!

"#$%&'"()
+ , !"#$%&'"()

- , !"#$%&'"()

Graph|ng mot|on (noLe: Lhe graphs below do noL represenL Lhe same movlng ob[ecL)

./0($)
Newton's Laws
1. Cb[ecLs malnLaln constant ve|oc|ty unless Lhere ls force.
- No forces does not mean no motion. No forces means no acceleration (constant motion/velocity).

2. !I = ma
-You need to choose only one direction at a time, e.g. !I
x
= ma
x
!I
y
= ma
y


3. Lvery force on an ob[ecL, has an equa| and oppos|te force
on a dlfferenL ob[ecL.
- Since the forces are on different objects they do not cancel.

Some common kinds of forces




Common types of force prob|ems



So|v|ng 2D force (vector) prob|ems
1. Draw the forces exerLed on Lhe ob[ecL you are concerned wlLh
(1hese are forces Cn Lhe ob[ecL, noL Lhe forces Lhe ob[ecL ls exerLlng on oLher ob[ecLs)


2. 8reak each force lnLo verLlcal and horlzonLal components I
y
and I
x

(lor compleLely verLlcal or horlzonLal forces one componenL wlll be zero, Lhe oLher ls + l)
(lor dlagonal forces you need Lo use sln and cos Lo break Lhe vecLor lnLo componenLs)
(up or 8lghL ls a poslLlve componenL, LefL or uown ls a negaLlve componenL)


3. use !I
y
=ma
y
and !I
x
=ma
x

l.e. for Lhe example shown !l
x
= l
a
cos" + 0 + (-l
c
)=Ma
x
!l
y
= l
a
sln" + (-l
b
) + 0= Ma
y


4. lf ob[ecL ls noL movlng ln Lhe x dlrecLlon (or consLanL speed ln x dlrecLlon) Lhen
!I
x
= 0

Slmllarly for Lhe y dlrecLlon, lf Lhe ob[ecL ls noL movlng verLlcally (or lL ls movlng aL
consLanL speed verLlcally) Lhen !I
y
= 0

Centr|peta| Mot|on
!I = m v
2
]r
- lorces dlrecLed |nto the c|rc|e are pos|t|ve and forces dlrecLed ouL of Lhe clrcle are negaLlve
- ?ou can always use Lhls lf someLhlng ls golng ln a clrcle (buL you don'L always have Lo use Lhls)
- lf an ob[ecL ls movlng wlLh consLanL speed ln a clrcle Lhen v = 2#r]1perlod

1#$023 &#4 5/06
Work
W=Idcos"
Fd
(7/'$8 90$& :#4$0 . ;)< = 20&>? $@:&A) B/06.)


- Work Lells you how much energy ls Lranfered
- lf a force pushes ln Lhe dlrecLlon of d (Lrles Lo speed up ob[ecL), force does + work
- lf Lhe ob[ecL doesn'L move d=0, or Lhe force ls perpendlcular Lo moLlon, W=0
- 1he work done by gravlLy ls W
g
= +mgh (use + lf movlng down, - lf movlng up)
- Work-klneLlc energy W
tota|
= $ kL = kL
f
- kL
|

1ypes of energy
kL = xmv
2

L
gravlLy
= mgh (you choose where h=0)
L
sprlng
= xkx
2
(x ls Lhe compresslon or exLenslon)

C
heaL
= mc$1 = mL
L
elecLrlc
= qv = kq
1
q
2
/r

L
capaclLor
= x Cv
2
= x Cv
L
phoLon
= hf
L = mc
2


C/%$#':% &#4 D/AA")"/#)
Momentum
p = mv [kg m/s]
-MomenLum ls a vecLor and dlrecLlon maLLers (+ lf golng rlghL, - lf golng lefL)
-A slLuaLlon where Lwo ob[ecLs of mass m move wlLh speed v Loward
each oLher has no LoLal momenLum
-MomenLum ls always conserved

!I = $p]$t [wh|ch a|so = ma]
-1hls ls a way Lo relaLe changes ln momenLum Lo forces

Impu|se = $p = I$t [ns]
-Area under I vs. t|me graph ls Lhe lmpulse (change ln momenLum)

Co|||s|ons
-momenLum ls conserved ln every Lype of colllslon (elasLlc and lnelasLlc)
a. L|ast|c co|||s|ons
- kL ls conserved
-ob[ecLs musL bounce off each oLher
-Note: Ior e|ast|c co|||s|ons, (v
1
- v
2
)
|n|t|a|
= -(v
1
- v
2
)
f|na|
b. Ine|ast|c co|||s|ons
- kL ls noL conserved, kL geLs losL ln Lhe colllslon (Lurns lnLo Lhermal energy, eLc)
-ob[ecLs can sLlck LogeLher (>$0E$('A3 "#$A&)'"() or bounce off each oLher
Note: 1o determ|ne whether a co|||s|on |s e|ast|c or |ne|ast|c [ust compare the
kL
tot
before and after the co|||s|on.
- lf kL
LoL lnlLlal
= kL
LoL flnal
, Lhen lL ls elasLlc. lf noL, lL ls lnelasLlc.
F/0@:$ &#4 D$#'$0 /E C&))
1orque



- r ls from Lhe axls Lo Lhe polnL where Lhe force ls applled

Lqu|||br|um

- no acceleraLlon and no angular acceleraLlon (usually means aL resL)
- l.e. 1orque ln CW dlrecLlon equals Lorque ln CCW dlrecLlon

Center of mass


- r ls dlsLance from arblLrary polnL (end of ob[ecL, mlddle of ob[ecL, eLc.) Lo mass m
or dm, buL lf Lhere ls an obvlous axls lL ls usually a good ldea Lo use lL

- Lhe CM Lells you Lhe poslLlon where an ob[ecL could balance

- Lhe CM ls also where you could LreaL all Lhe mass as resldlng


.A:"4) &#4 G0$)):0$
Dens|ty % = mass]vo|ume [kg/m
3
]
-Speclflc gravlLy SC = %
ob[ecL
/ %
waLer
lf SC>1 slnks, lf SC <1 floaLs
- Speclflc gravlLy SC = fracLlon of floaLlng ob[ecL below Lhe waLer
- %
waLer
= 1000 kg/m
3

ressure = Iorce]Area [n/m
2
= ascals]
-
aLm
= 1.01 x 10
3
a
- A small force can exerL a huge pressure lf area of conLacL ls small (e.g. pushlng Lack lnLo wall)

abso|ute
=
o
+ %gh
gauge
= %gh
-
o
ls Lhe pressure above Lhe fluld, whlch ls usually
aLm
= 1.01 x 10
3
a
-
gauge
measures Lhe dlfference beLween Lhe fluld pressure and aLmospherelc pressure
-
gauge
ls whaL you measure when you check your Llres

Vo|ume f|ow rate = (Area)(speed) [m
3
/sec]

A
1
v
1
=A
2
v
2
( or Av = constant)
- noLe: 1hls ls Lrue for llqulds, noL gases, because llqulds are lncompresslble

8uoyancy
- Arch|medes pr|nc|p|e: 1he 8uoyanL force equals Lhe welghL of Lhe fluld dlsplaced
I
buoyancy
= %
fluid
V
fluid displaced
g
- 1he V
fluid displaced
ls noL always Lhe volume of Lhe ob[ecL! (unless lL ls compleLely submerged)
- l
buoyancy
= WelghL ln alr - WelghL ln waLer (for ob[ecLs LhaL don'L floaL)

8ernou|||'s Lquat|on

1
+ x%v
1
2
+ %gh
1
=
2
+ x%v
2
2
+ %gh
2


noLe: lf Lhe helghL does noL change slgnlflcanLly, 8ernoulll's eqn says,

1
+ x%v
1
2
=
2
+ x%v
2
2
(or

+ x%v
2
= constant )
- 8ernou|||'s pr|nc|p|e: lf Lhe speed of a fluld lncreases, Lhe pressure of Lhe fluld decreases
- e.g. 8lowlng alr over paper decreases pressure on Lop, and Lhe paper rlses



5&;$) &#4 H"%>A$ I&0%/#"( C/'"/#
S|mp|e narmon|c osc|||ators
- position described by x(t)=Asin(&t) or x(t)=Acos(&t) & = 2#/T [rad/sec]
1
mass on spr|ng
= 2# [m]k]
1]2
8emember LhaL f = 1]1 [Pz]
-Spring Period T does not depend on g or amplitude
- E
total
= ! kA
2
( for horiz. mass on spring, because at the maximum displacement A the KE=0 )
1
pendu|um
= 2# [L]g]
1]2

- Pendulum Period T does not depend on mass or amplitude (as long as the amplitude is small " < 20
o
)

Waves
v = ' f (v is wave speed, ' is wavelength, f is frequency) Note: this eqn. is true for every wave
Transverse waves: medium moves perpendicular to velocity of wave (e.g. ripple on pond)
Longitudinal waves: medium moves parallel to velocity of wave (e.g. sound waves)

Standing waves
- Nodes: points that dont move (dest. int) Antinodes: points of maximum displacement (const. int)
- Open-Open pipe is node-node Open-closed pipe is Node-Antinode

Wave phenomenon
kef|ect|on "
|n
= "
out
noLe: always measure " from Lhe normal llne
kefract|on n
1
s|n"
1
= n
2
s|n"
2
n =c/v = (3 x 10
8
m/s)/v
lndex of refracLlon n ls always greaLer Lhan 1
When a wave passes from a fast med|um to a s|ow med|um lL bends "toward the norma|"
When a wave passes from a s|ow med|um to a fast med|um lL bends "away from the norma|"
1oLal lnLernal reflecLlon: s|n "
cr|t|ca|
= n
2
]n
1
(noLe: 1l8 only occurs lf reflecLed off of fasL" medlum)

D|ffract|on: 1he spreadlng ouL of waves when Lhey encounLer a hole or corner


Ior S|ng|e S||t D|ffract|on, lL ls Lhe opposlLe,
l.e. Destruct|ve happens for n' = ds|n" n= +1, +2, +3 (don'L use n=0 here!)
1h|n f||m |nterference
lor Iast -> S|ow -> Iast lnLerference (e.g. a soap bubble, or a Lhln plece of plasLlc)


lor Iast -> S|ow -> S|ower lnLerference ( e.g. waLer on glass )


F?$0%&A G?3)"()
Thermal expansion $L = ( L
o
$1 [m]
- noLe: $1 can be ln
o
C or k, buL lf you have an equaLlon wlLh [usL 1 lL musL be ln k
- AlmosL all ob[ecLs expand when heaLed (noLe: holes ln heaLed ob[ecLs also expand)

1herma| conduct|on ]t|me = kA $1]L [!/sec or WaLLs]
- PeaL C passes Lhrough a maLerlal of area A, Lhlckness L, and Lhermal conducLlvlLy k
- Conduct|on ls when heaL flows Lhrough an ob[ecL, convect|on ls when currenLs of hoL fluld
flow Lo colder reglons, and rad|at|on ls when energy ls Lransferred by LM waves

V = nk1 (n=moles, 1 ln k, 8 = 8.31 a m
3
/mol k, 8 = 0.082 aLm L /mol k )
V = Nk
8
1 (n = # molecules, 1 ln k, ln a, v ln m
3
, k
8
= 1.38 x 10
-23
!/k)

ga|ned
=
|ost
(noLe: PeaL ls measured ln !oules)
= mc $1 (use when ob[ecL ls changlng LemperaLure)
= mL (use when ob[ecL ls changlng phase, e.g. solld Lo llquld or llquld Lo gas)
- use heat of fus|on for (solld <-> llquld) use heat of vapor|zat|on for (llquld <-> gas)

V
rms
= [3k
8
1]M
mo|ecu|e
]
1]2
(rooL-mean-square speed of molecule ln an ldeal gas)

Laws of thermodynamics
First Law: $U =
heat

f|ows |nto gas
+ W
work done on gas

- lnLernal energy (u) lncreases lf heaL C flows lnLo a gas, or work W ls done on a gas
- lf lnLernal energy of a gas lncreases, Lhen 1 lncreases.
- lor MonaLomlc ldeal Cas you can use Lhe equaLlon $u=3/2 $(v)
Second Law: Lntropy of un|verse |s a|ways |ncreas|ng
- heaL never flows sponLaneously from cold Lo hoL
- no heaL englne can have an efflclency of 1
eff|c|ency = W]
n
= 1 -
C
]
n
(C
c
ls wasLe heaL creaLed by heaL englne)
- 1he mosL efflclenL englne (CarnoL englne) has efflclency of e = 1 -1
C
]1
n

Change |n entropy $S=]1
- lf heaL flows lnLo an ob[ecL, LhaL ob[ecL's enLropy lncreases (and vlce versa)


1A$('0"( ./0($)J ."$A4)J 1#$023 K L/A'&2$

I
e
ls e|ectr|c force [newLons]
+ charges feel force in same dir of the electric field (E), - charges feel force in opp. dir of electric field (E)
L ls e|ectr|c f|e|d [n/Coulomb or volLs/meLer]
+ charges create electric fields that point radially outward from charge, - charges create E pointing inward
L
e|ectr|c
ls e|ectr|c potent|a| energy [!oules]
Electric Poetential Energy (PE) is another form of energy that objects can have
V ls e|ectr|c potent|a| [!/Coulomb or volLs]
Electric Potential (V) at a point is the Electric Potential Energy (PE) 1C of charge would have at that point




Note: + and - charges both feel a force toward lower PE
electric
, also Electric fields E point toward lower V

So|v|ng 2D e|ectr|c force]f|e|d prob|ems
1. Draw the forces exerLed on Lhe charge you are concerned wlLh
(1hese are forces Cn charge C, noL Lhe forces charge C ls exerLlng on oLher charges)


2. llnd Lhe slze of each force uslng I=kq
1
q
2
]r
2


3. 8reak forces lnLo verLlcal and horlzonLal components I
y
and I
x

(lor compleLely verLlcal or horlzonLal forces one componenL wlll be zero, Lhe oLher ls + l)
(lor dlagonal forces you need Lo use sln and cos Lo break Lhe vecLor lnLo componenLs)
(up or 8lghL ls a poslLlve componenL, LefL or uown ls a negaLlve componenL)

4. Add up all Lhe I
x
and I
y
Lo geL Lhe componenLs of Lhe LoLal lorce vecLor l
xLoL
and
l
yLoL

l.e. for Lhe example shown l
xLoL
= l
a
cos" + 0 + (-l
c
) l
yLoL
= l
a
sln" + (-l
b
) + 0

S. llnd magnlLude of LoLal lorce uslng Lhe ythagorean 1heorem
l.e. l
LoL
2
= l
xLoL
2
+ l
yLoL
2

6. llnd Lhe ang|e from horlzonLal by uslng " = tan
-1
(I
ytot
]I
xtot
)
(noLe: 1hls angle ls always Lhe angle from Lhe nearesL" x-axls Lo Lhe LoLal lorce vecLor)

L|ectr|c I|e|d L|nes and Lqu|potent|a| L|nes
L|ectr|c I|e|d L|nes show Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe elecLrlc fleld (L) aL polnLs ln space.
lleld llnes polnL radlally ouLward from +" charges, and radlally lnward Loward - charges.
1he LlecLrlc fleld L ls greaLesL where fleld llnes are closesL LogeLher.
Larger charges geL more fleld llnes Lo sLarL/end on Lhem.


Lqu|potent|a| L|nes show llnes of consLanL elecLrlc poLenLlal (v).
LqulpoLenLlal Llnes are always perpendlcular Lo Lhe LlecLrlc lleld Llnes.
1he LlecLrlc lleld L ls greaLesL where LqulpoLenLlal Llnes are closesL LogeLher, L=-$V]$x
1here ls no work done when a charge ls moved along an LqulpoLenLlal Llne.


D"0(:"')
Current
I = ]t [C/sec = Amperes]
- deflned Lo be ln Lhe dlrecLlon of poslLlve charge flow (or opposlLe dlrecLlon of e
-
)
- ls dlrecLed ouL of Lhe + Lermlnal of a baLLery, and lnLo Lhe - Lermlnal

kes|stance
1he reslsLance of a lengLh L of cyllnder made wlLh reslsLlvlLy %, and cross secLlonal area A ls,
k=% L]A [Chms]

Chm's Law
V = Ik (v ls volLage drop across reslsLor, l ls currenL Lhrough Lhe reslsLor, 8 ls reslsLance)
- v ls noL necessarlly Lhe volLage of Lhe baLLery!
- Chm|c mater|a|s have consLanL reslsLance (slope on v vs. l), regardless of whaL Lhe currenL ls
- Non-Chm|c mater|a|s change Lhelr reslsLance" dependlng on whaL Lhe currenL/volLage ls

L|ectr|ca| ower
= IV [WaLLs]
= I
2
k
= V
2
]k

Capac|tors
C = ]V (C ls capaclLance, C ls charge on + plaLe, v ls volLage across capaclLor)
- CapaclLance Lells you how well a capaclLor can sLore charge
- lnserLlng a D|e|ectr|c beLween a capaclLor always |ncreases capac|tance by a facLor of k
- CapaclLors sLore energy as well, whlch ls glven by
L
capac|tor
= x V = x CV
2

- lor a parallel plaLe capaclLor wlLh plaLes of area A separaLed by a dlsLance d, capaclLance ls,
C = )
o
A]d


Comb|n|ng kes|stors


Comb|n|ng Capac|tors



k|rchoff's ku|es
Iunct|on ku|e: I
ln
= I
ouL

- 1oLal currenL flowlng lnLo [uncLlon equals LoLal currenL flowlng ouL of [uncLlon

Loop ku|e: !$V

= 0
- 1he sum of Lhe changes ln volLage around any closed loop always equals zero
$v

= -IR (if you pass through resistor in the same direction as current)
$v

= IR (if you pass through resistor in the opp. direction as current)

$v

= +)
baLLery
(if you pass through the battery from terminal to + terminal)
$v

= -)
baLLery
(if you pass through the battery from + terminal to - terminal)

1erm|na| Vo|tage
V
ab
= ) - Ir (V
ab
ls Lhe Lermlnal volLage, ) ls Lhe emf of baLLery, r ls lnLernal reslsLance)
-Lvery baLLery has an lnLernal reslsLance r whlch wlll lower Lhe Lermlnal volLage when currenL flows
- A 9v baLLery wlll noL necessarlly have a measured Lermlnal volLage of 9v, unless no currenL flows
- 1he ) of a 9v baLLery ls 9v even when no currenL flows, buL Lhe measured Lermlnal volLage wlll be less
- S|ope of vab vs. l graph ls negaLlve Lhe |nterna| res|stance. 1he y |ntercept ls Lhe emf ).

L|ectr|ca| Meters
Vo|tmeter
- Measures volLage change across clrculL elemenL (reslsLor, baLLery, eLc.)
- ldeally has |nf|n|te res|stance so lL does noL draw any currenL away from clrculL
- needs Lo be hooked up ln para||e| wlLh clrculL elemenL

Ammeter
- Measures currenL Lhrough a clrculL elemenL (reslsLor, baLLery, eLc.)
- ldeally has no res|stance so lL does noL change Lhe currenL
- needs Lo be hooked up ln ser|es wlLh clrculL elemenL
C&2#$'")%
Magnet|c forces
I
8
= qv8s|n"
vB
(q ls charge, v ls speed, 8 ls magneLlc fleld, " ls angle beLween v and 8)
- 1he dlrecLlon of force on + charge ls glven by Lhe k|ght hand ru|e (Very-8ad-Ilnger)
- lf Lhe charge ls negaLlve Lhe force ls ln Lhe opposlLe dlrecLlon
- MagneLlc forces never do Work (slnce l
8
ls always perpend|cu|ar Lo moLlon W=ldcos90=0)
- MagneLlc forces ofLen make charges (q) of mass m Lravel ln clrcles of radlus r glven by,
r = mv]q8

noLe: lf you wanL a charged parLlcle Lo Lravel ln a stra|ght ||ne ("ve|oc|ty se|ector"), creaLe an elecLrlc fleld L so
LhaL Lhe forces cancel, l.e. speed ls raLlo of L Lo 8
v=L]8 (slnce l
8
= l
L
or qv8 = qL)
noLe: 1he forces have Lo be of equal slze, noL Lhe flelds! (l.e. I
8
= I
L
,

buL L does noL equal 8)

Magnet|c force on w|re
I
8
= IL8 (I ls currenL LhaL feels force, L ls lengLh of wlre, 8 ls mag. fleld from oLher sources)
-Lo flnd dlrecLlon of l
8
use Lhe same rlghL hand rule (excepL v ls now dlrecLlon of I)

Magnet|c f|e|ds
1he magneLlc fleld a dlsLance r from a long sLralghL currenL (I) carrylng wlre ls glven by,
8 =
o
I]2#r [1es|a]
o
= 4# x 10
-7
1 m/A

- 1he magneLlc fleld from a long sLralghL wlre ls dlrecLed along a clrcle cenLered aL wlre wlLh dlrecLlon glven by
rlghL hand rule (1humb ln dlrecLlon of currenL, flngers curl ln dlrecLlon of 8)

- noLe: Wlres wlLh I ln same dlrecLlon wlll aLLracL, Wlres wlLh I ln opp. ulrecLlon wlll repel

Induced vo|tage )
) = - $*
M
]$t (magneLlc flux *
M
= 8Acos" A is the area of the loop of wire)
) = $(BAcos")]$t
- ?ou wlll lnduce a volLage ln a loop of wlre lf you change 8, A, or "

lor a plece of wlre or a conducLlng bar of lengLh L Lhe lnduced volLage wlll be
) = LvB (remember there is voltage on Las Vegas Boulevard)

Lenz's Law
- lnduced currenL always opposes Lhe change ln flux
lf flux lncreases, lnduced currenL creaLes a magneLlc fleld 8 ln opp dlrecLlon of exlsLlng 8
lf flux decreases, lnduced currenL creaLes a magneLlc fleld 8 ln same dlrecLlon of exlsLlng 8




M>'"()
kef|ect|on "
|n
= "
out
noLe: always measure " from Lhe normal llne
kefract|on n
1
s|n"
1
= n
2
s|n"
2
n =c/v = (3 x 10
8
m/s)/v
lndex of refracLlon n ls always greaLer Lhan or equal Lo 1
When a wave passes from a fast med|um to a s|ow med|um lL bends "toward the norma|"
When a wave passes from a s|ow med|um to a fast med|um lL bends "away from the norma|"
1oLal lnLernal reflecLlon: s|n "
cr|t|ca|
= n
2
]n
1
(noLe: 1l8 only occurs lf reflecLed off of fasL" medlum)
kay trac|ng for M|rrors (one ray parallel, and one ray lnLo Lhe cenLer)

kay trac|ng for Lenses (one ray parallel, and one ray lnLo Lhe cenLer)

Mlrror or Lens LquaLlon MagnlflcaLlon equaLlon
1]f = 1]d
o
+ 1]d
|
M = h
|
]h
o
= - d
|
]d
o

Ior M|rrors

Ior Lenses


Modern hys|cs
hotons
L = hf (f ls frequency, h ls lank's consLanL h = 6.626 x 10
-34
I sec)
' = h]p (p ls momenLum, ' ls wavelengLh)
- Plgher frequency (lower wavelengLh) llghL has more energy per phoLon
- 1 eV (elecLron volL) = 1.6x10
-19
Iou|es
- noLe: ' = h]p = h]mv works for elecLrons and oLher parLlcles Loo. (ue8roglle WavelengLh)
hotoe|ectr|c Lffect
- rovlded evldence LhaL llghL behaves llke a parLlcle (phoLon)
kL
max
= hf - + (+ is the work function. Energy needed to free electron from metal.)

-Increas|ng Intens|ty of llghL (number of phoLons) |ncreases number of e|ectrons
-Increas|ng frequency of llghL (energy of phoLons) |ncreases kL
max
of elecLrons

Stopp|ng potent|a|: $V = kL
max
]e
- SLopplng poLenLlal ls Lhe mlnlmum volLage needed Lo sLop Lhe ouLgolng elecLrons

Compton Scatter|ng
- hoLons colllde and scaLLer off oLher parLlcles (Lyplcally elecLrons)
- rovlded more evldence LhaL llghL behaves llke a parLlcle, slnce phoLons colllde llke parLlcles
- WavelengLh of scaLLered llghL always lncreases by an amounL,
' , '
-
= h/m
e
c (1-cos") (" is the angle between scattered and incident photons)

- 1he phoLon always decreases ln energy, decreases ln frequency, and lncreases ln wavelengLh
Nuc|ear processes

A|pha Decay e.g.
238
92
U ->
234
90
1h +
4
2
nL
- An alpha parLlcle, l.e. a Pellum nucleus (2 proLons +2 neuLrons), ls emlLLed by a larger nucleus
-mass number A decreases by 4 and aLomlc number 2 decreases by 2

8eta Decay e.g.
14
6
C ->
14
7
N + e
-
+ anLlneuLrlno
- 1yplcally a neuLron decays lnLo a proLon, elecLron and anLlneuLrlno
-mass number A a|ways stays the same
-aLomlc number 2 typ|ca||y |ncreases by 1 (lf neuLron decays lnLo proLon)
-Cccaslonally a proLon can absorb an elecLron and Lurn lnLo a neuLron. ln Lhls case Z decreases
by 1

Gamma Decay e.g.
12
6
C* ->
12
6
C + . (X* denotes an excited nucleus)
- A hlgh energy phoLon (Camma ray) ls emlLLed by an exclLed nucleus
- Mass number A and atom|c number 2 rema|n the same
- Camma decay Lyplcally occurs afLer an alpha or beLa decay

Mass Defect (1he LoLal mass ofLen changes ln nuclear reacLlons llke flsslon and fuslon)
L
rest energy
= mc
2
or $L = $mc
2

- Mass can be converLed lnLo energy (e
-
+ e
+
-> .'s), and energy can be converLed lnLo mass

Atom|c energy |eve|s (e
-
emlL phoLons lf drop L levels, absorb phoLons lf rlse L levels)