglo*in "ym*iotic 62 fixation in higher !lants o 3ll higher !lants that fix 62 in sym*iosis legumes

o "ym*iosis with Rhizobiium o "!ecial structure called nodules are de elo!ed on the roots Ar on stems in a&uatic !lants /e elo!ment of the root nodule o 'oots secrete fla inoids and *etaines to attract rhi)o*ia o Dxchange of signals *etween them o 'hi)o*ia attach to young emerging root hairs o Chemicals secreted *y root acti ate *acterial !rotein $rotein / or 6od / o In res!onse to signals from rhi)o*ia% root hair curls #orms a small com!artment that encloses *acterium o 6od / acti ates transcri!tion of other nodulation genes ;inds to nod *ox in !romoter of *acteria /63 o Infection thread formed going from root hair to cortical cells o 'oot cells are stimulated to di ide forms nodule5 o (ature nodule is !in- *ecause of loghemoglo*in 2eme *y *acterium .lo*in *y the !lant 6itrogenase action o 2 com!lexes iron+!rotein and moly*denium+iron+!rotein com!lexes o electrons for reductions !ro ided *y reduced ferrodoxin to iron+!rotein com!lex which is then reduced *inds to and hydroly)es 3T$ changes conformation

iron+!rotein reduces (o#e+!rotein com!lex reduces 62 to 623 o "ome electrons and !rotons are lost as 22+ o D olution of 22 can reduce nitrogen fixation *y J0I "ome !lants ha e en)ymes s!lit 22 and reca!ture it 2ydrogenase These !lants are more efficient 62 fixer Dx!ort of 6itrogen from the 6odule o Ance 623 is fixed trans!orted to rest of !lant o 623 is &uite toxic o Con erted to other com!ounds Dx!orted through xylem in solution form 3mide Dx!orters o Dx!ort fixed nitrogen in form of amides 3s!aragine and glutamine o 623 H glutamate glutamine =with glutamine synthase o 3mino grou! from glutamine transferred to as!artate #orms as!aragines *y transaminase en)yme 7l tamate to gl tamate goes on e&porting one gl tamine o t of the nod le per cycle 4reide ex!orters o 3llanoin In !eroxysome from uric acid o 3llantoic acid In endo!lasmic reticulum from allantoin

o Citrulline #rom 33 ornithorine o 'eleased into xylem trans!iration stream o (eta*oli)ed to 624H and 623 in destination organs Incor!orated into 33 3gricultural im!ortance of *iological 62 fixation Bhen non+leguminous cro! !lanted after leguminous cro! o EID7/ I" 2I.2D' Terrestrial nitrogen cycle ;iotic and a*iotic !rocesses o 6itrogen fixing *acteria o /enitrifying *acteria com!lete loss

Trans!iration and distri*ution of nutrients in !lants


The xylem as water+conducting tissue Bater mo ement occurs through the xylem tissue 4!ward mo ement in !lants through xylem "tructural elements of the xylem in ol ed in the u!ward water mo ement Oylem essels o "eries of elements arranged end to end /ead and hollow 2a e !erforations !lates at end and sides o #orm a continuous tu*e In angios!erm% from root to shoot Tracheids are elongated s!indle+sha!ed cells o 2ollow and dead o /o not form long continuous tu*es o A erla! along a !art of their length o .ymnos!erms only ha e tracheids o 3ngios!erms ha e *oth essels and tracheids Bater can mo e from one essel or tracheid to another o (any *ranched !aths for water mo ement /iurnal fluctuations in trans!iration Trans!iration shows fluctuations as the stomata o!en during day and close during night o "oil water !otential declines with time o Bater !otential of root and leaf fluctuate with o erall decline

#orces dri ing u!ward water mo ement 'oot !ressure o (any manifestations of root !ressure Bell+watered seedlings show dro!lets of water at ti! of lea es in morning .uttation 6o trans!iration at night% !ressure *uilds u! This !ressure can !ush water u! to a meter Ca!illary rise of water o 'ise in ca!illary tu*e function of surface tension and density and radius o 20=1N4Px10?+F>/radius o Can not rise much in larger ca!illaries 20um xylem LF cm Cohesion+tension theory o 22A *ind to each other with great cohesi e forces Can su!!ort ery long ertical columns o Bhen !ulled *y the to! *y suction% column lifted as a whole o Trans!iration creates suction force Column doesn1t *rea- *ecause of cohesion o Continuity of water columns in xylem is esta*lished in growth It grows with the !lant If air *u**les are formed in it% it not longer wor-s Irre!ara*le in tall trees Continuously form new xylem through growth

3 gradient of decreasing water !otential from *ottom to to! of a tree (o es from higher !otential to lower !otential $otential is lower at greater height than lower height o 7owest is in the atmos!here (inimum water loss is Gust after noon 4nder extreme suction !ressure E! can *ecome 0 /iameter of trees decreases Gust after noon and reco ers in e ening Ance water reaches xylem of the leaf o Cell to cell *y osmosis o 'eleased into su*stomal ca ity =large air s!ace under stoma> SEE !"3+6 Bater mo ement from the su*stomal ca ity to the atmos!here (o ement *y diffusion dri en *y difference in a!or concentration *etween su*stomal ca ity and the air o "u*stomal ca ity almost always saturated =close to 100I> o Trans!iration is ex!ressed as flux density 8 or flux rate : o 7onger the !ath% greater the resistance 8ater movement from the s %stomal cavity to the atmosphere via stomatal opening "tomata resistance ='s> o /irectly !ro!ortional to length o In ersely !ro!ortional to cross section area o 's 0 =1/!i9r?2> H =1/29r> 'esistance due to unstirred air *oundary layer ='a>

o $resence of unstirred air o er the leaf #orms layer of 22A saturated water o Thic-00N4s&rt=leaf length%wind direction>/wind elocity> o 3s wind s!eed increases% thic-ness decreases Trans!iration increases "i)e o!ening of stomatal !ore also has effect o Considera*le increase with larger !ore% until Fum% then less Bhen air is mo ing Significance of transpiration o 2igh water content confers turgidity o Trans!irational cooling of lea es o Continuous o!en stream of water and minerals mo ing u! together

/istri*ution of !hotosynthetic !roducts in !lants


Identification of the !hloem as the trans!ort tissue Inner !art of the *ar- secondary !hloem o 'es!onsi*le for trans!ort of organic materials $hloem located in ascular *undles o /icotyledonous stem *undles are arranged in circle o $hloem is towards the outside o Oylem is inside o "econdary !hloem arise from em*ryonic acti ity of cam*ium 7ocated Gust inside the *ar $hloem as a trans!ort !athway for organic materials "tructural features of the !hloem (ade u! of se eral ty!es of cells o "ie e elements Dlongated cell Dnd walls !erforated with !ores =sie e !lates> "ie e areas on long side walls and 7ateral sie e areas 3rranged end to end Cyto!lasmic connections with neigh*ors 'un the length of the !lant 6o nucleus #ew mitochondrion 7ittle or no need for 3T$

o Com!anion cells Dlongated cells 6arrower than sie e elements 3dGacent to sie e elements ;ranched !lasmodesmata "u*stances can diffuse into sie es $rominent nucleus (any mitochondria o Transfer cells 7i-e com!anion cells Con oluted !lasma mem*rane increases surface area for increased trans!ort o $hloem !arenchyma o $hloem fi*ers in some !lants "ie e elements and com!anion cells constitute a functional com!lex

"ource and sin- organs 7ea es are source organs of !hotosynthates o Anly start ex!orting when fully mature o If still growing im!orting food Dx!orting leaf su!!lies to sin- organs on same side of the stem If leaf is lost or damaged% sin- organs is ado!ted *y others

Com!osition of !hloem sa!

(ainly sugars% *ut many other ty!es of material trans!orted o "ugars o 33 o Arganic acids o $rotein o $% Cl% (g% $A4

"olute loading and unloading "ucrose is the maGor trans!ort form o 7oaded into com!anion cells and then sie e elements ;efore !hloem loading can occur o Triose !hos!hate ex!orted to cyto!lasm o Con erted to sucrose o "tarch hydroly)ed to glucose o .lucose ex!orted to cyto!lasm and con erted to sucrose $ath of sucrose o "ym!lastic Dnters cells through mem*rane trans!ort system Dxits from the !roto!last Crosses cellular mem*ranes o 3!o!lastic 'eleased in cell wall region .oes through intercellular s!aces /oes not cross any mem*ranes to enter !roto!last

o The !ath can *e sym!lastic and/or sym!lastic "ucrose can enter !roto!last as sucrose or *ro-en down into glucose and frustose Ance loaded into com!anion cell o (ay diffuse into sie e element $lasmodesmata or sucrose+!roton sym!ort "ugar unloading may use sym!lastic or a!o!lastic (o ement can *e u!ward of downward% *ut not simultaneously5 Trans!ort across a mem*rane generally *y sym!ort o $roton gradient esta*lished 3T$ consumed

The dri ing force for the trans!ort in the !hloem $hloem in close !roximity to xylem essels o Tightly cou!led to u!ward mo ement of 22A in xylem $hotosynthates dissol ed in water mo e with *ul- flow u! Ew gradient o /ri en *y !ressure !otential Created *y loading and unloading of sugar o "ince it1s *ul- flow% no resistance from mem*ranes $redictions o "ie e !lates !ores are uno*structed o 6o simultaneous *i+directional mo ement in same sie e tu*e o "hould not in ol e much energy o Turgor !ressure higher in source sie e elements

.as exchange mechanisms in animals 00:48:00

13+04+2010

6eed for gaseous exchange and circulation system 3ll cells need oxygen for res!iration and energy !roduction o 6eed to o*tain A2 and get rid of CA2 4nicellular o Dxchange occurs directly with surrounding water (ulticellular o "!eciali)ed surfaces o 6eed a medium to trans!ort A2 to cells and CA2 *ac ;lood circulation

'es!iratory surfaces for gas exchange: tracheal system% lungs and gills Tracheal system o $resent in insects o Dxtensi e *ranching tu*e system o!en to outside Through narrow !ores s!iracles o "eries of *alloon sha!ed air sac o 7eads to many tracheoles to ca!illaries o D ery !art of the *ody is ex!osed to atmos!heric A2 7ungs o #ormed *y in agination o Com!letely internali)ed o True lungs formed *y !ouching off of lower !harynx o Con oluted lining to increase surface area 2ighly al eolar structure 0 s!ongy tissue

o .as exchange only occurs in ca!illaries of the lungs o In *irds "eries of lungs 2 cycles of inhalation and exhalation =2 *reaths> air inhaled to !osterior sacs air flows to lungs gas exchange air flows from lungsanterior sacs% !osterior filled anterior sacs air is ex!ulsed air mo es unidirectionally and continuously o In mammals 3ir comes in through trachea and enter *ronchi 7ead to *ronchioles se eral al eoli 'e&uires close !roximity of *lood 7arger *ody si)e 0 larger res!iratory surface area 7inear relation close to unity .ills o o o o o #ormed *y e agination 3da!ted for *reathing in water "urface layer is ery thin Aften !rotected *y fla! called o!erculum 3 ty!es =increasing com!lexity> Tuft gills 'aised thin area of the s-in #ilament gills

"eries of feather li-e structures (ore ela*orate flow system than tuft gills 7amellar gills 2ighly ela*orated in fishes $airs of gill arches which stand ertically Dach carries num*er of !aired filaments o Thrown into series of ertical fla!s 7amellae Bater flows o er surface of filament S *etween lamellae 3rches are hollow 7umen contains *lood essels .as exchange occurs on surfaces of lamellae ;lood flow o!!osite to water flow

3!!lication of #ic-1s law to gas exchange "ee diffusion / de!endent on nature of medium iscosity Concentration gradient o /e!ends on alue of *oth sides and thic-ness *etween them Thic-ness of *lood ca!illary H unstirred *lood layer Im!ortant that always in mo ement o If slow or sto!!ed diffusion ery slow .as exchange during concurrent and countercurrent flow

Concurrent flow same direction o ;lood with lowest A2 meet water with highest A2 o 3t midway% *oth reach F0I e&uili*rium 6o more diffusion5 Countercurrent flow o!!osite directions o Bater always more saturated than *lood o 3lways exchange ta-ing !lace 6; when *oth 22A and *lood ha e 100I saturation o 6ot the same concentration of A2

@entilation and !erfusion @entilation o #low rate of A2 carrying medium o er res!iratory surface $erfusion o #low rate of *lood o er res!iratory surface 2 stro-e !um! in fish for *reathing o ;y se&uencial o!ening and closing of the mouth o!ens increases olume o!erculum closed closes decreases olume !ressure increases water is ex!ulsed o Bater mo es unidirectionally In mammals

o Inhalation Contraction of intercostal and dia!hragm muscles @olume increases% !ressure dro!s% air goes in o Dxhalation Contraction released @olume decreases% !ressure increases% air goes out o @entilation can *e increased *y increasing fre&uency or ol Constraints on diffusion efficiency "urfaces must *e as thin as !ossi*le o Increases li-elihood of inGury o Aften ex!osed to toxins and contaminants $redis!osed to inGury

Com!arison of air and water as res!iratory media (ore A2 a aila*le in air than water Bater is much more iscous harder wor- to *reathe Bater+*reather ery de!endent on unidirectional flow of water o 'e ersing it li-e mammals ery costly /iffusion is 10 000 times faster in air Axygen can *e *elow saturation !oint in water% *ut constant in air CA2 is more solu*le in water than in air o Dasier to get rid of it Bater !ro ides su!!ort for gills In water% the cost of locomotion is not as high o ;uoyancy from water

Circulation system

13+04+2010 00:48:00

A er iew of functions of animal circulatory system

3llows material exchanges o Ariginal function of the system @ehicle of communication *etween !arts of the *ody /istri*utes% exchanges and dissi!ates heat Carries anti*odies and *lood cells that defend the *ody 6; can also *e a carrier for infectious agents and s!read them

Com!onents of a circulation system 3 com!onents are essential o fluid that needs to *e trans!orted and circulates in the system o one or more !um!s that generate !ressure to dri e flow o system of tu*es% channels or essels that *ring fluid from !um! to *ody !arts arteries arterioles ca!illaries that collect fluid from *ody !arts ca!illaries enules eins ca!illaries are site of gas exchange

A!en and closed circulation systems A!en circulatory system o #luid enters sinus or !ool o (ixes with intercellular fluid and *athes tissue directly o Contains *lood essels and sinuses

o Cra*s and lo*sters 3lso ha e a closed system Closed circulatory system o #luid remains in tu*es or channels o /iffusion is res!onsi*le for exchange

D olution and com!lexity of circulatory system 6ot all organisms ha e circulatory system o Bhere diffusion can meet the demand o "!onges% coelenterates% flat worms% nematods Anly in erte*rates consistently closed system It originated multi!le times and de elo!ed to different extents @erte*rate heart o #ish "ingle circuit heart $ushes *lood to gills and all *ody !arts 2ard wor- hel! *y caudal heart in tail

o Tetra!ods /ou*le+circuit heart 2 !um!s arranged in series attached together single heart se!aration of entricular cham*er is com!lete 1 !um! for lungs 1 !um! for the rest of the *ody including the heart

o 'e!tiles "e!aration of the two *loods% *ut still some mixing

7ym!hatic system and circulation ;lood is under !ressure o "ome s&uee)es through s!aces in adGacent cells It gets filtered as it goes through 7ym!h 7ym!hatic system collects it and returns it to *loodstream o 8ust *efore it enters the heart $ressure and fluid mo ement $ressure gradient is re&uired to mo e fluid Dxerts a !ressure that !ushes essel outward @essel wall exerts o!!osite inward !ressure o /ifference is transmural !ressure o T 0 =$2+$1>r : 0 @93 @ 0 elocity o : is constant in closed system o @ increases with narrowing of cross+sectional area o : 0 =$1+$2>/' o : 0 =$1+$2>=!i9r?4>/=87n>

;lood !ressure and it1s measurement "!hygmomanometer o (easure minimum and maximum arterial !ressure o Cystolic !ressure (aximum !ressure in the artery 110+120 o /iastolic !ressure (inimum !ressure in the artery L0+80 o 4se of u!!er arm *ecause same height as heart $ressure is ery different in different !arts of the *ody o 1N3cm *lood 0 1 mm2g @eins ha e elastic walls and lower the !ressure o T$oolingU effect when standing for a long time o tight s-in hel!s o effect eliminated *y outside !ressure don1t stand out in water greater !ressure than air ca!illaries not affected *y !ressure changes o larger cross+sectional area o *lood flow is a lot slower 'ole of muscle contraction o 2el! !ro!el *lood flow o @eins ha e one+way al es that !re ent *ac- flow

@elocity of *lood flow Closed steady state system o @olume of fluid !assing any !oint on a !ath is the same o @elocity can change *ecause of cross+sectional area of !ath 3s arteries lea e heart !rogressi ely *ranch out o @elocity dro!s o /ro!s a lot at ca!illaries *etter gas exchange 'ate of olume+flow o 'eduction in =$1+$2> 0 reduction in flow rate o 3s area goes u!% !ressure dro!s to s&uared !ower o $ressure does not rise as it lea es the ca!illaries for the eins $otential energy generate *y heart is lost Dlastic walls o .i en !ressure: greater in larger cross+sectional area o @olume flow has less resistance is ca!illaries in !arallel o #low rate controlled *y constriction and relaxation of muscle fi*ers in walls of *lood essels o @iscosity of fluid is im!ortant (ore *lood cells 0 more transfer 0 more iscous 0 harder wor 7ess *lood cells 0 less transfer 0 less iscous 0 more !um!ing "tructural design of *lood essels 7arger diameter of essel higher tension wall must withstand o Thic-er walls in arteries and eins @essels under more !ressure ha e thic-er walls

Ca!illaries must *e narrow so low tension allows thin walls 7arge hearts or that de elo! more !ressure need thic-er walls

3 field exam!le 2ow does a giraffe maintains sufficient !ressure in it1s head and manage the !ressure in it1s legsR o Considera*ly high *lood !ressure o 2eart has larger entricle a*le to maintain high !ressure o "-in on legs is ery thic- and tight to maintain !ressure o Com*ination of ery thic- arterial wall and strong one way al es in eins !re ent *ac-flow when drin-ing water

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