Physics notes

Unit 1.1
There are different forms of energy which we know as: - light, sound, heat, movement and
chemical. Energy is however not physical stuff, these names simply help us to see where
energy is stored and if its being transferred.
When a candle is burned, energy stored in the candle is transferred to its surrounding by
infrared radiation and light.
Everything stores energy and energy enables things to happen. The more energy in something,
the more it can do: move, make sound, heat up the surroundings (burn). A larger piece of
explosive can move more earth than a smaller bit.
Heaters such as mug heaters, claim to warm up drinks but in fact they just stop the drink from
losing heat energy so quickly. The electricity current (mains supply) transfers energy from where
it is generated to your home, it then transfers energy through your computer to the mug heater
which gets warmer, energy is transferred from the mug to the drink inside, however some is
transferred to the surroundings (hence why coffee cools down), when the electric current from
the computer transfers energy to the coffee as fast as the energy to the surroundings, the
temperature of the coffee stops changing.
Chemical reactions show that energy isnt a physical substance. The total mass of chemicals
before and after (formed in) the reaction, yet the reaction will have taken in or given out energy,
burning fuel and heating the surroundings is an example.

Infrared radiation is warmth, we feel it emit from a radiator. All objects emit it; hot objects emit
more infrared radiation than cooler ones. The bigger the difference in temperature between an
object and its surroundings, the faster energy is transferred.
Scientists measure infrared radiation with a thermopile. Doctors use them for measuring body
temperature.
Leslies cube is hollow and cube shaped with four different surfaces shiny black, dull black,
shiny white and dull white. Filling the cube with boiling water tells us that the black and shiny
surfaces give out more infrared radiation than the white and shiny ones. Dull black transfers
energy by emitting infrared radiation at a greater rate than shiny silver.
Colour affects the emission and absorption of infrared radiation: people who suffer from
hypothermia are given shiny silver (space blankets) to stop them from cooling down so quickly.
Buildings in hot countries are white so that heat is absorbed less and thus cooler inside.
Scientists fear that since global warming makes ice melt, it will increase. The dark coloured
seawater absorbs infrared radiation faster than light coloured ice does.

Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide, which sublimes changes from solid to gas without going liquid.
There are three states of matter; solid, liquid and gas. They all consist of particles but are
arranged in different ways, the difference in properties depends on this.
Solid has a fixed shape and volume; they vibrate around their fixed positions and are almost
touching.
Liquid take the shape of the container and have a fixed volume, they move around but are still
very close to one another.
Gas spreads out and fills all available space, they are moving rapidly and chaotically.
Moving particles have energy; the most is in a gas, then liquid and then solid. The more energy
a particle has, the more likely it is to be a liquid or a gas.
Kinetic theory is a force that shows how energy in particles changes when they move. It is
rather like Newtons cradle as it provides evidence that particles lose a little energy when they
hit each other, which goes to the hit particle.
There are always bonds between particles, they are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Melting (solid to liquid) is when energy is transferred to a solid by heating , this makes the
particles vibrate - if this vibration is vigorous enough, the bonds break and the particles are free
to move. The bonds technically are still there but can break and reform with ease hence why
liquids keep a set volume but not shape. Freezing (liquid to solid) is the opposite of this.
Boiling (liquid to gas) is when energy is transferred to a liquid by heating as its particles move
around faster which then breaks the weak bonds keeping them close to each other so they can
escape the liquid and move around chaotically and randomly. Condensing (gas to liquid) is the
opposite of this and occurs when a gas touches when it touches a colder surface.
Particles vary in shape, size and mass - this affects the amount of energy they have at a given
temperature, how fast they move and the strength of their bonds between them.

Conduction is how energy is transferred through solids when theyre heated. Conductors such
as metals transfer energy easily however insulators like glass, plastic and ceramics do not
transfer energy easily.
If one end of a solid is heated, the particles at that end gain energy and vibrate more thus
shaking neighbouring particles. This passes on energy and is spread throughout the material.
Convection is how energy is transferred through most gases and liquids. Warm liquids and
gases rise upwards as this is less dense than cooler gases and liquids. This is how hot air
balloons work.
As liquids and gases have more energy, heat makes their particles move more rapidly and
move away from each other. Therefore the liquid or gas expands and losses density so it rises
into the cooler areas which cools it down so it gains density and falls down.
Liquids and gases are poor conductors, their particles are not in a regular formation as they do
not touch each other directly, they cant pass energy through vibrations.
Metals, like all solids, some energy is transferred by vibrating particles. However they also have
another way to transfer energy. In a metal lattice, outer electrons are freed from their atoms.
Losing these electrons means that the metal atoms become positively charged ions yet heating
the metal causes the metal causes these ions to vibrate more vigorously. They have more
energy which is transferred from the hotter to the cooler parts of the metal by the free electrons;
they collide with the vibrating ions and grain energy. This energy is transferred to ions in cooler
parts of the metal.

Evaporation is a change from liquid to gas. It isnt the same as boiling since boiling only
happens when the liquid is at its boiling point whereas evaporation happens below the boiling
point.
Condensation, as earlier described, is when a gas cools and changes back to a liquid at either
boiling point or below.
Particles in a liquid have a range of energies, there is an average though. Some particles have
more than the average while others have less. There tends to be less energy in a liquid particle
than in a gas particle. Bonds between particles hold the particles in the liquid.
Liquid articles need a lot of energy to break from the other energy and evaporate. Particles at
the surface with high energy escape and become gas particles, the average energy of the
particles left behind decreases so the liquid cools. As this happens, the surroundings also cool
down.
Evaporation takes place at the surface of liquids, they evaporate quicker when it is warmer, the
liquid is spread out, the liquid has a larger surface area (more particles at the surface), it is
windy.
The air above a liquid will eventually become saturated (unable to hold any more liquid-gas
particles). If these are blown away,
there is more evaporation room.

The water cycle involves evaporation

When you climb mountains, your
mouth and lips feel dry, moisture
evaporates quickly from your skin. At
high altitudes, wind speeds are higher
and air pressures lower. The force of
the air pushing down on the surface is
less so liquid particles escape more
easily and objects dry more quickly.



An object transfers energy to and from its surroundings. It is quicker depending on what the
objects material is (conductor), its size and shape (surface area big = good at transferring), the
type of surface it has (dull, black) and the temperature difference between the object and its
surrounding (bigger = faster transfer).
Energy is transferred by conduction and convection. When a hot object cools in air, energy is
transferred to its surface by conduction. then is transferred to the air by infrared radiation. It then
spreads out by convection.
The more surface area, the better!
Animals that live where it is colder are usually bigger to have a lower ratio, if surface area to
volume than smaller animals and a decreased rate of transference of energy to their
surroundings. In hotter places, animals often have long legs or large ears as this high ratio of
surface area to volume increases the rate of energy transfer to surroundings and keeps them
cool.

Using less energy for heating saves money and fossil fuels which helps protect the
environment. Insulation helps to reduce energy loss. U-values show how well a material acts as
a thermal insulator. A lower U-values means it is hard for energy to flow through a material
(good insulator). This material often traps bubbles of air (gas).
Double glazing has air or argon trapped between two panes of glass and has a u-value of
3.0W/m2K. Cavity walls reduce convection currents as they have two layers of brick with air or
an insulating material between.
Payback time is the time it takes to save as much money as the insulation costs to install.
Draught proofing doors and windows pays back quickly however double glazing is so expensive
so takes a long time to payback.
Manufacturing the insulation can use energy to make so isnt always good.

Physics P1.2
Water is often used as a coolant in machinery as it absorbs a lot of energy yet only gets a bit
warmer. The energy needed to give the same rise in temperature, in identical masses of
different materials, varies.
Specific heat capacity is a measure of this, it is the energy needed to raise the temperature of
one kilogram of a material by one degree celsius in the unit J/kg C.
Solar panels use infrared radiation from the sun to heat water. They are usually fitted to the
roofs of buildings, water flows through the pipes in the panels and absorbs infrared radiation
from the sun. The water gains energy and becomes warmer however the water isnt hot enough
to use by just this, so has to be topped up with energy from an electricity supply or boiler.
E=mx0xc is the equation of energy transfer to a material as it warms/cools.
E is energy transferred in joules (J), M is mass in kilograms (Kg), 0 is temperature change in
degrees celsius ( C) and C is specific heat capacity in J/Kg C.

Energy can be transferred usefully or stored but not created or destroyed. A sankey diagram
shows how much energy is wasted, used by a device (energy input), given out to do different
things (energy output) and usefully transferred.
The widths of the arrows are drawn to scale, they show the relative proportions of input and
output energy. The values are given on the diagram, the total energy amount stays the same.
This means that the energy input should equal the total of the remaining values.
Wasted energy heats the surroundings mostly and increasingly becomes spread out and less
useful.

To work out energy efficiency, use the equation efficiency=useful energy out / total energy in
Total energy in is the energy transferred to the device and useful energy out is the work the
device does. Power is the rate of transfer of energy. Efficiency can also be described as:
efficiency = useful power out / total power in
Efficient devices do not waste a lot of energy, the device does what it was designed for, using
as much as possible of the energy put in. You can use energy diagrams to calculate the
efficiency of devices and compare them.

Mains electricity is convenient, clean, safe and reliable. You just flick a switch and there is the
energy when you need it. People want the electricity usually for appliances to transfer the
energy supplied by electricity into something useful such as hair dryers hot air and televisions
light and sound.
Batteries store chemical energy which is transferred by an electrical current when the battery is
connected in a circuit. They do not need a mains. Heaters need more energy than a battery
could provide.
Cooking uses energy stored in chemicals as gas or as biomass. Before mains electricity, we
used animals, steam and humans to power things. These transfer the energy stored in
chemicals (as food or fuel) into useful output. Many of them are smelly, dirty or hard to use
hence why we use electricity now. While using mains is pollution free, generating electricity in a
power station isnt. In the future, we hope to use an alternative such as solar to electricity.
Electrons furthest from the nucleus have more energy and when a voltage is connected across
an LED, it makes some electrons jump to a higher level then fall back again, giving a bit of light.
This is how light emitting diodes work without containing a filament.

Energy transfers from a power station to buildings as an electrical current. Electrons in the metal
cables transfer charge down the line - the rate of which this occurs is measured in amps (A).
Power is the rate at which something can do work, it is the rate of energy transfer and the higher
the power, the more current it needs. It is measured in watts (W).
Electrical appliances have a power rating given in watts or kilowatts - 1000 watts - (kW). For
example, an appliance with a power rating of 1 W transfers 1 J of energy per second.
To find the total energy an appliance, you need to know the quantity of:
- joules transferred each second
- seconds the appliance is working
You can calculate the energy transferred using:
total energy transferred (J) = power rating (W) x time (s)
Wires for electric fires are thin so its hard for the current to flow through it and more energy is
carried by the current transfers into infrared radiation. This makes the copper wires very hot.
Currents flow through copper easily and less energy is wasted on heating the surroundings,
large currents carry more energy than smaller ones so appliances need the right thickness of
wire for the current they use thus they wont overheat.

Electric currents do not get used up. Energy was transferred to electrical appliances by the
current to the useful output.
Some appliances use more energy than others, such as cookers as compared to radios.
Electricity supply companies measure the energy used by consumers in kilowatt-hours (kWh). It
is more convenient than joules which would be in millions.
The equation for calculating energy is: E(kWh) = P(kW) x T(h)

Most power stations burn fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas or oil. Fossil fuels are becoming
more and more scarce so we are reluctant to use them all. When energy is transferred, some
heat the surroundings (wasted). Efficiency = useful output / total energy output

1. fuel is burned to boil water to make steam
2. steam makes a turbine spin
3. spinning turbine turns a generator which produces electricity
4. electricity goes to the transformers to produce the
corr
ect
volt
age
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In some more modern gas fired power stations, the
burning gas heats air instead of water, hot air is then
pressurised and used to drive round a turbine. Nuclear
power stations work in a similar way as fossil fuels do but
instead of burning fossil fuels, they use a nuclear
reaction (the radioactive decay of uranium and
plutonium) to produce the energy to change water into steam. Uranium and plutonium atoms
split up into smaller atoms (nuclear fission) then some of the energy stored in the atoms is
released and used to heat the water.
Boiler (chemical to heat), turbine (heat to kinetic), generator (kinetic to electrical), transformer
(electrical transferred).

Energy from waste power stations burn waste that cant be recycled. This can be domestic,
industrial or agricultural waste. Most of this is biomass - wood chips, animal bedding, nutshells,
meat production waste. Other power stations burn methane fas which comes from landfill sites,
sewage or biofuels (specially made from plant materials such as willow saplings or fermented
sugar cane).
Wind turbine farms are very interesting - wind turns the turbine blades, making the turbine turn.
The turbine is connected to and turns a generator which generates electricity. Hydroelectric
power stations use water to turn turbine blades, the faster they turn equals the more electricity
generated.
Tidal power stations are often built estuaries. A wall is built across the estuary. As the tide
comes in, water flows through turbines in the wall. The turbine blades spin and turn a generator,
which generate electricity. A gate stops water flowing out again. As the tide falls, the gate is
opened, water again flows through the turbines - but in the opposite direction. This generates
more electricity, tidal power stations work well only where the difference between high tide and
low tide is 15 metres or more.
Wave power generators work when a wave hits a wave generator which makes the water inside
the tube rise. This forces the air through the turbine so the blades spin. The turbine is connected
to a generator so as the water falls, air is sucked back down through the turbine again and
continues to spin.
Hot volcanic rocks make steam rise to the surface. Geothermal power stations use this to drive
a turbine. Solar power stations generate electricity as computers control mirrors which reflect
sunlight onto a tower, to heat water. The steam produced drives a turbines. Photovoltaic cells
(PV cells) change sunlight into electricity directly.

Generating electricity has good and bad points, good:
- burning fossil fuels is cheap and generates large amounts of electricity
- wind turbines can generate electricity in remote areas, they are cheaper than running National
Grid cables to these areas
- hydroelectric power stations supply very large amounts of electricity
- tidal and wave power generations have low running costs
- geothermal power stations are small and do not need fuel or other deliveries (low environment
impact)
Bad:
- burning fossil fuels produces gases that cause global warming
- burning waste produces toxic gases that may cause cancer or birth defects
- wind farms are ugly and harm birds
- building hydroelectric power stations flood valleys which destroys wildlife habitats
- tidal and wave power can change water flow which disrupts harbours or shipping and destroys
wildlife habitats
- geothermal power stations might release dangerous gases from deep in Earths crust
There is visible and invisible pollution, visible is like smoke which can be harmful to health and
worsen asthma and other breathing problems. Invisible is like burning fossil which produces
carbon dioxide which escapes into the atmosphere which trap infrared radiation causing the
Earth's atmosphere to warm up, this causes climate change or global warming.
Wires and pylons cost money to construct and put in place, the longer the wires the more
wasted energy. Power companies try to generate electricity near to where it is needed.
Fossil fuel power stations near a river (water) and railways or roads, turbines where it is windy,
hydroelectric where it is hilly and geothermal on rock that is easy to drill through.
Methane is a greenhouse gas 21 times stronger than carbon dioxide, in hydroelectric power
stations, dead plants decay in zero oxygen parts of the reservoir and produce methane which is
released into the atmosphere when water passes through the dams turbines. Water levels also
change which means that plants which then grow on the banks are flooded and rot thus more
methane is produced.

Fossil fuels are not renewable and one day they will run out, we will have to use alternative
types of power station. Some renewable energy power stations are less efficient than fossil fuel
power stations, this must be considered along with building and running costs, reliability of the
energy resource and ability to generate different amounts of electricity as and when it is needed.
About a third of the population does not have mains electricity/batteries. Solar cells use
electromagnetic radiation from the sun to produce electricity, in developing countries people use
solar cells to generate electricity for lamps, telephones, computers, water purifying machinery,
fridges and other appliances.
Power stations do not store the electricity they generate, they change the amount of electricity
generated to meet demand at a given time. There are two costs for generating electricity -
capital cost is how much it costs to build the power station and operating cost is how much it
costs to run it when built. Usually the capital cost is the most concerning.
Fossil fuels and nuclear fuels are reliable as they can be stored and are always available, wind
turbines rely in wind and are only a good choice if there is a lot of strong wind and hydroelectric
power stations rely on a fast water flow, they need reliable rainfall to maintain the water level in
the reservoir.

The national grid is a network of cables that carries electricity to local areas from power stations.
Electricity companies then run smaller cables to schools and houses. Power station electricity
carries very large amounts of energy as a power station supplies enough for thousands of
homes.
At the power station, a step-up transformer increases the voltage of electricity then a step-down
transformer in large substations reduce them. More step-down transformers, in smaller
substations reduce the voltage even further, there is a step-down transformer for every few
streets. Power = current x voltage
A huge current doesnt come into homes when the voltage is changed down to 230V, the single
current from the power station splits into lots of smaller, parallel currents, all taking electricity to
different houses. Some of the energy carried by an electric current is wasted and the wires
become warm, the amount transferred in heating the wire increases as the current increases.
By keeping the current from the power station low, it reduces wasted energy.

Mechanical waves is like sound - where the waves move along the rope, up and down. They
need to go through a medium - air or water for example.
Electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation is another group of waves, infrared, visible.
light and ultraviolet are examples. These can pass through a vacuum.

All waves travel outwards from a source and transfer energy. Mechanical wave sources are
often visible. Sound waves carry energy away from a moving object thus if you stop supplying
energy to a loud speaker or amp, the sound dies away.
Longitude waves go back and forth in the same direction, transverse waves makes right angles
to the direction the wave travels.
Longitude waves oscillate in the same direction as the waves travel whereas transverse
oscillate at right angles to the direction the wave travels. Sound waves are longitudinal waves -
there are sections where the particles are compressed and sections where they are rarefaction
(spread out). Water waves are transverse as the surface of the water goes up and down as the
wave travels along.
All electromagnetic waves are transverse, they pass through a vacuum and do not need a
medium. They oscillate at right angles to the direction the wave is travelling. At any point along
the wave, the signal will get stronger, weaker and then stronger again et cetera sas the wave
goes past.
Earthquakes occur when tectonic plates grind past each other and collide. Mechanical or
seismic waves, transfer energy away from this epicentre of the earthquake.


Objects reflect light waves towards our eyes, smooth, shiny surfaces give a clearer image,
mirrors are an example of this. Sound waves can also reflect, especially from harder surfaces -
this can cause an echo. The law of reflection states that when any wave reflects from a surface,
the angle at which it is reflected is the same as the angle that strikes the surface.
Diffraction occurs to waves when they pass through gaps or round corners. As a wave passes
close to an obstacle, the part of the wave nearest the obstacle is curved. A gap acts like two
obstacles, so the wave curves at each side of the gap. Diffraction is greatest when the gap is
the same size as the wavelength of the wave. The wave at the far side of the gap becomes
semi-circular, light has a very small wavelength and goes through very small gaps without
diffraction. Radio waves have a very long wavelength, they can be diffracted by nearby
mountains.
Different waves travel at different speeds. Light travels a lot faster than sound, hence why you
hear thunder before you see lightning. Waves also travel at different speeds dependent on the
medium type.
The normal is an imaginary line draw at right angles to the boundary between two materials,
when a wave passes from one material to a different one, where it travels more slowly and is
refracted towards the normal. Sound refracts at air temperature change.
Sound is caused by things vibrating, vibrations make pockets of air particles also vibrate. You
hear sounds when the vibrating air pockets make your eardrum vibrate. Sound waves are
longitudinal mechanical waves - air particle vibrate backwards and forwards parallel to the
direction the sound travels, sound can not pass through a vacuum.
To describe a sound, you use amplitude (volume) and frequency (pitch, in hertz or Hz). Sound
can be reflected, diffracted and refracted - just like all other waves. An echo (reflection) is
quieter as part of the energy is absorbed on the reflecting surface.
The shorter the wavelength, the more energy it can transfer and the more cycles (waves per
second) and therefore, the higher the frequency. Frequency is the number of waves a source
produce per second, it is also the number of waves that pass a certain point each second.
An oscilloscope measures the amplitude and frequency of sound waves. The vertical height
shows amplitude and the horizontal width, frequency.


The normal of a ray diagram is a line drawn perpendicular the point where the incident ray
strikes the mirror. The incident ray is the ray of light going towards the mirror. The angle
between this ray and the normal is the angle of incidence. The reflected ray is the ray of light
going away from the mirror. The angle between this ray and the normal is the angle of reflection.
The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.

Plane mirrors have an upright, to scale, same distance and laterally inverted virtual image.

Electromagnetic radiation is invisible and travels in transverse waves at the speed of light,
transferring energy. It has a spectrum of energies, radiation from each part of the spectrum has
its uses. Riley makes interesting videos upping X-mas games.

Radio waves are low energy, tv and bluetooth signals, microwaves are low energy, ovens,
phone and satellite, speed traps. Infrared is hot, heater and remotes, visible light is what we
see, telescopes, microscopes. Ultraviolet radiation from the sun tan us in sunbeds, X-rays have
high energy and produce X-ray images of bones and teeth and gamma rays have very high
energy which kills cancer cells.

Electromagnetic radiation travels as waves, it carries energy from place to place, they move in
straight lines at the same speed in a vacuum (the speed of light). All EM radiation transfers
energy through space at the same speed. Different types of EM radiation transmit different
amounts of energy.
Electromagnetic radiation travels as transverse waves. Wavelength is between one wave crest
and the next wave crest. Maximum amplitude is maximum signal strength. The shorter the
wavelength of EM radiation, the more energy the wave transfers. Frequency is the number of
waves passing a particular point in a second, it is measured in cycles per second, hertz (Hz).
Speed = frequency x wavelength

All parts of the electromagnetic spectrum can be dangerous except radio waves, microwaves
can heat up cells lightly under our skin, infrared radiation burns skin and tissues, visible light can
damage the eyes, ultraviolet causes sunburn and skin cancer, x-rays cause severe burns plus
damage cells which causes cancer and gamma rays damage cells and cause cancer.

All telecommunications use a type of electromagnetic radiation. Radio waves for local radio,
emergency services and television, microwaves for mobile phones, satellite tv and
communication, infrared and visible transmits information along fibre optic cables (cable tv).
Communications have increased in message size and speed of sending. Bluetooth uses low
power radio waves to enable signals to be sent over very short distances.
The internet uses the telephone system, signals are sent along cables as infrared or visible
radiation or as microwaves from mast to mast, or via satellites.
Interactive TV uses infrared signals to communicate between your remote control and the TV
which is connected to the internet. Wi-fi networks also use radio waves.
Communication satellites and telephone masts are used for much more than sending TV
programmes or telephone conversations. Phones can connect to the internet by communicating
with nearby telephone masts using microwaves. Each individual telephone mast sends out its
own coded signal, the phone can tell where it is from different telephone masts. Modern phones
also connect directly, via satellites into the Global Positioning System (GPS) this takes more
power and makes the phone battery quickly go flat.
Geostationary satellites are used for all kinds of telecommunications, they stay above the same
point on the ground, usually over the equator and hang in space, orbiting every 24 hours.

Analogue is a way that signals used to be sent, it is an electromagnetic wave that carries
information in the form of tiny changes in the strength and frequency of the wave. Digitals
signals are sent in pulses these short bursts of signal are switched on and off rapidly.
Fibre optic cables are thin, flexible strands of glass, they are also known as optic fibres and
carry light waves. Light is shone in one end of the cable and reflects backwards and forwards off
the inside walls of the glass, in a zigzag then reaches the other end of the cable. Messages can
be sent through the cable as digital pulses of either visible light or infrared radiation.
Analogue signals can be poor due to the different waves interfering with each other, a maximum
distance that the signals can travel, boosting the signal affects the information. Digital pulses
are either on or off which is better as the signals do not interfere with each other, the quality isnt
affected by distance and the signals can be made stronger without losing information.
Signals through optical cables transmit information fast with good quality and can carry many
signals.
42 degrees is the boundary which makes total internal reflection.

Optical telescopes magnify visible light using a concave mirror. Observing the sky from Earth
has problems - moisture in the atmosphere absorbs and scatters some of the incoming radiation
and on cloudy nights, optical telescopes are useless. Dust particles and pollution in the Earths
atmosphere have the same effect as this. Weather patterns cause patches of air that are
warmer or cooler than the surrounding air. Light is refracted by these patches and this distorts
the image formed by a telescope. Telescopes are built at the top of mountains, where the
atmosphere is thinner, clearer and drier.

As a siren gets closer, you hear sound with a higher frequency and a shorter wavelength than
the actual siren sound but as it moves further away, you hear sound with a lower frequency and
a longer wavelength than the actual sirens sound.
The observed change in frequency and wavelength, when the source of radiation is moving, is
called the Doppler effect and is true for all waves, not just sound. Since stars and galaxies move
really quickly (thousands of kilometres per second) we see the light from them differently as if
the light was coming towards us, it would be more bunched up, shorter wavelength and bluer, if
it was moving away then it would be spread out have a longer wavelength and be redder.

Galaxies radiate different amounts of different wavelengths of light. A spectrometer produces a
spectrum, it has bright bands and dimmer bands - each bright band is a wavelength that the
galaxy radiates. The bright and dimmer bands are in the same order and distance apart. The
pattern is shifted towards the red end of the visible spectrum - the red end, this is called red
shift. For galaxies that are further away, the pattern is shifted further towards the red end of the
visible spectrum, the red shift is bigger.
This shows us that all galaxies, in whatever direction, are moving away from us and that the
further away ones are travelling faster. The big bang theory says that everything started off from
a very small point which exploded and expanded rapidly outward and there was no before the
big bang theory.
Through an optical telescope, the region between stars and galaxies look completely black.
Look with radio telescopes and a very faint glow of microwave radiation coming from
everywhere in space is detected, this is cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR). This
is supposedly left over from the big bang. Shortly after the big bang, there was a super hot fog
of plasma which filled all of what was then a very small universe, as it cooled, most of this
plasma formed into atoms, then stars and galaxies. Some was left over radiation which is
CMBR.
No one knows if the universe will ever stop expanding. Galaxies hurtle outwards due to the
enormous energy they received at the big bang, just as matter hurtles outwards from any
explosions. However the galaxies are attracted to each other by the force of gravity. If this is
strong enough, it will eventually make them slow down and all the galaxies will move towards
each other again.