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1999 by CRC Press LLC

roxImIfy SensIng

lor RolofIcs

8.1 Pioximity Defnition

8.2 Typical Sensoi Chaiacteiistics

8.3 Technologies foi Pioximity Sensing

Electio-Optical Sensois Capacitive Sensois Ultiasonic
Sensois Magnetic Sensois

The objective of this chaptei is to ieview the state-of-the-ait in pioximity-sensing technologies foi
iobotics. Special attention is paid to the sensing needs of iobotic manipulatois foi giasping applications,
in contiast to the needs of mobile iobots foi navigation puiposes. Foi a ieview of the application of
pioximity sensing to mobile iobots, the ieadei is iefeiied to 1].
Robotic sensois can be categoiized into thiee gioups: medium-iange (object iecognition and gioss
position/oiientation estimation) sensois, shoit-iange (pioximity) sensois, and contact sensois. Recent
liteiatuie 2-6] suggests that iobotic end effectois should be equipped with both shoit-iange pioximity
and contact sensois.
Pioximity sensois should be able to measuie the position and oiientation (pose) of an object`s suiface.
The iange must be suffciently laige to compensate foi unceitainties in the medium-iange pose-estima-
tion piocess, while maintaining suffcient accuiacy to peimit effective giasping of the object.
Tiansduceis used by cuiient pioximity sensois vaiy in sophistication. Despite theii gieat vaiiety,
howevei, these tiansduceis and theii accompanying electionic inteiface ciicuits (togethei compiising the
pioximity sensoi) cannot piesently meet the stiingent iobustness iequiiements of most industiial iobotic
applications. Novel sensing algoiithms and techniques still must be developed in oidei to impiove on
theii cuiient chaiacteiistics, and, fuitheimoie, to contiol both the sensing and giasping piocesses.

8.1 Pruximity Dehnitiun

The teim pioximity," quantifed by pose" in this chaptei, iefeis to thiee geometiical paiameteis

x

,

u

,
and

as shown in Figuie 8.1, wheie:

x

the tianslation fiom the oiigin of the sensoi`s iefeience cooidinate fiame,

F

, to a taiget point on
the suiface of the object measuied along

X

. This taiget point defnes the oiigin of the suiface-
fiame,

F

r

u

the

erta|

oiientation of the object`s suiface, defned as a iotation aiound

Y

(of the tianslated
fiame), theieby specifying the new

Z

r

the

|or:ona|

oiientation of the object`s suiface, defned as a iotation aiound

Z

r

, theieby specifying

Y

r

.

R. . Saad

Inverry of Toronro

A. Bonen

Inverry of Toronro

K. C. SmIfh

Inverry of Toronro

B. BenhalIl

Inverry of Toronro
1999 by CRC Press LLC

8.2 Typica! Sensur Characteristics

Conventionally, pioximity sensois should be capable of measuiing distances of up to 50 mm, and two
degiee-of-fieedom oiientations equivalent to an oveiall inclination of up to

30

. The intended piincipal
application of the sensoi is to act as a guide foi the iobot. Thus, it would be desiiable to have highei
sensitivity and accuiacy as the giippei appioaches the object, namely when both the ielative oiientation
and the distance appioach neai-zeio values.
The signals ieceived by the electionic inteiface ciicuit should be piocessed without limiting the iequiied
opeiating iange of the sensoi. The inteiface ciicuit should also minimize the effect of inteifeience fiom
the suiioundings. It should theiefoie employ solutions to ieduce backgiound-noise inteifeience and
dynamic-iange limitations.
The opeiation of the iobot should not be slowed down by the sensoi. Namely, a pose of the object
should noimally be estimated in 1 ms to 10 ms.

8.3 Technu!ugies lur Pruximity Sensing

Pioximity sensois have employed vaiious tiansduction media, including sound waves, magnetic felds,
electiic felds, and light. Piesently, electio-optical techniques seem to be the most appiopiiate foi iobotic-
giasping applications. Such sensois aie ielatively small in size, have a laige iange of opeiation, and impose
almost no iestiictions on the object`s mateiial. Howevei, iecently, some new ultiasonic and capacitive
pioximity sensois have been fabiicated diiectly as ICs, also showing the possibility of veiy-small-size
pioximity sensois based on these technologies 7, 8].
Biief desciiptions of the piinciples of the piimaiy technologies used by pioximity sensois aie given
below, with the main emphasis being on optical tiansduceis. A suivey of commeicial pioximity sensois
capable of measuiing distances can be found in 6].

FIGURE 8.1

Pioximity paiameteis.
1999 by CRC Press LLC

E!ectru-Optica! Sensurs

Many pioximity sensois use light, diiectly scatteied fiom a taiget suiface, to deteimine the distance and
oiientation of the taiget object fiom the giippei. The mechanism by which light is ieected can be
explained by a model that specifes foui diffeient ieection phenomena. Accoiding to this model, light
ieects fiom the suiface piimaiily as a iesult of one oi moie of the following inteiactions:
1.

Sng|e sur[ate re[eton

: Light waves that ieect speculaily a single time off a planai miciofacet,
whose dimensions aie signifcantly laigei than the wavelength.
2.

Mu||e sur[ate re[eton

: Light waves that ieect speculaily at least twice between multiple
miciofacets.
3.

Re[eton a[er eneraon

: Light waves that penetiate into the mateiial, iefiact, and then ieect
back out as diffused light.
4.

Corner re[eton

: Light waves that diffiact fiom inteifaces with suiface details about the same size
oi smallei than the wavelength (such as fiom coineis of miciofacets).
The piimaiy phenomenon (1) usually exists in both dielectiics and metal. Howevei, due to the high
conductivity of metal suifaces, most of the light ieects speculaily off the inteiface between the metal
and the aii, while the poition that penetiates into the metal suiface is absoibed. Accoidingly, the ieection
intensity oiiginating fiom inteinal iefiaction in metals is piactically zeio. In dielectiics, howevei, a laige
poition of the light penetiates into the suiface, and then ieects back out as diffused light (3). The
secondaiy phenomena (2) and (4) exist both in metals and dielectiics and add to the diffused ieectance.
Common measuiement techniques used in optical pioximity sensing utilize one oi moie of the
ieected components to deteimine the pose of the object in ielation to the tiansducei.

Phase Mudu!atiun

A phase-modulated (PM) pioximity sensoi usually consists of two light souices and one oi moie
photodetectois. The light souices aie diiven by modulated sinusoidal signals having a 90

phase iela-
tionship (Figuie 8.2).
The emittei contiol voltages of the emitteis,

V

em1

and

V

em2

, have amplitudes of

a

and

|

, iespectively:
(8.1)
(8.2)

FIGURE 8.2

The basic phase-modulated pioximity-sensoi confguiation.
V a
eml , ,
cosu
V |
em2, ,
sinu
1999 by CRC Press LLC

The signal detected by the ieceivei is a supeiposition of the two ieected signals, having coiiesponding
attenuations of

and

B

.
(8.3)
The signal attenuation is a function of the geometiical and electiical paiameteis of the sensoi, the
ieectivity chaiacteiistics of the object`s suiface, and the suiface`s distance and oiientation with iespect
to the sensoi. The combined signal at the ieceivei is theiefoie:
(8.4)
wheie

M

the combined attenuation-function, and

o

the combined phase-shift.
Usually, only the phase infoimation

o

is used, and the amplitude is completely neglected oi used only
foi veiifying the likelihood of eiioi and its potential magnitude.
A pioximity sensoi that uses this technique has been iepoited in 9]. Figuie 8.3 shows a

sensor |eaJ

;
it compiises six light souices (LEDs) and a photodetectoi (a phototiansistoi). This sensoi can measuie
the distance fiom the sensoi`s cooidinate fiame to the taiget point on the suiface of the object (

x

), as
well as the hoiizontal and veitical oiientation of the object suiface (

u

,



).
A simple model foi the sensoi was developed assuming that the light souices (LEDs) have low
diiectivity, the photodetectoi (phototiansistoi) has high diiectivity, and the suiface has diffused ieectivity.
Figuie 8.4 shows the basic confguiation foi the measuiement of distance (

x

) and oiientation (

u

and

).
Table 8.1 shows the combinations of the diiving signals in each LED needed foi the measuiement of
distance and oiientation.
Foi the measuiement of the distance

x

, LED1 and LED3 aie modulated by

K

1

sin

u

, and LED2 and
LED4 by

K

2

cos

u

, iespectively. The biightness detected by the photodetectoi can be calculated (using
Lambeit`s law) to be:
(8.5)
wheie

C

i

(

1, 2, 3, 4) aie the intensities of the light souices, and

C

is the ieection factoi of the suiface
at point

P

. Consideiing that foi this case:

C

1



C

3



K

1

sin

u

t,

C

2



C

4



K

2

cos

u

t, cos

o



x

/ and
cos

x

/ , Equation 8.5 can be iewiitten as:

FIGURE 8.3

Sensoi head iepoited in 9].
V V B V
iec em1 em2 , ,
+
V M
iec, ,
+
, ,
sin u o
L C C

a x
C

| x
C

a x
C

| x
p

, ,
+
j
(
,
,
\

(
(
+

, ,
+
+
+
, ,
+
+
+
, ,
+
1
2 2
2
2 2
3
2 2
4
2 2
cos cos cos cos o o

1999 by CRC Press LLC

(8.6)
The amplitude

M

and the phase shift

o

x

aie given by:
(8.7)
and
(8.8)
Fiom Equation 8.8, it can be obseived that the distance (

x

) can be obtained fiom

o

x

. It is impoitant to
note that, in theoiy, the calculation is not affected by the ieection factoi (

C

) of the suiface.

FIGURE 8.4

Measuiement paiameteis foi the sensoi iepoited in 9].

TABLE 8.1

Combinations of the LED Diiving Signals

Mode LED1 LED2 LED3 LED4 LED5 LED6

Distance (

x

) sin

u

cos

u

sin

u

cos

u

- -
Oiientation (

u

) - cos

u

- sin

u

- -
Oiientation (

) - - - - cos

u

sin

u

L Cx
K
a x

K
| x
M
p x

+
, ,
+
+
, ,

+
, ,
2
1
2 2
3 2
2
2 2
3 2
sin cos cos sin u u u o
M Cx
K
a x
K
| x

+
, ,
+
+
, ,

2
1
2
2 2
3
2
2
2 2
3
1 2
cos
o
x

+
, ,
+
, ,
,

,
,
,
]
]
]
]
]

tan
1
2
2 2
3 2
1
2 2
3 2
K a x
K | x
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Similaily, the oiientation angles u and can be obtained by diiving the LEDs as indicated in Table 8.1.
Foi example, can be deteimined by modulating LED4 and LED2 by the signals K
1
sinu and K
2
cosu,
iespectively. Foi this case, the phase shift associated with the biightness of the object at point P is given by:
(8.9)
Note that, in oidei to iecovei fiom Equation 8.9, x must be known. Accoidingly, the distance x must
be deteimined fist. Coiiespondingly, the oiientation angle () can be calculated fiom the new phase
shift o
v
. The angle u can be calculated by modulating LED6 and LED5 with K
1
sinu and K
2
cosu,
iespectively, and then deteimining the coiiesponding phase shift of the associate biightness at point P.
The pose-estimation iesults using this sensoi weie quite satisfactoiy and showed a good agieement
between the theoiy and expeiiment.
In 10], an expeiimental setup of a PM distance sensoi, similai to the one in 9], was iepoited foi
investigating the effect of the geometiic and electionic paiameteis on the peifoimance of the sensoi.
Optimal paiameteis weie obtained foi some taigeted sensoi-opeiation chaiacteiistics.
Amp!itude Mudu!atiun
In amplitude-modulated (AM) sensois, the magnitude of the light ieected fiom a suiface is utilized to
deteimine the pose of the object.
AM tiansduceis usually consist of one light souice and seveial photodetectois (Figuie 8.5). They weie
iedesigned and optimized seveial times ovei the past decade to yield bettei measuiement accuiacy 11-14].
Many AM pioximity sensois utilize optical fbeis to illuminate and collect light fiom the suifaces of
objects. The use of optical fbeis, in a Y-guide confguiation (Figuie 8.6), facilitates the opeiation of
sensitive low-noise ciicuitiy in a shielded enviionment appiopiiately iemote fiom the iobot`s electio-
magnetic inteifeience souices.
AM tiansduceis piimaiily use vaiiations of the basic Y-guide tiansducei. Two impoitant paiameteis
can be vaiied in the design of Y-guides: the distance, J, between the emitting and ieceiving fbeis (iefeiied
to heieaftei as the emittei and the ieceivei, iespectively), and the inclination angle, , of the ieceivei
fbei with iespect to the tiansducei`s suiface. The emittei is usually placed peipendiculai to the tians-
ducei`s suiface, due to symmetiy iequiiements, as will be explained latei in this section.
The collection of a suffcient amount of ieected light iequiies the use of ielatively wide-diametei
fbeis, typically having a 0.3 mm to 2 mm coie size. This iequiiement demands the use of ielatively low-
giade plastic fbeis. Although attenuations of up to 1 dB m
-1
aie common in such plastic fbeis, this loss
iate is ielatively insignifcant foi Y-guide applications because of the shoit length of the cables noimally
used. The numeiical apeituie (NA) of the plastic fbeis, on the othei hand, is an impoitant paiametei
FIGURE 8.5 The basic amplitude-modulated pioximity sensoi confguiation.
o
v

, ,
+
, ,
,

,
,
]
]
]
]

tan
tan
tan
1
2
1
K x |
K x |
1999 by CRC Press LLC
in the tiansducei design, since lenses aie iaiely used in conjunction with AM-type tiansduceis. In
paiticulai, the acceptance angle of the fbei is fxed and given by o 2sin
-1
NA.
Foi a Y-guide, the intensity of the light ieected fiom the suiface is not a monotonic function of the
distance. Thus, the minimum opeiating distance of the tiansducei (x
mn
) is usually limited to a value that
will guaiantee a monotonic iesponse (Figuie 8.7).
Foi the measuiement of suiface oiientation, a symmetiical thiee-fbei constellation (Figuie 8.8) can
be used. In this Y-guide confguiation, the emittei is at the centei and the two ieceiveis aie positioned
symmetiically on eithei side 12]. The light intensities detected by the ieceiveis, foi the tiansducei shown
in Figuie 8.8, aie illustiated in Figuie 8.9 as a function of the suiface oiientation.
In the usual opeiating iange of an AM tiansducei, the intensity of the light at the ieceivei is inveisely
ielated to the distance squaied. As a iesult, it is conceptually possible to confguie a tiansducei such that
FIGURE 8.6 Y-guide tiansducei.
FIGURE 8.7 Y-guide iesponse foi distance measuiement.
FIGURE 8.8 Typical ieceivei-paii constellation foi oiientation measuiements.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
its sensitivity and accuiacy will inciease as the giippei neais the contact point, at which both the distance
and the oiientation of the object`s suiface aie zeio 10, 12]. Howevei, in piactice, because of the limited
dynamic iange of the electionic tiansducei inteiface, a tiade-off exists between the desiied maximum
accuiacy neai contact, and the maximum iange of opeiation. These and othei consideiations must be
taken into account when establishing the geometiic featuies of the tiansducei.
Anothei impoitant factoi to take into account in the design of an AM sensoi is the need to ieduce,
as much as possible, the effect of the vaiiation in the emitting powei of the light souice, P
o
, on the
tiansducei`s measuiements. This noimally leads to the employment of a paii of ieceiveis. A noimalized
diffeiential voltage (DV) estimation scheme, such as the following, is then applied to the paii of mea-
suiements:
(8.10)
wheie V
iec
1
, V
iec
2
aie the voltages measuied by ieceiveis 1 and 2. Howevei, in oidei to eliminate the effect
of P
o
on DV, each ieceivei must lineaily conveit the light intensity to a coiiesponding voltage measuiement.
In oidei to use a DV scheme foi the measuiement of distance, an asymmetiical tiansducei confgu-
iation can be used (Figuie 8.10). Howevei, one must note that, although oiientation measuiements aie
not affected by vaiiations in distance, distance measuiements aie signifcantly affected by the oiientation
of the suiface, e.g., 15].
Accoidingly, in using an AM pioximity sensoi with a DV scheme, the oiientation is fist appioximated,
and subsequently the distance is deteimined. The accuiacies of the measuied distance and oiientation
angle can be fuithei impioved by an iteiative piocess.
FIGURE 8.9 The light intensity detected by each ieceivei as a function of the suiface oiientation (u).
FIGURE 8.10 An asymmetiical ieceivei-paii constellation foi distance measuiements.
DV
iec iec
iec iec
1 2
1 2
V V
V V

+
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Based on the above issues and obseivations, the outputs of the thiee ieceiveis of the basic AM pioximity
sensoi (Figuie 8.5) can be paiied foi measuiing both distance and oiientation: the paii iec
1
-iec
2
can be
used foi oiientation measuiement, while the paii iec
1
-iec
3
can be used foi distance measuiement.
An expeiimental AM pioximity sensoi, capable of estimating the pose of an object with high accuiacy,
was iepoited in 14, 16, 17]. The tiansducei consists of one emittei, placed peipendiculaily to the sensoi
head, and eight inclined ieceivei elements (Figuie 8.11). The ieceiveis of this tiansducei weie paiied foi
the specifc measuiements of distance, as well as of the veitical oi hoiizontal oiientation. Howevei, the
pose of the suiface was deteimined with highei accuiacy by using a polynomial ft technique (as opposed
to the DV scheme desciibed above), that piovided ielationships between the individual estimated paiam-
eteis (x, u, and ) and all eight signals ieceived.
The sensoi piesented in 14], and shown in Figuie 8.11, opeiates in the iange of 0 mm to 50 mm and
20. It can achieve an accuiacy of 6.25 m in distance and an accuiacy of 0.02 in angulai measuiements
in the neai-contact iegion (0 mm to 6 mm iange), using a geneial calibiation-pei-gioup stiategy foi
diffeient mateiial gioupings. This implies that the measuied object`s mateiial belongs to a calibiation
gioup, which includes similai object suiface chaiacteiistics; foi example, machined metals. Bettei accu-
iacies can be achieved using a calibiation-pei-suiface stiategy.
A similai confguiation to the one shown in Figuie 8.11 was iepoited eailiei in 18] foi the measuie-
ment of distances, wheie the oiientations of each ieceivei paii ielative to the emittei
1
and
3
weie set
at 10. Howevei, in this case, the apeituies of the emittei and ieceivei weie seveiely iestiicted by a
collimating giaded index (GRIN) lens. The emittei diametei was laigei than that of the ieceiveis in oidei
to tiansmit moie light. The measuiements of the tiansducei weie then piocessed in two phases: (1) the
DVs of all the ieceivei paiis weie piocessed independently to piovide foui distance estimations; and,
(2) the foui distance estimations weie then aveiaged to piovide a moie accuiate estimate, eliminating
adveise effects due to vaiiations in suiface oiientation.
FIGURE 8.11 AM tiansducei design foi the sensoi iepoited in 14]: (a) top view; (|) fiont view.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Geumetrica! Techniques
Pioximity sensois based on geometiical techniques deteimine the pose of the object by examining the
geometiical attiibutes of the ieected and incident light beams. Two of these techniques, one based on
tiiangulation and the othei based on the Gaussian lens law, aie piesented heie.
Figuie 8.12 shows the basic confguiation of a pioximity tiansducei foi measuiing distance (x) based
on the tiiangulation technique 19, 20]. The sensoi head consists of a lasei light souice and a lineai aiiay
of photodetectois (R
i
, with i 1, 2, ., n). A naiiow light beam illuminates point P, and the ieceiveis
detect the ieected light fiom the illuminated point thiough a tiansmitting slit. The geometiy of the iay
tiajectoiy piovides the basic infoimation foi the estimation of the distance (x). While the light souice
illuminates the suiface of the object, the photodetectoi aiiay is scanned to detect the light path used foi
making the output signal maximum. The light path obtained by this scanning is called the effective light
path 19]. This light path is the one indicated in Figuie 8.12. The distance (x) can be deteimined by
accuiately detecting the position (y
i
) and piecisely measuiing the dimensions (|) and (y
o
),
(8.11)
oi
(8.12)
In 26], it is claimed that such a sensoi has the following piopeities: (1) the inuence of iiiegulaiities,
ieectivity, and oiientation of the object is negligible; (2) the distance measuiement is not affected by
illumination fiom the enviionment and luminance of the object (theii inuence is eliminated by com-
paiison of two sensoi signals obtained in successive on-and-off states of the light souice); and (3) the
sensoi head is suffciently small to be used in a iobot hand.
An expeiimental pioximity sensoi confguiation, based on tiiangulation and capable of measuiing
both distance and oiientation, is shown in Figuie 8.13 21]. The sensoi uses six infiaied LEDs as light
souices, an objective lens, and an aiea-aiiay detectoi chip foi detecting spot positions. The diiections of
FIGURE 8.12 Basic piinciple of a pioximity sensoi foi measuiing distance based on tiiangulation.
x
x |
y
y +

o
i
x
y |
y y

o
i o
1999 by CRC Press LLC
the beams aie aligned to foim a fxed cone of light. This sensoi is of a type called scanning-emittei since
each LED is sequentially pulsed to peifoim the measuiements. As each LED is sequentially pulsed, the
sensoi IC detects the position of the spot piojected by the ieected light beam fiom the object`s suiface.
Knowledge of the spot`s position, togethei with the cameia`s optics and the tiajectoiy of each light beam,
can be used to peifoim a tiiangulation to deteimine the thiee-dimensional cooidinates of each light spot
on the taiget suiface. A set of six 3-D points aie obtained foi the six LEDs. Then, by ftting a plane to
those points, the distance and oiientation of the object`s suiface aie appioximated.
Anothei scanning-emittei-type pioximity sensoi was iepoited in 22]. In this case, a mechanical
scanning system was utilized. One notes that inheient pioblems with sensois that use mechanical scanning
devices include lowei ieliability and incieased oveiall size.
Some iecently iepoited tiiangulation sensois aie suffciently small in size to be mounted on a
giippei 5]. Howevei, they aie still susceptible to eiiois due to distoition and sepaiation of the light
beam`s ieection caused by suiface iiiegulaiity, and can also have blind spots as a iesult of discontinuities
associated with the shape of the sensed object.
Anothei gioup of geometiical electio-optical pioximity sensois aie those based on the Gaussian lens
law 23, 24]. The basic confguiation of such a tiansducei is shown in Figuie 8.14. A light beam, collineai
to the optical axis, foims a spot on the taiget`s suiface. The light scatteied fiom the spot is collected by
the lens. In Figuie 8.14, PN iepiesents the limiting iay that can be collected by the lens. The taiget distance
(x) can be calculated in teims of the focal length of the lens ([ ) and the image position (w). Applying
the Gaussian lens law, the distance x can be calculated as:
(8.13)
FIGURE 8.13 Multilight souice pioximity sensoi iepoited in 21].
x
[w
w [

1999 by CRC Press LLC

A pioximity sensoi (the HexEye) based on this lens piinciple is shown in Figuie 8.15 23, 24]. The
sensoi consists of seven identical sensing units" aiianged in a hexagonal pattein. Each sensing unit in
tuin compiises foui main paits: an objective lens, a conical miiioi, six lineai ieceivei aiiays, and a lasei
diode light souice.
The light beam geneiated by a light souice foims a spot on the taiget suiface, and the light ux
scatteied fiom the spot is collected by the objective lens and piojected onto the ieceivei aiiays in each
sensing unit. The taiget distance is deteimined by the position, size, and shape of an image foimed on
individual ieceivei aiiays of the unit.
The sensoi opeiates in two modes, eithei distance oi oiientation. In the distance measuiement mode,
the seven light souices aie activated one at a time to geneiate a light spot on the taiget suiface, while all
the sensing units ieceive the light ux scatteied fiom the same light spot.

The active unit deteimines the
distance using the piinciple of the Gaussian lens law, while the nonactive units deteimine the distance
based on tiiangulation. Foi the oiientation measuiement mode, the seven sensing units aie giouped into
oiientation measuiement units (OMUs). Each OMU compiises thiee neighboiing sensing units aiound
the centei, iesulting in a total of six possible OMUs. The local oiientation of the suiface is estimated by
integiating the six oiientation measuiements.
The mapping between the light distiibution on the aiiays of light detectois and the taiget distance is
obtained thiough calibiation.

Using the light distiibution (instead of light intensity as in the case of AM
sensois), it is intended that the mapping be independent of suiface piopeities such as coloi, mateiial,
diffusion, and ieectance factois. Howevei, it has been shown that the mapping may be coiiupted by
noise" fiom seveial souices, including ieection patteins and ambient light.
FIGURE 8.14 The piinciple of pioximity sensing based on the Gaussian lens law iepoited in 7].
FIGURE 8.15 Confguiation of HexEye (top view).
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Using the Gaussian lens law has the following advantages ovei the tiiangulation piinciple: (1) the light
souice can be located at the centei of the objective lens, allowing not only the sensoi to be compact, but
also the amount of light ux input to the lens to be maximized, and (2) the sensitivity can be optimized
foi a ceitain iange of measuiement distance by contiolling [.
Time-ul-F!ight
Time-of-ight-measuiing electio-optical sensois aie iadai-type systems. Howevei, unlike iegulai iadai,
which tiansmit a pulse of iadio-fiequency eneigy, these sensois noimally use a modulated light beam.
The distance to the taiget is extiacted fiom the measuied phase shift of the ieected light. Two pioblems
associated with such sensois aie: diffculty in measuiing shoit distances (which iequiies a veiy high
modulation fiequency), and the need foi a mechanical scanning/switching system to get additional
infoimation (such as oiientation) 5, 25].
Phututherma! Ellect
The phototheimal effect tiansducei uses a stiong light beam diiected towaid the object`s suiface. The
distance to the object is extiacted fiom measuiements of the theimal wave geneiated by the light absoibed
by the object. The detection scheme and signal piocessing aie similai to those used in an AM sensoi.
Since the shape of the theimal wave geneiated at the suiface is suiface-textuie independent, the photo-
theimal sensoi does not suffei fiom the suiface iobustness pioblem associated with AM sensois. Howevei,
the phototheimal sensoi is iathei slow, and limited to highly absoibing suifaces 26].
Capacitive Sensurs
Capacitive sensois geneiate and measuie changes in an electiic feld caused by eithei a dielectiic oi
conducting object in theii pioximity.
Theie aie basically two types of capacitive pioximity sensoi. One type uses the piinciple of a paiallel
plate capacitoi, the othei uses the piinciple of fiinging capacitances 8, 27, 28]. Foi the paiallel plate type
pioximity sensoi, the tiansducei foims one plate and the object measuied foims the othei plate. The
stiuctuie of a paiallel plate type pioximity sensoi and its typical iesponse aie shown in Figuie 8.16 8].
The paiallel plate type pioximity sensoi is widely applied in industiy. Howevei, this type of a sensoi has
thiee majoi limitations: (1) the object being measuied must be conductive; (2) the inveise gap-capacitance
ielationship is highly nonlineai and (3) the sensitivity diops signifcantly in the case of laige gaps.
The second type of capacitive pioximity sensoi uses the piinciple of fiinging capacitance 8]. The
sensoi has two live" electiodes and the object being measuied does not need to be pait of the sensoi
system. The taiget object could be eithei conductive oi nonconductive. Howevei, the measuiement of
distances is affected by the type of object mateiial. Theiefoie, sepaiate calibiations must be caiiied out
foi diffeient mateiials.
FIGURE 8.16 Capacitive pioximity sensoi based on the piinciple of paiallel plates, (a) stiuctuie and (|) sensoi
iesponse.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
In 30], an innovative capacitive miciosensoi was piesented. Using miciomachining technology, the
electiode thickness can be signifcantly ieduced and the fiinging effect incieased when compaied with
othei capacitive sensois. Consequently, this sensoi yields a bettei sensitivity. An aiiay of such tiansduceis
can be implemented to measuie the distance and oiientation of an object.
Pioximity capacitive sensois have the following geneial advantages: (1) low eneigy consumption and
(2) simple stiuctuie. The majoi disadvantages, howevei, aie that they aie inuenced by exteinal signals
and a calibiation-pei-suiface technique must be caiiied out, since theii opeiation diiectly depends on
the object`s mateiial.
L!trasunic Sensurs
The basic piinciple undeilying ultiasonic ianging sensois is the measuiement of the time iequiied foi a
sound wave to tiavel fiom the emittei to the object`s suiface and ietuin to the detectoi. By using seveial
such emitteis and detectois, one can obtain infoimation about the distance and oiientation of the suiface.
In 19], a novel method is pioposed to measuie the oiientation angles of an object`s suiface using the
phase diffeiences of ieected echoes. Figuie 8.17(a) shows the confguiation of a planai sensoi head with
n ieceiveis, which aie equally spaced and located on a ciicle of iadius R aiound the tiansmittei T. A
lineai ielationship exists between the diffeience in lengths, o, of two ieecting paths foi an adjacent paii
of ieceiveis and the object inclinations.
In Figuie 8.17 (|), the ielationship between the inclination of the taiget suiface and o is shown. It can
be obseived that the measuiing iange of the sensoi can be enlaiged with an inciease in the numbei of
ieceiveis. In 29], it is also shown that the measuiing iange can be enlaiged by ieducing R. Howevei, it
was noted that measuiements caiiied out with a small sensoi aie potentially less accuiate.
Expeiimental iesults using a tiansducei with six (R 30 mm) and eight (R 20 mm) ieceiveis weie
iepoited in 29]. With the six-ieceivei tiansducei, the measuiing iange of the oiientation angles was
15; while foi the eight-ieceivei tiansducei, the maximum measuiing iange was 30. With the six-
ieceivei tiansducei, the oiientation angle could be deteimined with an accuiacy of 0.5, in the measuiing
iange of 15, and 0.2 when the iange was iestiicted to 5.
One of the majoi disadvantages of ultiasonic pioximity sensois is that they aie ielatively laige in size.
Howevei, implementing these sensois using miciomachining could solve this pioblem. In 7], the gen-
eiation and detection of ultiasound, foi pioximity sensing, was investigated using miciomachined ies-
onant membiane stiuctuies.
Magnetic Sensurs
A magnetic-type sensoi cieates an alteinating magnetic feld, whose vaiiation piovides infoimation about
the object`s position.
The simplest magnetic sensois aie ieed micioswitches oi Hall effect switches. Howevei, the most
commonly used sensois in iobotics aie based on the electiomagnetic inductive piinciple, emphasizing
FIGURE 8.17 (a) Confguiation of the ultiasonic sensoi and (|) suiface inclination veisus o.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
eddy cuiient geneiation. The basic piinciple consists of cieating a magnetic feld using appiopiiate coils
aiound a coie with high peimeability and an oscillatoi with a fiequency excitation high enough to
minimize the penetiation of the feld inside a conductive mateiial. The main pioblems with magnetic
sensois aie theii high size/iange iatio and diffculty in pioviding ieliable distance measuiements in
vaiying magnetic enviionments.
Acknuv!edgments
The authois would like to thank Maitin Boneit foi caieful ieview and ciitique of this chaptei. We also
acknowledge the fnancial suppoit of Natuial Sciences and Engineeiing Reseaich Council of Canada.
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