Finding P-values

For hypothesis testing for proportions were we calculate a Z test statistic (Ill call it Zstat)
and for testing means we use a t test statistic (Ill call it t
stat
). Finding the p-value (or
probability value) is based on the alternative hypothesis !a.
Proportion "ests
If !a uses #$% then the p-value is P(Z $ Zstat) or P(t $ t
stat
). &'ead this as the probability
of getting a Z-value (or t-value) greater than Zstat (or t
stat
). For the Z tests you can refer
to the previous lesson where we discussed finding probabilities when we introduced the
(tandard )ormal "able. For e*ample you would find the Zstat in the table loo+ up the
cumulative probability for that value and then subtract that probability from , to get the
p-value.
If !a uses #-% then the p-value is P(Z - Zstat) or P(t - t
stat
). &'ead this as the probability
of getting a Z-value (or t-value) less than Zstat (or t
stat
). For the Z tests you can refer to
the previous lesson where we discussed finding probabilities when we introduced the
(tandard )ormal "able. For e*ample you would find the Zstat in the table loo+ up the
cumulative probability for that value and then this is the p-value.
If !a uses #.% then the p-value is P(Z $ /Zstat/) or P(t $ t
stat
). &'ead this as the
probability of getting a Z-value (or t-value) greater than the absolute value of the Zstat
(or t
stat
). For the Z tests you can refer to the previous lesson where we discussed finding
probabilities when we introduced the (tandard )ormal "able. For e*ample you would
find the absolute value (i.e. if negative ma+e positive) Zstat in the table loo+ up the
cumulative probability for that value and then subtract that probability from , to get the
p-value. "!0) since the !a is #not e1ual% we would double this value.
2eans "ests
For means tests the method for finding p-value is very similar to that for proportion tests
but substituting t
stat
where we have Zstat. !owever the t-table (located in your boo+s
3ppendi* or clic+ "-"able) is 1uite different than the (tandard )ormal "able. )otice
that this table gives the column associated with 4egrees of Freedom (see df in table) has
a top row labeled 'ight-"ail Probability and the then in the table we find a series of 5-
decimal place t
stat
. In essence this table is using absolute values of t-values because li+e
the normal distribution the t distribution is also bell-shaped meaning it is symmetric.
"hat is for a bell-shaped curve the area to the left of a negative value (e.g. the area to the
left of say a Z or t of 6 7.88) would be the same as the area to the right of its positive
counterpart (e.g. the area to the right of say a Z or t of 7.88).
"o use this t-table we have to +now two things9 the sample si:e to find the degrees of
freedom and also the t
stat
. "he degrees of freedom for tests of one mean are found by
ta+ing the sample si:e (n) and subtracting , (ie. 4F ; n 6 ,). <nce we calculate the t
stat

we ta+e its absolute value go to the t-table and using the 4F row locate where your t
stat

,
would fall. 2ost li+ely you wont find your e*act t test statistic in the table but it will
either be less than the first one listed in the proper 4F row between two listed or larger
than the last one listed. ()ote if you cannot find the e*act 4F use the closest to that 4F
without e*ceeding e.g. if 4F is between => and 8> then use =>).
<nce you find the t-value (or values) in the table from the previous directions then go to
the top of the page for the column (or columns) for these t-value(s) to get the right-tail
probability for that column. "hese right-tail probabilities are the p-value(s)? @hat you
will notice (hopefully?) is that when using the (tandard )ormal "able you will get a
single number for your p-value AB" when using the t-table you get a range of values
that the p-value can fall between.
,. If you had sample of si:e ,8 resulting in 4F ; ,= and t
stat
; ,.7> your t-value
range would be less than ,.5=8 producing a p-value of p $ >.,>>. "hat is the P("
$ ,.7C) is a probability greater than >.,>>. If your alternative hypothesis was #not
e1ual% then we would double this range to p $ >.7>>
7. If you had sample of si:e ,8 resulting in 4F ; ,= and t
stat
; 6 ,.7> you would ta+e
the absolute value (i.e. t
stat
; ,.7>) and li+e the first e*ample your t-value range
would be less than ,.5=8 producing a p-value of p $ >.,>>. "hat is the P(" - 6
,.7>) is e1ual to P(" $ ,.7>) is a probability greater than >.,>>. If your
alternative hypothesis was #not e1ual% then we would double this range to p $
>.7>>
5. If you had sample of si:e ,8 resulting in 4F ; ,= and t-value ;=.58 your t-value
range would be greater than 5.DCD producing a p-value of p - >.>>,. "hat is the
P(" $ =.58) is a probability less than >.>>,. If your alternative hypothesis was
#not e1ual% then we would double this range to p - >.>>7
=. If you had sample of si:e ,8 resulting in 4F ; ,= and t-value ;7.,, your t-value
range would be greater than ,.DE, and less than 7.,=8 producing a p-value
between >.>78 and >.>8 or >.>78 - p - >.>8. "hat is the P(" $ 7.,,) is a
probability between >.>78 and >.>8 and if your alternative hypothesis was #not
e1ual% then we would double this range to >.>8 - p - >.,>
7