Energetic, ecologic and uid-dynamic analysis of a uidized bed

gasier operating with sugar cane bagasse

Paulo Tasso Diniz Filho
a,
*
, Jose Luz Silveira
a,
*
, Celso Eduardo Tuna
a
,
Wendell de Queiroz Lamas
a, b, c
a
Laboratory of Energy Systems Optimization, Department of Energy, Faculty of Engineering at Guaratingueta, Sao Paulo State University, Brazil
b
Post-graduate Programme in Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Taubate, Brazil
c
Department of Basic and Environmental Sciences, Engineering School at Lorena, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
h i g h l i g h t s
we develop a methodology to size a uidized bed gasier.
we validate this methodology comparing to a xed bed gasier values.
we aggregate ecological efciency to this methodology.
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 23 July 2012
Accepted 27 January 2013
Available online 15 March 2013
Keywords:
Biomass gasication
Fluidized bed gasier modelling
Sugar and alcohol industry
a b s t r a c t
This work aims to study the thermodynamic, ecological and uid-dynamic aspects of a circulating u-
idized bed gasier using sugar cane bagasse as biomass, in order to estimate a model of its normal
operation. In the initial stage was analysed the composition of biomass selected (sugar cane bagasse) and
its lower heating value (LHV) was calculated. The energy balance of the gasier was done, being the
volumetric owof air, synthesis gas and biomass estimated. Also the power produced by this gasier was
theoretically estimated. Then the circulating uidized bed gasier was designed for operation with
approximately 100 kg/h of processed biomass. Cross-sectional area of the reactor, feeder size, diameter of
the exit zone of the gases and minimum height of the expanded bed were selected. Some bed gasier
hydrodynamic factors were also studied. The minimum uidization velocity, uidization terminal ve-
locity, and average uidizing velocity were calculated, in order to understand the uid-dynamic
behaviour of gasication of this fuel. It was obtained a theoretical model that can support a possible
prototype of circulating uidized bed gasier biomass. Finally, there were studied the ecological aspects
of the gasier, through an overall methodology. Ecological efciencies were estimated for two scenarios:
rst considering the carbon cycle and thereafter disregarding the carbon cycle. In both cases, it can be
proved the ecological viability of the project.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The energy alternatives to replace or to supplement the sources
used today have been a constant challenge for scholars and re-
searchers. According to Ref. [1], there is untapped potential for
energy generation in the Brazilian sugar and alcohol sector, which
could be offered to the utilities and subsequently to society without
the need for large investments in the economic order.
One of the factors that contribute to this aspect stems from the
fact that, in general, is employed in the biofuels industry power
systems and low pressure steam to the expanded use of steam in
the process, technology known as traditional back pressure cycle.
However, this technology has lowexergy efciency, causing the loss
part of exergy that could eventually be transformed into heat,
mechanical power or electricity.
The biomass gasication has been identied by experts as one of
the best alternatives for recovery of energy frombiomass. This type
of technology does not require a large investment demand and can
be inserted into the production process of ethanol.
* Corresponding authors. Laboratory of Energy Systems Optimization, Depart-
ment of Energy, Faculty of Engineering at Guaratingueta, Sao Paulo State University,
Av. Dr. Ariberto Pereira da Cunha, 333, Pedregulho, 12516-410 Guaratingueta, SP,
Brazil. Tel.: 55 12 3123 2240; fax: 55 12 3123 2835.
E-mail addresses: paulotd@gmail.com (P.T. Diniz Filho), joseluz@feg.unesp.br
(J.L. Silveira), wendell@feg.unesp.br, lamaswq@aol.com (W.deQ. Lamas).
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Applied Thermal Engineering
j ournal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ apt hermeng
1359-4311/$ e see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.01.045
Applied Thermal Engineering 57 (2013) 116e124
Fundamentals of gasication have been explained in details
such as technologies, modelling, simulation, comparison to com-
bustions in use etc [2e7].
The sizing of the gasier was developed in accordance with
information available in the literature by several authors [8e19],
detaching its methodology, modelling, and specic features for
each type of gasier.
Specically the uidized bed gasication had been studied by
authors such as [20e28].
This work aims to study the thermodynamic, ecological and
uid-dynamic aspects of a circulating uidized bed gasier using
sugar cane bagasse as biomass, in order to estimate a model of its
normal operation.
2. Methodology
In the initial stage was analysed the composition of selected
biomass (sugar cane bagasse) and its lower heating value (LHV) was
calculated through the methodology reviewed in the literature
[15,29,30]. Fromthe calculatedLHV, the energy balance of the gasier
operating with this type of biomass was performed. The volumetric
ow of air, synthesis gas (syngas) and biomass were estimated.
Then the circulating uidized bed gasier was designed for
operation with approximately 100 kg/h of processed biomass.
Cross-sectional area of the reactor, feeder size, diameter of the exit
zone of the gases and minimum height of the expanded bed were
selected.
Some bed gasier hydrodynamic factors were also studied. The
minimum uidization velocity, uidization terminal velocity, and
average uidizing velocity were calculated, in order to understand
the uid-dynamic behaviour of gasication of this fuel.
The calculations were divided separately for each segment as
follows: properties of bagasse; energy balance; mass ow of
biomass and volume of air and synthesis gas; methodology for the
gasier sizing; uid-dynamic study of the gasier; ecological
efciency.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Properties of the bagasse
The chemical composition of sugar cane bagasse on a dry basis
for the development of a bullet mass process is formed by carbon
(C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O) [31]. This value was
obtained after analysis of various types of species. Table 1 shows
these elements and their contribution for the chemical composition
mentioned.
Table 2 shows the composition of synthesis gas generated from
incomplete sugar cane bagasse gasication.
This table shows the expected concentrations of the energetic
compounds in the fuel gas (% volumetric), information given by
Olivares-Gomez [11]. It is not the complete composition of the
synthesis gas or the fuel gas. The energy compound on the gas is in
majority given by CH
4
, H
2
, and CO.
The feed moisture content is 20%; therefore it is necessary to
transform the composition of the biomass on dry basis [11]. Table 3
shows the transformation of the composition on a dry basis of
9.85% to work with biomass of 20% wet basis.
3.2. Energy balance
According to the energy balance, the total energy entering the
control volume (the gasier) is equal to the total energy leaving
control volume. In this case, the enthalpy will be used for
measuring thermal energy per unit mass of air, gas and ash.
Therefore, an energy balance of the gasier can be represented as
follows in Eq. (1).
_ m
bio
$h
bio
_ m
air
$h
air
_ m
gas
$h
gas
_ m
ash
$h
ash
Q
env
(1)
where:
h
air
e enthalpy of the air [kJ/kg];
h
ash
e enthalpy of the ash [kJ/kg];
h
bio
e enthalpy of the biomass [kJ/kg];
h
f
e enthalpy of formation [kJ/kg];
h
gas
e enthalpy of the gas [kJ/kg];
_ m
air
e air ow in the gasier [kg/s];
_ m
ash
e ash ow [kg/s];
_ m
bio
e biomass ow in the gasier [kg/s];
_ m
gas
e gas ow produced in the gasication [kg/s];
Q
env
e heat lost to the environment [kW].
3.2.1. Calculation method for synthesis gas LHV (LHV
gas
)
According to Ref. [30], the composition of synthesis gas on dry
basis uses to be CO
2
(13%) and C
2
H
4
(0.19%); C
2
H
6
(0.15%) and C
2
H
2
(0.01%); H
2
(16%), O
2
(0.6%) and N
2
(48%); C
2
H
4
(2%) and CO (20%).
Thus, the lower heating value for biomass synthesis gas produced
in the gasier is calculated through Eq. (2) [15,29].
LHV
gas
0:126$C
CO
0:358$C
CH4
0:108$C
H2
0:59$C
C2H4
0:637$C
C2H6
(2)
where C
CO2
, C
CH4
, C
H2
, C
C2H4
, and C
C2H6
are the volumetric concen-
trations of the gas produced as a percentage. Therefore:
LHV
gas
0:126$20 0:358$2 0:108$16 0:59$0:19
0:637$0:15
LHV
gas
5:172
_
MJ
Nm
3
_
:
Table 1
Basic composition of sugar cane bagasse in natura [31].
Element Value (%)
Carbon (C) 44.80
Hydrogen (H) 5.35
Nitrogen (N) e
Oxygen (O) 39.55
Sodium (Na) 0.01
Table 2
Chemical composition of the synthesis gas generated considering an incomplete
gasication [11].
Gas Value (%)
Carbon monoxide (CO) 12.0
Hydrogen (H
2
) 4.0
Methane (CH
4
) 3.0
Table 3
Transformation of the composition on a dry basis of 9.85%.
Element Value (%)
Carbon (C) 49.70
Hydrogen (H) 5.94
Nitrogen (N) e
Oxygen (O) 43.87
Sulphur (S) 0.01
P.T. Diniz Filho et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 57 (2013) 116e124 117
3.2.2. Calculation of the enthalpy of the synthesis gas (h
gas
)
For the produced synthesis gas, the enthalpy h
gas
is calculated
according to Eq. (3).
h
gas
C
CO2
$h
CO2
C
CH4
$h
CH4
C
H2
$h
H2
C
N2
$h
N2
C
O2
$h
O2
C
CO
$h
CO
C
H2O
$h
H2O
(3)
where h
elem
is the enthalpy of each component gas. Table 4 shows
the composition of the synthesis gas.
The enthalpy of each component of the exit gas can be deter-
mined using the specic heating at constant pressure (cp),
expressed as a function of temperature (T) in kJ/kmol K [32].
cp
CO2
10:34 0:000274$T
195; 500
T
2
cp
CO
6:6 0:0012$T
cp
O2
8:27 0:000258$T 187; 700$T
2
cp
H2
6:62 0:00081$T
cp
N2
6:5 0:00100$T
cp
CH4
5:34 0:0115$T
cp
H2O
8:22 0:00015$T 0:00000134$T
2
The enthalpy of the gas from each element is given by Eq. (4).
h h
f

_
T
f
298
cp$dT (4)
By calculating the specic heating for an approximate temper-
ature T
f
of 600

C, the Eq. (4) can be solved.
h
CO2
366:87
kJ
mol
h
CO
92:93
kJ
mol
h
O2
18:326
kJ
mol
h
H2
16:714
kJ
mol
h
N2
17:38
kJ
mol
h
CH4
45:33
kJ
mol
h
H2O
220:752
kJ
mol
These values are introduced in Eq. (3).
h
gas
0:134$366:87 0:036$45:33 0:179$16:714
0:179$16:714 0:402$17:38 0:09$18:326
0:134$92:93 0:106$220:752
h
gas
76:5012
kJ
mol
:
This amount is divided by the molecular mass of gas
(24.034 g/mol).
h
gas

76:5012
kJ
mol
24:034
g
mol
$1000
g
mol
h
gas
3183:04
kJ
kg
The negative signal is due to the enthalpy of formation of certain
elements of the gas composition [32].
3.2.3. Calculation of biomass LHV on a wet basis
Using the equation developed by Makray [33], Eq. (5), the lower
heating value (LHV) on wet basis of the selected biomass can be
calculated [31].
LHV
wet
HHV
bio
$
_
1
W
u
100
_
22:11$H
s
0:442$
__
W
u
18
_

_
H
s
$W
u
2
__
(5)
LHV
wet
14; 870
kJ
kg
where:
LHV
wet
e lower heating value of the wet bagasse [kJ/kg];
HHV
bio
e higher heating value of the biomass in the dry basis
[kJ/kg];
W
u
e humidity of the biomass in the wet basis [%];
H
s
e hydrogen amount in the dry basis [%].
3.2.4. Calculating the amount of energy required for the process
An average power of E
d
254 kW in the gasier was selected.
This value had considered the experience provided by Refs. [15,18].
According to Ref. [21], due to incomplete gasication of the
biomass, discontinuities in the feed, among others, the actual po-
wer required in the gasier is always approximately 10e20% higher
than the theoretical operation. Thus, the actual operating power
was calculated by multiplying the estimated theoretical power by
the safety coefcient f
sec
1.1, Eq. (6).
E
t
E
d
$f
sec
(6)
where:
E
t
e corrected power of the gasier [kW];
E
d
e theoretical power of the gasier [kW];
f
sec
e safety coefcient [e].
Fig. 1 shows the power operation of the gasier according to the
amount of biomass burned.
Table 4
Composition of the produced gas volume produced in wet basis.
Element Percentage
CO
2
13.4
CO 13.4
O
2
0.9
H
2
17.9
N
2
40.2
CH
4
3.6
H
2
O 10.6
P.T. Diniz Filho et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 57 (2013) 116e124 118
3.2.5. Calculating the amount of biomass processed to meet the
theoretical power of operation
Calculating the actual power of operation, it is now necessary to
estimate the amount of biomass to be processed in the gasier to
generate so much energy. It was considered an average efciency of
biomass gasication of E
mg
60%, value obtained through the expe-
rience of Refs. [15,18]. The amount of processed biomass can be ob-
tained by dividing the actual power operation by lower heating value
(LHV) and efciency E
mg
, both previously calculated, as Eq. (7).
_ m
bp

E
t
LHV
wet
$
E
mg
100
$3600 (7)
where:
_ m
bp
e biomass processed ow [kg/h];
E
mg
e efciency of the gasier [%].
The Eq. (7) corresponds to the processed biomass ow into the
gasier. The methodology proposed in this work corresponds to a
small prototype of uidized bed gasier, operating with approxi-
mately 100 kg/h of biomass. However, according to Ref. [21], due to
incomplete gasication of the biomass, discontinuities in the feed,
among others, it is necessary to adopt a safety coefcient. Also the
operation power of the gasier is a little higher than that was
initially expected. Using the Eq. (7), which is a relationship between
the efciency of the gasier, the lower heating value (LHV), and the
corrected operation power (E
t
), it is possible to calculate the pro-
cessed biomass ow into the gasier _ m
bp
.
3.2.6. Calculation of the ash produced during gasication
According to Ref. [34], the ash produced in the process of gasi-
cation of biomass can be estimated at about 22% of biomass, so it
can be determined through Eq. (8).
_ m
ash
_ m
bp
$0:22 (8)
where:
_ m
ash
e ash produced [kg/h].
Several authors had discussed this estimative. The values of the
ash are always between 15 and 30% for the almost types of biomass
used in gasication. The values of the ash content for bagasse in a
uidized bed gasier it is not dened with clarity. Some authors
had explained that the major factor of inuence is the percent of
carbon (C) in the biomass. The value adopted in this work is the
same adopted by Ramirez et al. [34] that have experimental results
for rice husk as biomass, and used the same value as estimative. The
rice husk and the sugar cane bagasse have approximately the same
composition and approximately the same combustion behaviour.
Therefore, it is possible to use this value.
Table 5 shows the parameters obtained to the required energy
balance of the gasier.
3.3. Volumetric ow of biomass, air and synthesis gas
3.3.1. Determination of required ow of fuel
The volumetric rate of required biomass can be calculated by
dividing the actual power of the gasier E
t
by the lower heating
value (LHV) of syngas generated. This is known from the global
equation of bagasse combustion calculated through the method-
ology proposed by Zainal et al. [35], Eq. (9).
_
Q
fuel

E
t
LHV
gas
$3600
s
h
(9)
where:
_
Q
fuel
e fuel ow [Nm
3
/h];
LHV
gas
e lower heating value of the synthesis gas [MJ/Nm
3
/h].
3.3.2. Determination of ow rate of air consumption for this gasier
The gasier is characterized by a device where there is an
incomplete gasication of the biomass. Therefore, from Eq. (10)
overall combustion is estimate. From the equilibrium model
developed by Zainal et al. [35], it is possible to calculate the
required air ow.
C
1
H
1:434
O
0:66
N
0
S
0:00008
0:35O
2
1:32N
2
/0:638H
2
0:6408CO 0:34CO
2
0:374H
2
O 0:019CH
4
1:315N
2
(10)
FromEq. (10) of overall combustion, it is possible to calculate the
theoretical air/fuel ratio (TAFR) as Eq. (11).
h
air
h
bagasse

1:67$kmol
air
kmol
bagasse
(11)
TAFR
1:67$kmol
air
kmol
bagasse
1:67$
28:552
kg
air
kmol
air
30:04
kg
wet bagasse
kmol
wet bagasse
1:6
kg
air
kg
wet bagasse
As previously calculated by the item Section 3.4.1, it is known
the mass of pulp used as a fuel, so the volume of air consumption
can be expressed by Eqs. (12) and (13). Fig. 1. Estimated theoretical power operation.
Table 5
Calculated parameters estimated during the theoretical power.
Parameter Value
HHV
bio
18.850 kJ/kg
LHV
wet
14.970 kJ/kg
E
d
254 kW
f
sec
1.1
E
t
280 kW
_ m
bp
112.22 kg/h
_ m
ash
24.69 kg/h
E
mg
60%
P.T. Diniz Filho et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 57 (2013) 116e124 119
_
Q
air

_
Q
fuel
$TAFR (12)
_
Q
air
1:6$
_
Q
fuel
(13)
where:
_
Q
air
e air ow [Nm
3
/h];
_
Q
fuel
e fuel ow [Nm
3
/h];
_
Q
syngas
e synthesis gas ow [Nm
3
/h];
TAFR e air/biomass rate [kg/kg].
3.3.3. Determination of syngas ow
The syngas ow is the sum of the air ow and fuel gas at
considered control volume (the gasier), such as Eq. (14).
_
Q
syngas

_
Q
fuel

_
Q
air
(14)
Applying Eq. (13) into Eq. (14) is obtained:
_
Q
syngas
2:6$
_
Q
fuel
:
Fig. 2 shows the relationship between the synthesis gas, air ow
and produced ash.
Table 6 shows the ows of synthesis gas, air and fuel when
112.22 kg/h biomass is treated.
3.4. Methodology for gasier sizing
It was selected for study a circulating uidized bed gasier. This
type of gasier was chosen because the synthesis gas generated by
this model has a low tar content, as demonstrated by Williams and
Larson [36], and this type is the most recommended and used for
the gasication of bagasse, due to higher amount of synthesis gas
generated by this type of biomass, as stated by Sanchez [12]. The
increase of ash content in the solid residue is a consequence of the
increase of the gasication. More biomass is gasied, the amount
synthesis gas increases and thus the ash content in the residue also
increases.
3.4.1. Determination of cross-sectional area of the gasier
According to Ref. [15], the cross-sectional area of a uidized bed
gasier may be obtained by Eq. (15).
A
g

_
Q
fuel
_
Q
air
(15)
where:
A
g
e sectional area of the gasier [m
2
].
The Eq. (15) calculates the sectional area of the gasier. This
equation was developed by Olivares-Gomez [11]. However, there
was a unit inconsistency in this equation and the corrected version
was done in this one, using a more precisely estimative done by
Coronado-Rodriguez [15] through the experience provided by [30].
The gasier diameter can be calculated using the cross-sectional
area calculated through Eq. (16).
D
r

_
4$A
g
p
_
0:5
(16)
where:
A
g
e sectional area of the gasier [m
2
];
D
r
e diameter of the bed in the gasier [m].
3.4.2. Determination of the minimum height of the expanded bed
As A
g
,
_
Q
fuel
and _ m
bp
were previously calculated, then the value
of the minimum height of the gasier bed can be obtained through
Eq. (17) [15].
h
lmin

_ m
bp
A
g
$
_
Q
fuel
(17)
where:
h
lmin
e minimum height of the gasier bed [m].
The Eq. (17) calculates the minimum height of the gasier,
which is given by a relationship between the sectional area (A
g
), the
maximum volumetric capacity of the gasier
_
Q
fuel
, and the pro-
cessed biomass ow _ m
bp
. This methodology was proposed by
experimental tests and the experience of Ref. [11] and adopted by
the same author during a construction of a real prototype of u-
idized bed gasier.
3.4.3. Determination of the diameter of the exit zone of the gases
According to Refs. [22,37,38], the diameter of the exit zone of the
gas in the gasier should be 1.5e2 times the bed of the gasier.
Therefore it is obtained a minimum bed for this gasier through
Eq. (18).
D
sg
1:5$D
r
(18)
where:
D
r
e diameter of the bed in the gasier [m];
D
sg
e diameter of the gas exit zone [m].
Table 7 shows the parameters obtained for the scaling of the
gasier burning about 100 kg/h of biomass. Fig. 2. Relationship of ow of synthesis gas, air and ash.
Table 6
Parameters relating to the biomass combustion.
Parameter Value
m
c
112.22 kg
_
Q
fuel
194.91 Nm
3
/h
_
Q
air
311.86 Nm
3
/h
_
Q
syngas
506.77 Nm
3
/h
P.T. Diniz Filho et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 57 (2013) 116e124 120
3.5. Fluid-dynamic study of the gasier bed
Table 8 lists hydro-dynamic operating parameters for a u-
idized bed gasier that produces synthesis gas at around 600

C.
These values are based on the methodology adopted by Ramirez
et al. [34].
Number of Archimedes: is calculated by the Eq. (19) such as
demonstrated by Kunii and Levenspiel [21].
A
r

g$dp
3
$r
f
$
_
r
p
r
f
_
m
2
(19)
Minimum uidization velocity: is the minimum speed in which
gas can ow into the gasier bed using biomass such as sugar cane
bagasse. It can be calculated through Eq. (20) [24].
U
mf

dp
2
$
_
r
p
r
f
_
$g
150$m


3
$f
2
1
(20)
Fluidization terminal velocity: consists of the maximum
speed in which the gas can ow into the gasier bed and is
determined from a relationship between the material and
the bed, also depending on the particles Reynolds number [39],
Eq. (21).
U
t
dp$
_
4$
_
r
p
r
f
_
2
$g
2
225$r
f
$m
_1
3
(21)
Fluidizing velocity during the gasication: is the supercial gas
velocity to be used during operation of the gasier. It has been
established taking into account the height of the uidized bed [23].
It can be calculated through Eq. (22).
H
H
mf
1
10:978$
_
U
f
U
mf
_
0:738
$r
0:376
p
$dp
1:006
U
0:937
mf
$r
0:126
f
(22)
Since the relationship between the height of the expanded bed
and the minimum height of the bed [21]:
1:2 <
H
H
mf
< 1:4: (23)
For calculation purposes was adopted an average ratio of 1.3.
Table 9 shows the parameters calculated in the uid-dynamic
study of the gasier.
3.6. Ecological efciency of the gasier
The ecological efciency evaluates the pollutant amount of a
system, considering gases emissions per kg of used fuel. This ef-
ciency is ranged between 0 and 1; where an ecological efciency
equal to 0 means 100% of environmental impact, or high polluter,
and efciency equal to 1 means 0% of environmental impact, or
non-polluter.
Cardu and Baica [40,41] had introduced the concept of carbon
dioxide equivalent [(CO
2
)
e
], based on maximum concentration
allowed for CO
2
, which is 10,000 mg/m
3
. The equivalent coefcients
for some pollutants, in kg per kg of fuel (kg/kg
fuel
), called global
warming potential (GWP), are related according to Eq. (24) [42e
46]. These values consider a time horizon of 100 years for these
gases [47,48].
CO
2

e
CO
2
1:9$CO 21$CH
4
42:4$H
2
S
50$NO
x
80$SO
2
310$N
2
O 67$PM
(24)
Table 9
Parameters and hydro-dynamic proles of the gasier.
Parameter Value
Number of Archimedes 249.98
Fluidization velocity 0.148 m/s
Fluidization minimum velocity 0.052 m/s
Terminal uidization velocity 3.516 m/s
Reynolds number for minimum uidization velocity 0.153
Reynolds number for the terminal velocity of uidization 10.357
Table 7
Parameters calculated onto the gasier sizing.
Parameter Value
Cross-sectional area 0.494 m
2
Diameter of the body of the gasier 0.793 m
Diameter of the exit zone of the gas 1.19 m
Minimum uidization bed height 0.622 m
Porosity of the bed 0.46
Diameter of the bed zone 0.417 m
Number of side holes air nozzles 4
Table 8
Hydro-dynamic operating parameters.
Parameter Value
G 9.81 m/s
2
d
p
0.379 mm
r
ag30
1.165 kg/m
3
r
p
2650 kg/m
3
r
f
0.342 kg/m
3
H
mf
750 mm

mf
0.52

f
0.4
A
i
0.0045 m
2
m
ag30
1.86 10
5
Pa s
m
ag760
4.4 10
5
Pa s
e

0.56
where:
A
i
e Synthesis gas escape zone [m
2
];
d
p
e Diameter of the particle [m];
g e gravity acceleration [m
2
/s];
H e height of the expanded bed [m];
H
mf
e minimum height of the bed [m];
Re e Reynolds number;
_
U
f
e uidization velocity during the gasication [m/s];
_
Ut e terminal particle velocity [m/s];
_
U
mf
e minimum uidization velocity [m/s];
r
s
e density of material in the bed [kg/m
3
];
r
f
e density of the air at the temperature and pressure of the gasier (750

C and
101.3 kPa) [kg/m
3
];
r
g
e produced gas density at normal conditions pressure and temperature
(101.3 kPa and 25

C) [kg/m
3
];
r
p
e density of the particle [kg/m
3
];
e particle porosity;

f
e bed porosity;
f e sphericity of particles in the bed;
m eair viscosity to the temperature and pressure operation conditions of the gasier
(approximately 750

C and 101.3 kPa).
Table 10
Emissions of SO
2
, NO
x
and PM in the combustion of sugar cane bagasse.
Components Sugar cane bagasse combustion [kg/kg
fuel
]
SO
2
0.0
NO
x
0.0012
PM 0.0071
P.T. Diniz Filho et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 57 (2013) 116e124 121
An indicator is proposed by Cardu and Baica [40] to quantify
environmental impact and it is dened as the difference between
carbon dioxide equivalent of fuel and its low heat value. This in-
dicator is called pollution indicator represented by P
g
, Eq. (25).
P
g

CO
2

e
LHV
(25)
where:
(CO
2
)
e
e carbon dioxide equivalent [kg/kg
fuel
];
LHV e low heat value of fuel [MJ/kg
fuel
];
P
g
e pollution indicator [kg/MJ].
Relating carbon dioxide emitted by fuel combustion process
with its lower heating value [40], makes possible a comparison
between different fuels. However a fuel can have a high lower
heating value and to emit a wide amount of pollutants into atmo-
sphere or has negligible, or null, emissions of noxious gases, but
cannot have the energy required to obtain a good efciency in an
industrial process.
Based on assumption that the best fuel is one that has the lowest
pollution indicator [40], propose a more complex and dimension-
less index that expresses the ecological component of noxious
gases emitted into atmosphere from the combustion of a fuel
compared to useful energy produced in thermal power plants. The
indicator proposed is called ecological efciency (), such as Eq.
(26).

_
0:204 h
system
h
system
P
g
ln
_
135 P
g
_
_
0:5
(26)
According to Refs. [48,49], Brazil has the lowest average annual
emissions of greenhouse gases, around 659 kg
CO2
/t, against world
average around 800e880 kg
CO2
/t.
The ecological analysis is done through comparison between
ecological efciency, pollution indicator and values for CO
2
equiv-
alent from cosmetic industry rate, before and after adoption of
water solar pre-heating.
The molecular weight of the biomass (M
Wet Biomass
) with 20% of
moisture instead of humidity is 30.04 kg/kmol [35].
Based on Eq. (10), the amount of CO
2
produced could be esti-
mated empirically.
30:04
kg
kmol
Biomass/14:96
kg
kmol
CO
2
(27)
For emissions, regarding the gasication of sugar cane bagasse,
it can be used the values suggested by [50] presented in Table 10.
Based on Eq. (23) and the data of Table 10, it can be calculate the
amount of equivalent carbon dioxide (CO
2
) generated in the com-
bustion process of biomass. In the calculations of emissions two
scenarios were considered: one without considering the cycle of
CO
2
and the other considering this cycle.
The gasier operates with sugar cane bagasse. The combustion
of lignocellulose material on different types of gasiers can be
estimated using the equilibrium model developed by Zainal et al.
[35]. In this work was adopted this methodology to estimate the
combustion reactions in the uidized bed gasier, as throughout
the text. Using this combustion results, can be calculated the
ecological efciency of the gasier using the methodology pro-
posed by Cardu and Baica [40].
The methodology considering the carbon cycle was based on the
work of [51], where each 1000 L of produced ethanol captures
1211 kg of CO
2
fromthe atmosphere. According to Ref. [52], a ton of
sugar cane generates 83.33 L of ethanol and 250 kg of bagasse. By
adopting these values, the amount of CO
2
, SO
2
, NO
x
and PMemitted
during the combustion process can be calculated, as shown in
Table 11.
The amount of carbon dioxide equivalent can be determined
using the values of CO
2
, SO
2
, NO
x
and PM in Eq. (24). Considering
the LHV of the bagasse as 7.32 MJ/kg, the pollution indicator
associated with the system can be calculated using the Eq. (25),
which results are shown in Table 12.
Considering the thermodynamic efciency of the gasier
E
mg
60% as demonstrated previously, it can be calculated the
ecological efciency of the system for the two cases: with or
without carbon cycle using the Eq. (26), as show in Table 13.
It is observed that the ecological efciency for this gasier is
quite good, and this value increases even more if the carbon cycle is
considered. These values are represented in Fig. 3.
Table 11
Amount of CO
2
, SO
2
, NO
x
and PM emitted during the combustion process.
Components Sugar cane bagasse combustion [kg/kg
fuel
]
Without the carbon cycle With the carbon cycle
CO
2
0.498 0.09433
SO
2
0.0 0.0
NO
x
0.0012 0.0012
PM 0.0071 0.0071
Table 12
Amount of carbon dioxide equivalent of the combustion process in the gasier and
the pollution indicator.
Components Sugar cane bagasse combustion [kg/kg
fuel
]
Without the carbon cycle With the carbon cycle
(CO
2
)
e
1.0337 0.630
P
g
0.1412 0.0861
Table 13
Thermodynamic efciency and ecological efciency of the gasication of bagasse in
a uidized bed gasier with the studied design.
h
system
[%] [%]
Without the carbon cycle With the carbon cycle
60.0 80.99 93.54
Fig. 3. Relationship between the ecological efciency with or without the carbon
cycle.
P.T. Diniz Filho et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 57 (2013) 116e124 122
4. Conclusions
The following conclusions could be obtained fromthe modelling
of uidized bed gasier operating with sugar cane bagasse:
The main idea is to design the feeder in order to produce higher
amount of synthesis gas. The increase of ash content in the
solid residue is a consequence of the increase of the gasica-
tion. More biomass is gasied and thus the ash content in the
residue increases;
Compared with eucalyptus, bagasse gasication is more
incomplete, with a greater production of elements that preju-
dice the combustion, like SO
2
, and its LHV is about 30% lower;
In the design of a gasier operating with sugar cane bagasse, it
is necessary a bed material of high porosity, because the
uidization velocity and Reynolds number use to be very low;
It is feasible to burn bagasse for the generation of syngas.
However, using bagasse, some necessary technical re-
quirements increase the costs in comparison to other types of
biomasses with higher LHV;
In terms of ecological efciency, the study uidized bed
gasier operating with bagasse proves to be an environ-
mentally friendly way, with an ecological efciency of 81%
regardless of the carbon cycle of bagasse and 93.54%
considering the carbon cycle. This proves that this type of
system is an excellent alternative. Thus, this technology can
be inserted with energy and environmental gains in the
production chain of ethanol.
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