Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363

School climate factors relating to teacher burnout:

A mediator model
Jessica L. Grayson

, Heather K. Alvarez
Department of Psychology, Porter Hall 200, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701-2979, USA
Received 26 January 2007; received in revised form 4 June 2007; accepted 7 June 2007
Abstract
The present study investigated components of school climate (i.e. parent/community relations, administration, student
behavioral values) and assessed their inuence on the core burnout dimensions of Emotional Exhaustion,
Depersonalization, and feelings of low Personal Accomplishment. The study weighed the relative contributions of
demographic factors (i.e. gender, age, years of teaching experience), teacher satisfaction, and teacher-rated school climate
that predict resultant levels of teacher stress and burnout from 17 rural schools in southeastern Ohio. Results revealed that
different aspects of school climate related to each of the three primary burnout dimensions. Further, the inverse
relationship between school climate and burnout was mediated by teacher satisfaction levels for both Emotional
Exhaustion and Depersonalization dimensions. Results from the present study may be used in the development of future
intervention targets for reducing teacher stress and burnout.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Teachers; Occupational stress; School environment
1. Literature review
As evidenced by an extant literature base, those
in human service professions are at highest risk
for occupational burnout. Applied to the eld of
education, McGuire (1979) rst warned that public
school teachers were experiencing a signicant
degree of burnout. Since that time, teachers report
primary concerns that are closely linked to burnout,
such as lack of support and poor working condi-
tions (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2005). This
is a critical issue as teacher stressors are related to
high turnover in the profession. Further, teacher
stress levels exert a signicant contribution to the
psychological climate within the school. Under-
standing the causal and mediating factors involved
in teacher burnout is an important endeavor for
identifying and developing effective intervention
strategies.
The aims of the present study were to gain further
understanding on the most prominent aspects of
school climate that relate to the three dimensions of
teacher burnout, namely Emotional Exhaustion,
Depersonalization, and Personal Accomplishment.
That is, the study will address the question of which
of the subfactors of school climate (i.e. studentpeer
relations, instructional management in the school,
ARTICLE IN PRESS
www.elsevier.com/locate/tate
0742-051X/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tate.2007.06.005

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 740 597 2565;

fax: +1 740 593 0579.
E-mail addresses: jg238305@ohio.edu (J.L. Grayson),
alvarez@ohio.edu (H.K. Alvarez).
teacherstudent relations, etc.) are most relevant for
predicting each dimension of burnout. Further, the
present study intends to examine the mediating role
of teacher satisfaction as a process or mechanism by
which to explain the relationship between positive
school climate and lower levels of teacher burnout.
As such, a number of environmental factors within
the school climate were investigated as possible
stressors for educators, and further analysis was
used to determine the additional inuence of teacher
satisfaction. By assessing both personal and envir-
onmental factors, information on etiological factors
that impact teacher burnout was gained.
1.1. Burnout: phenomenology and consequences
Originally, Maslach and Jackson (1981) dened
burnout as a syndrome of Emotional Exhaustion,
Depersonalization, and reduced Personal Accom-
plishment. Emotional Exhaustion occurs when
teachers are unable to physically and emotionally
provide for students due to overwhelming feelings
of fatigue and stress (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter,
1996). Teachers who are experiencing Emotional
Exhaustion often describe it as a tired feeling that
develops over time as ones emotional resources are
drained. Depersonalization includes cynical atti-
tudes toward students, parents, and the workplace.
In turn, indifferent, cold, or distant attitudes are
displayed through generalizing, derogatory labels,
or physically distancing actions. Finally, diminished
feelings of Personal Accomplishment are found
when educators feel as though they are no longer
contributing to students development (Maslach et
al., 1996). This is especially pertinent to the teaching
profession given that most educators do not enter
their eld for nancial gain, but instead they strive
to make a positive difference in childrens lives
(Schwab, 2001). Overall, teachers may be faced with
a host of occupational stressors during the course of
their workday. Extant research has provided insight
regarding the factors that may lead to specic
manifestations of behavioral and emotional stress
reactions (Blase , 1982; Evers, Tomic, & Brouwers,
2004; Hock, 1988).
Not surprisingly, the problem of burnout among
educators has costly consequences for both the
teacher and those with whom she/he works, includ-
ing emotional, attitudinal, and physical exhaustion.
Individual consequences of burnout include physio-
logical, psychological, and psychosocial problems.
For example, evidence has linked burnout to lack of
self-condence, low self-esteem, and clinically sig-
nicant depressive symptoms (Schonfeld, 2001). In
addition, individuals who feel particularly ineffec-
tive report low job satisfaction accompanied by
resentment, frustration, boredom, irritability, anger,
and helplessness (Blase , 1982). Burnout can further
lead to psychopathology and deterioration in social
and family relations (Cano-Garcia, Padilla-Munoz,
& Carrasco-Ortiz, 2005). Physical well-being can
also suffer as a result of burnout among teachers.
Most commonly reported symptoms include head-
ache, frequent colds, and u, but consequences as
serious as cardiovascular symptoms have been
linked to burnout as well (e.g. Hock, 1988;
Schonfeld, 2001).
In addition to the personal ramications resulting
from burnout, substantial costs are also incurred by
the school including increased teacher absenteeism,
turnover, career change, mental health and medical
claims, deteriorating performance and early retire-
ment (Burke, Greenglass, & Schwarzer, 1996;
Leithwood, Menzies, Jantzi, & Leithwood, 1999).
Further, teachers who are burned out may have
reduced tolerance for classroom behavior problems.
For example, Kokkinos, Panayiotou, and Davazoglou
(2005) used survey data to assess whether burnout
was linked to the perceived severity of 24 undesir-
able student behaviors among teachers. Results
showed a signicant association between burnout
and the ratings of antisocial and oppositional
student behaviors, suggesting that as teachers
experience higher degrees of stress, they are less
tolerant of aversive and challenging students. In
turn, teacher negativity may create a cycle in which
student behavior problems are then exacerbated,
further strengthening the bi-directional aversive
relationships between teachers and students. As
evidenced, when teachers experience burnout, stu-
dents, coworkers, and the entire school community
is ultimately affected.
1.2. Individual-level predictors of burnout
A number of individual characteristics have been
studied as they relate to teacher burnout. Gender
is one such factor that differentiates patterns of
burnout characteristics, wherein men generally
score higher on Depersonalization across all grade
levels (e.g. Lau, Yuen, & Chan, 2005), as well as
report more negative attitudes toward students
(Schwab & Iwanicki, 1982). Further, females
reported higher Emotional Exhaustion and reduced
ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.L. Grayson, H.K. Alvarez / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363 1350
Personal Accomplishment scores (Lau et al., 2005).
Studies investigating age and teaching experience as
factors relating to burnout have been largely
inconsistent, particularly when the investigations
have spanned across different communities and
cultures. For instance, despite disparate ndings
regarding the role of age in predicting burnout
among public school teachers in the United States
(e.g. Anderson & Iwanicki, 1984; Byrne, 1991;
Maslach & Jackson, 1981; Schwab, Jackson, &
Schuler, 1986), a recent study among Hong Kong
educators showed that teachers in the youngest age
group were signicantly more burned out than their
older colleagues (Lau et al., 2005).
The risk of burnout is greatly increased by
teachers having perceptions of unmet or unrealistic
goals and a lack of development of professional
accomplishment (Evers et al., 2004). With these
feelings come increased levels of emotional exhaus-
tion, negative attitudes toward students, negative
affectivity, low self-actualization, and a loss of
professional efcacy (Schonfeld, 2001; Tatar &
Horenczyk, 2003). These negative reactions are
associated with decreased quality of teaching, less
exibility and acceptance with regard to various
student needs, and poorer overall teacherstudent
interactions (Capel, 1991). Researchers have found
that student behavior and discipline problems (e.g.
verbal disrespect, violence) are the primary reasons
cited for teacher stress and burnout (Burke et al.,
1996; Friedman, 1995). As such, there is a need to
further explore the relation between heightened
stress and perceptions of, as well as reactions to,
children with aggressive behavior problems.
1.3. Contextual factors impacting burnout
Recent research also supports the role of the
context and school environmental issues in trigger-
ing burnout reactions among teachers, by either
facilitating or inhibiting an individuals emotional
or attitudinal characteristics (Cano-Garcia et al.,
2005). This has been informed by the work of
Bronfenbrenner (1974) who places importance on
the broader social, institutional, and cultural con-
texts of peopleenvironment relations. Brofenbren-
ners Social Ecological Model has been expanded to
inform a wide range of clinical research studies in
areas of health and medicine (e.g. Bull, Eakin,
Reeves, & Riley, 2006; Whittemore, Melkus, &
Grey, 2004) and has been more recently extended to
the schools. For instance, Birnbaum, Lytle, Perry,
Murray, and Story (2003) tested multiple school-
level indicators to determine the effectiveness of a
healthy eating habits promotion. As a basis for the
present study, and to explain the importance of
including factors at multiple levels, the Social
Ecological Model is a useful guide to understand
the importance of including variables within the
school environment as well as individual traits
(Stokols, 2000).
Certainly, more proximal or salient school
factors, such as common student issues, which are
extending from the environment, are thought to
directly inuence teacher stress. Indeed, Friedman
(1995) revealed that typical student misbehaviors
including disrespect and inattentiveness accounted
for 22% of the variance in predicting teacher
burnout across all grade levels. Adding to the stress
of dealing with disruptive students, the teaching
occupation as a whole has become increasingly
stressful due to work overload, poor career struc-
ture, and low salaries (Schonfeld, 2001). As an
example, data from the Ohio Department of
Education (2004) suggest that 78% of teachers
decide to leave the profession each year, largely due
to dissatisfaction with their workplace. Though
environmental factors have been closely scrutinized,
studies to date have not employed a high degree of
specicity regarding the separate components of
teachers negative stress reactions.
As guided by the Social Ecological Model,
burnout may be indirectly affected by an even more
distal hierarchy of organizational factors, ranging
from power struggles with school administration to
federal laws impacting teacher responsibilities. For
example, many school managerial structures lack
opportunities for communication and interchange
among staff as well as adequate support for teachers
in particular (Hepburn & Brown, 2001). Teachers
may feel that poor administrator decision-making
results in consequences such as time constraints,
unreasonable paperwork deadlines, and inspection
regimes in their classes. Further, the policies that
affect the school also affect the teacher. The federal
government has become more involved in policy
formation, as education problems have been
brought into the political realm with increasing
government intervention, such as the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of
2004 (Hepburn & Brown, 2001). Because teachers
are so closely linked to the school environment, it is
likely that legislative pressures exert further strain
on their occupation.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.L. Grayson, H.K. Alvarez / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363 1351
Finally, because educators roles are organized by
district and school administrators, the work envir-
onment is based primarily at a systems level, and
therefore may be less amenable to individual coping
efforts (Schwab, 2001). For example, school-wide
causes of burnout such as increased administrative
pressure to improve standardized test scores or
widespread peer violence are less amenable to a
teachers individual efforts to ameliorate the stres-
sor on his/her own. Instead, a school-wide approach
to reduce such stressors and/or their resultant
effects on teacher stress may be necessary to
decrease burnout levels. Though individual factors
may vary, organizational factors contribute heavily
to teacher stress at all levels of the education system
(Byrne, 1991). Ultimately, emotionally and physi-
cally healthy teachers exist in environments where
the school system and middle management work
diligently to enhance self-actualization and esteem
in their teachers.
1.4. The present study
Although extant research has highlighted the
importance of considering both individual and
environmental stressors as predictors of teacher
burnout, the present study added an important layer
of detail to this research by distinguishing between
conceptually different sources of stress. A compre-
hensive assessment of a variety of school climate
factors, teacher satisfaction, and teacher burnout
allowed for more specic predictions to be tested. In
doing so, the rst goal was to identify the most
salient occupational stressors within the school
climate as they relate to each of the three dimen-
sions of burnout. By investigating a number of
school climate subfactors, clear trends revealed
differential aspects of the school climate that
uniquely affect Emotional Exhaustion, Depersona-
lization, and Personal Accomplishment. In this, the
most toxic combinations of stressors that may be
targeted for teachers experiencing certain emotional
reactions to their work environment were identied.
Second, as it is well understood that the environ-
ment itself may be experienced quite differently
from one teacher to another, the investigation
sought to consider the mediating role of teacher
satisfaction within the school context (or as it relates
to these specic climate factors) in the prediction of
burnout. In other words, teachers who are more
personally affected by existing environmental con-
ditions within the school may be at greater risk for
negative emotional reactions to those conditions
such as burnout. Although past studies have
focused on the factor structure of teacher burnout
(e.g. Aluja, Blanch, & Garcia, 2005) and have
investigated the effects of environmental and
occupational factors that may account for differ-
ences in burnout levels (e.g. Friedman, 1995), the
present study is an important extension of this
work. By more clearly understanding the risk and
maintenance factors that are affecting Emotional
Exhaustion, Depersonalization, and Personal Ac-
complishment among teachers, more effective and
tailored interventions may be developed to combat
burnout.
2. Methods
2.1. Subjects
Participants included 320 professionals from 17
public schools in rural southeastern Ohio. Speci-
cally, 64.8% of respondents (N 206) were regular
classroom teachers, 14.2% (N 45) were special
education classroom teachers, 20.6% (N 66) were
classied as other (e.g. music teacher, art teacher,
librarian, teacher aide, paraprofessional), and 0.3%
(N 1) were one-on-one assistants. Of note, there
were no signicant differences in burnout depen-
dant on ones role in school (Emotional Exhaustion
F(2,299) .816, p ns; Personal Accomplishment
F(2,167) .838, p ns; Depersonalization F(3,298)
.151, p ns). The sample consisted of 73.8% female
teachers, and the mean age was 42.34 (SD 11.59).
Almost 99% of the respondents (N 312) identied
themselves as Caucasian, whereas only one indivi-
dual fell in each of the other demographic racial
categories including African American, American
Indian/Alaskan native, bi/multiracial, Hispanic, or
other. Of participants who reported their marital
status, 70.9% reported that they were married,
10.7% were divorced or remarried, and 14.1% were
single. The mean annual household income was
$64,000 (SD $60,000) but ranged from $7000 to
$200,000. Teachers from all grades were included in
the sample. Specically, the sample consisted of
13.0% kindergarten educators, 24.1% ninth-grade
teachers, and between 5% and 10% of the sample
falling in each of the other grades. The lowest
responses came from 10th-, 11th-, and 12th-grade
high-school instructors with 4.3%, 2.7%, and 0.7%,
respectively.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.L. Grayson, H.K. Alvarez / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363 1352
2.2. Instruments
Demographic Questionnaire: A demographic
questionnaire was designed by the author to assess
participants current demographic information (e.g.
gender, race, age), occupational experience (e.g.
highest educational degree achieved, years of teach-
ing experience), and current role in school.
Comprehensive Assessment of School Environment
(CASE): The CASE instruments used in the present
study include both the Teacher Satisfaction Scale
(TSS) and the Teacher Climate Measure (TCM).
The TCM measure follows a 5-point Likert scoring
format (1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree,
and 6 dont know) to the statements presented,
while the TSS measures the degree of satisfaction
with each item (1 very dissatised to 5 very
satised). Thus, the TCM is a teachers report of the
general perceptions of most people in the school or
community regarding the various aspects of the
school environment, while the TSS is a teacher-
report measure of personal levels of satisfaction
with the school. Scores are converted to scaled T
scores, with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation
of 10. Though overall averages have not been used
by the NASSP, the present study computed the
average T scores of combined subscale scores for
those participants who completed all parts of the
measure. The technical manual provides scaled
descriptive statistics on normative samples of tea-
cher-reported satisfaction (Halderson, Kelley, Keefe,
& Berge, 2001).
The TSS denes satisfaction as the personal,
affective response of an individual to a specic
situation or condition. The TSS consists of 56 items
and collects self-report data on nine subscales:
administration, compensation, opportunities for
advancement, student responsibility and discipline,
curriculum and job tasks, co-workers, parents and
community, school buildings/supplies and mainte-
nance, and communication. For example, sample
items from the student responsibility and discipline
subscale include ranking satisfaction of the degree
of responsibility students show toward their school
assignments and the extent to which students are
motivated to learn. Other sample items from the
communication subscale include the ease with
which you can communicate with school adminis-
trators and the quality of information you receive
about policies and activities in the school or
district. Though studies investigating the validity
of this instrument are lacking, extensive factor
analysis reveals a distinct set of nine subscales.
Reliability coefcients ranged from .80 to .93, with
an average of .88. Both internal consistency
estimates of reliability as well as testretest coef-
cients were all above .72 (Halderson et al., 2001).
For the purposes of the research question and in the
interest of administration time both the and the
curriculum and job tasks subscales were removed
from the satisfaction survey, resulting in a total
of 44 items.
The TCM is a 55-item self-report measure that
assesses perceptions of the relatively enduring
characteristics of a particular school environment.
The TCM collects data on ten subscales: teacher
student relations, security and maintenance, admin-
istration, student academic orientation, student
behavioral values, guidance, studentpeer relation-
ships, parent and communityschool relationships,
instructional management, and student activities.
Sample items include most students would do their
work even if the teacher stepped out of the
classroom (student behavioral values subscale),
community attendance at school meetings and
programs is good (parent and community school
relationships subscale), and the administrators in
this school set high standards and let teachers,
students, and parents know what these standards
are (administration subscale). Construct validity
was developed and based on the Interactive Model
of the School Environment, resulting in the multi-
faceted nature of the instrument (Halderson et al.,
2001). Adequate reliability for the TCM was found,
including both testretest and internal consistency
coefcients (Cronbachs a) ranging from .79 to .87
across all 10 subscales (Halderson et al., 2001;
Roach & Kratochwill, 2004). For the purposes of
the present study, both the security/maintenance
and the guidance subscales were removed from the
climate survey, resulting in a total of 44 items.
The Maslach Burnout InventorEducators Survey
(MBI-ED; Maslach et al., 1996) was administered to
evaluate the severity of educator burnout among
participants. The 22-item scale assesses the fre-
quency of feelings and attitudes related to burnout
on a 7-point Likert scale, resulting in three different
dimensions (i.e. Emotional Exhaustion, Depersona-
lization, and Personal Accomplishment). All sub-
scale scores are calculated by summing items for
Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalization, or Per-
sonal Accomplishment, and values range from 0 to
54, 0 to 30, and 0 to 48, respectively. Higher scores
indicate more severe levels of burnout in Emotional
ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.L. Grayson, H.K. Alvarez / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363 1353
Exhaustion and Depersonalization; for Personal
Accomplishment, high subscale scores indicate high
feelings of personal accomplishment. A total MBI
score may also be obtained using a sum of Emo-
tional Exhaustion, Depersonalization, and reverse-
scored Personal Accomplishment items. Based on a
normative study of 4163 teachers from all grade
levels, Maslach et al. (1996) indicate high burnout
as scores greater than or equal to 27 on Emotional
Exhaustion, 14 or Depersonalization, and at or
below 35 on Personal Accomplishment. Also,
results revealed that the MBI-ED shows appro-
priate concurrent validity with the Teacher Stress
Inventory and predictive validity with regard to
general health questionnaires, such as the GHQ-28
(Ferrando & Perez, 1996). Conrmatory factor
analyses support the three-factor structure, recently
noting that it accounts for 43.4% of the variance
(Aluja et al., 2005). Similarly, internal consistency
as for the subtests ranged from .61 to .88.
Reliability assessment using Cronbach a coefcients
revealed .90, .79, and .71 for subfactors of Emo-
tional Exhaustion, Depersonalization, and Personal
Accomplishment, respectively. Testretest scores
were between .80 and .85 for all three subtests. In
the present study, Cronbach a coefcients were .88,
.80, and .64 for Emotional Exhaustion, Personal
Accomplishment, and Depersonalization subscales,
respectively.
2.3. Procedure
As part of the recruitment process, letters were
mailed to superintendents and principals of ve
school districts in rural southeastern Ohio. Across
the districts, 17 schools agreed to participate in the
study. After rst receiving verbal commitments
from superintendents and principals, the precise
means of survey administration was decided by each
school principal. Some opted for a brief summary of
the study to be presented to teachers at either staff
meetings or in-service days, followed by adminis-
tration of surveys to be returned at the teachers
convenience. Alternatively, teachers in other schools
received anonymous survey packets in their mail-
boxes with an explanation from their school
principal during staff meetings. Across all surveys,
each teacher received explicit instructions on the
cover page of their survey. A total of 530 surveys
were dispersed to teachers; 320 (60.38%) of these
surveys were completed and returned. The battery
of questionnaires took about 20 min to complete. A
monetary incentive of $2 was also incorporated in
their packet of measures. This procedure was based
on the work of Szelenyi, Bryant, and Lindholm
(2005), who found that prepaid monetary incentives
of $2 enhanced response rates, substantially more so
than $5 incentives obtained post-response. Indivi-
dual teachers were asked to anonymously ll out
their surveys and return them in a pre-stamped
envelope.
2.4. Data analysis
Data analyses were conducted using SPSS-14
software. First, descriptive statistics were computed
regarding sample demographics and intercorrela-
tions between variables. Stepwise linear regression
procedures were used to procure specic TCM
subscales that were most predictive of each burnout
dimension. As such, results from this test represent
the variable/s with the largest amount of variance
accounted for in the dependent factor.
Regarding the nal mediator model, because
initial bivariate correlations revealed signicant
relationships between the selected predictive climate
subfactors and burnout dimensions, hierarchical
regression analyses were deemed appropriate as a
test of mediation. In this, regression analysis
involved entering the TCM variable into the
regression equation in the rst step, and adding
the TSS total score to the regression equation as the
second step. Post-hoc probing using Sobels test
of signicance was then used to determine whether
the drop in the total effect was signicant when
the mediator entered the model (Preacher & Hayes,
2004).
3. Results
Descriptive analyses of each independent and
dependent variable used in the study were con-
ducted (see Table 1). Scores on the MBI-ED total,
Depersonalization, and Personal Accomplishment
were skewed such that respondents reported lower
levels of total burnout and Depersonalization and
higher levels of Personal Accomplishment than
comparable samples (i.e. Ferrando & Perez, 1996,
N 1474; Gold, Bachelor, & Michael, 1989,
N 147; Maslach et al., 1996). Also, a number of
climate subfactors were skewed, such that scores on
teacherstudent relations, studentpeer relation-
ships, and student activities were generally higher
and scores on administration were lower than those
ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.L. Grayson, H.K. Alvarez / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363 1354
from the national normative sample on which the
measures were based (Halderson et al., 2001).
Among demographic variables associated with
factors, gender differences were observed, whereby
females rated the climate subfactor of student
academic orientation higher than males, t (276)
2.91, po.01. Regarding burnout, females displayed
signicantly higher scores on the Emotional Ex-
haustion subscale, t (299) 2.91, po.01. Household
income level was positively related to teacher-rated
climate subfactors of studentpeer relationships
(r .21, p, .01), parent and community relations
(r .26, po.01), student behavioral values (r .26,
po.01), and total TCM ratings (r .23, po.01),
indicating that as respondents income levels in-
creased, so did their ratings of positive school
climate. There were no signicant differences by
age, degree level, teaching experience, or marital
status across measures.
Table 2 displays a number of correlations
between study measures, as a basis for subsequent
analyses. First, in focusing on the rst goal of the
study, stepwise regression analyses were conducted
to ascertain the most salient and predictive aspects
of school climate affecting Emotional Exhaustion,
Depersonalization, and Personal Accomplishment.
Following this, mediation analyses were conducted
to determine whether teacher satisfaction was the
process by which school climate factors affected
teacher burnout, referring to the second aim of the
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 1
Descriptive statistics for measures
Variable N Mean SD Sample range Skew SE
TCM total 195 46.04 6.27 31.1365.00 .164 .174
Teacherstudent relations 294 55.99 7.96 26.0070.00 .462 .142
a
Administration 293 48.37 13.03 15.00112.00 .867 .142
a
Student academic orientation 281 39.65 12.33 4.0075.00 .245 .125
Student behavioral values 294 47.03 10.10 24.0067.00 .080 .142
Studentpeer relationships 291 47.27 9.23 13.0068.00 .732 .143
a
Parent/community 282 40.77 11.33 16.0069.00 .011 .145
Instructional management 266 43.93 10.33 16.0069.00 .169 .149
Student activities 285 49.35 9.35 23.0066.00 .343 .144
a
TSS total 205 45.65 7.02 30.2967.71 .046 .170
MBI total 163 32.84 15.32 4.0079.00 .574 .190
a
Emotional Exhaustion 304 22.94 10.54 .0052.00 .219 .140
Personal Accomplishment 172 37.84 7.03 13.0048.00 .1077 .143
a
Depersonalization 304 5.71 5.00 .0025.00 1.027 .140
a
a
Signicantly skewed distribution. TCM and TSS are normed as T-scores, with a mean of 50 and standard deviation of 10.
Table 2
Two-tailed correlations between TCM total and subfactor ratings, MBI dimensions, and TSS
TCM
total
Teacher
student
relations
Administration Student
academic
orientation
Student
behavioral
values
Student
peer
relations
Parent and
community
relations
Instructional
management
Student
activities
MBI total .371
a
.167
a
.108 .194
b
.277
a
.334
a
.243
a
.288
a
.115
Emotional
exhaustion
.325
a
.142
a
.061 .117 .260
a
.319
a
.215
a
.198
a
.183
a
Personal
accomplishment
.294
a
.220
a
.049 .258
a
.251
a
.293
a
.081 .220
a
.131
b
Depersonalization .359
a
.233
a
.189
a
.254
a
.228
a
.278
a
.138
a
.162
a
.185
a
TSS total .672
a
.364
a
.108 .194
b
.277
a
.334
a
.243
a
.288
a
.115
a
Signicant at the po.01 level.
b
Signicant at the po.05 level.
J.L. Grayson, H.K. Alvarez / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363 1355
study. To begin, results from the stepwise regression
for Emotional Exhaustion reveal the combination
of studentpeer relationships and parent and com-
munity result in an R
2
value of .127. Further, the
relationships for both studentpeer relations and
parent/community factors with Emotional Exhaus-
tion were signicantly mediated by TSS, Sobel
.375, po.01 and Sobel 4.44, po.01, respec-
tively (see Table 3). In other words, the climate
components of studentpeer relations and parent/
community relations produced the combination that
accounted for the most variance in Emotional
Exhaustion. This relationship was strengthened
by the addition of teacher satisfaction to the
model as well. Thus, teacher satisfaction serves to
explain one mechanism or process by which
studentpeer relations and parent/community relations
climate factors are related to Emotional Exhaustion
(see Fig. 1).
For Personal Accomplishment, instructional
management was the strongest predictor, with an
R
2
value of .065, though this relationship was not
signicantly mediated by TSS, Sobel ns (see
Table 4). This suggests that instructional manage-
ment accounted for the most variance in teacher-
rated feelings of Personal Accomplishment. Those
teachers with more favorable ratings of school
climate regarding instructional management (i.e.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 3
Summary of hierarchical linear regression predicting emotional exhaustion
DV: MBI EE
a
b SE b Sig. R
2
DR
2
(i) Student peer relations
Step 1 .015 .015
Gender 3.134 1.893 .121 .099
Step 2 .121 .106
Gender 3.796 1.798 .146 .036
Studentpeer relations .388 .082 .328 .000
Step 3 .196 .075
Gender 2.295 1.761 .088 .194
Studentpeer relations .227 .088 .1921 .010
TSS Total .463 .112 .310 .000
(ii) Parent and community
Step 1 .015 .015
Gender 3.141 1.906 .121 .101
Step 1 .076 .061
Gender 2.979 1.852 .115 .109
Parent and community .233 .067 .248 .001
Step 2 .168 .092
Gender 1.642 1.786 .063 .359
Parent and community .058 .075 .062 .439
TSS total .539 .120 .361 .000
Note: Each predictor entered as a separate step.
a
DV MBI Emotional Exhaustion scale. Missing variables were handled in a missing listwise fashion, therefore, N
i
. 188 and
N
ii
185.
0.422
a
/ 0.521
b
-0.328
a
/ -0.248
b
-0.396
TSS: Teacher Satisfaction
TCM: Student Peer Relations
a
TCM: Parent and Community
b
MBI: Emotional Exhaustion
Fig. 1. Standardized bs depicting mediator relationship between TCM school climate factors, Teacher Satisfaction, and Emotional
Exhaustion. Note: Subscripts represent two separate mediator analyses.
J.L. Grayson, H.K. Alvarez / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363 1356
believed there were clear rules for students to
follow, spend most of their time in classroom
learning activities, and encounter few outside
interruptions) were likely to feel more Personal
Accomplishment and teaching efcacy.
Finally, for Depersonalization, student academic
orientation, teacherstudent relations, and admin-
istration factors resulted in a cumulative R
2
value of
.140. Further, this relationship was signicantly
mediated by TSS, Sobel 2.61, po.01, Sobel
2.57, po.01, and Sobel 2.94, po.01, respec-
tively (see Table 5). In other words, the combination
of student academic orientation, teacherstudent
relations, and administration produced a group of
school climate factors that were most predictive of
Depersonalization, as mediated by teacher satisfac-
tion. Teacher satisfaction therefore appears to
represent the process by which these factors of
school climate ultimately inuence the teachers
level of perceived Depersonalization (see Fig. 2).
4. Discussion
The present study sought to examine school-level
stressors as they relate to the three primary
dimensions of teacher burnout. Generally, teachers
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 5
Summary of hierarchical linear regression predicting depersonalization
DV: MBI DP
a
b SE b Sig. R
2
DR
2
(i) Student teacher relations
Step 1 .054 .054
Studentteacher relations .147 .044 .233 .001
Step 2 .112 .058
Studentteacher relations .105 .045 .167 .020
TSS total .178 .051 .249 .001
(ii) Student academic orientation
Step 1 .064 .064
Student acad. orientation .103 .029 .254 .001
Step 2 .104 .039
Student acad. orientation .060 .032 .149 .064
TSS total .160 .057 .224 .006
(iii) Administration
Step 1 .036 .036
Administration .073 .027 .189 .009
Step 2 .094 .058
Administration .036 .029 .095 .203
TSS total .185 .053 .259 .001
Note: Each predictor entered as a separate step.
a
DV MBI Depersonalization scale.
Table 4
Summary of hierarchical linear regression predicting Personal Accomplishment
DV: MBI PA
a
b SE b Sig. R
2
DR
2
Instructional management
Step 1 .049 .049
Instructional management .150 .049 .220 .002
Step 2 .063 .014
Instructional management .105 .055 .155 .058
TSS total .136 .081 .136 .096
Note: Each predictor entered as a separate step.
a
DV MBI Personal Accomplishment scale.
J.L. Grayson, H.K. Alvarez / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363 1357
in the sample reported lower levels of burnout than
in comparable studies (e.g. Ferrando & Perez, 1996;
Gold et al., 1989; Maslach et al., 1996). Still, specic
factors of school climate were strongly associated
with differential burnout dimensions. Data from
this and further investigations may inform future
intervention strategies targeting teacher stressors
and the negative personal and professional after-
effects of burnout experiences. In reviewing results,
rst, the distinct burnout dimensions will be
introduced as specic school climate subfactors
uniquely impact each. Subsequent to this, the
mediating role of teacher satisfaction in under-
standing burnout will be reviewed, and nally a
discussion of limitations and implications will
follow.
4.1. Dimensions of burnout
Results from the present study support the
premise that burnout consists of separate dimen-
sions that each differentially relate to specic
aspects of school climate (see Table 2). This
distinction of burnout as multifaceted is consistent
with the validation of the MBI as well as a
multitude of studies that use the MBI in educational
settings (i.e. Aluja et al., 2005; Ferrando & Perez,
1996; Gold et al., 1989; Maslach et al., 1996). For
instance, in their study of over 200 secondary school
teachers, Brouwers and Tomic (2000) used a long-
itudinal design and structural equation modeling to
test a model by which Emotional Exhaustion
predicts self-efcacy, which in turn affects Personal
Accomplishment and Depersonalization. In this
regard, Brouwers and Tomic (as well as others)
have suggested that Emotional Exhaustion may be a
core component, and rst evidence, of experienced
burnout. Indeed, in the present study, Emotional
Exhaustion was the strongest contributor to total
burnout scores, followed by Depersonalization and
Personal Accomplishment. These ndings clearly
reveal a need for further specicity in assessing
teacher stressors affecting different emotional reactions,
and may be used to inform interventions in the
future.
Next, a discussion and review of predictive
climate and individual characteristics of the three
domains of burnout will be explored. The rst
component of burnout, Emotional Exhaustion,
was closely associated with the climate factors
of parent/community relations and studentpeer
relations, aspects that relate directly to working
with students and families within the school
environment. Parent/community relationships
were assessed by questions determining whether
teachers believed that other key gures in students
lives were supportive of the school programs and
invested in the children. Given that teachers are
the frontline mediators between parents and the
school, this likely leads to further role strain.
Especially if parent and community support is poor,
teachers may become exhausted and overwhelmed
with the task of aiding childrens development. For
instance, the advent of school-based mental health
services may have produced additional burdens for
teachers to provide for students socialemotional
health as well as their academic needs, especially
given the increases in students with severe behavior-
al and emotional needs in the regular classroom
with the advent of mainstreaming (Burns, Costello,
& Angold, 1995). Similarly, studentpeer relation-
ships measured the degree to which students care
for and respect one another and feel a sense of
belonging at the school. This nding parallels past
literature positing tht student stressors exert a
critical toll on teachers (e.g. Burke & Greenglass,
1996; Friedman, 1995; Kokkinos et al., 2005;
Kuzsman & Schnall, 1987).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
0.267
a
/ 0.467
b
/ 0.364
c
-0.294
-0.233
a
/ -0.254
b
/ -0.189
c
TSS: Teacher Satisfaction
TCM: Student Teacher Relations
a
TCM: Student Academic Orientation
b
TCM: Administration
c
MBI: Depersonalization
Fig. 2. Standardized bs depicting mediator relationship between TCM school climate factors, Teacher Satisfaction, and Depersonaliza-
tion. Note: Subscripts represent three separate mediator analyses.
J.L. Grayson, H.K. Alvarez / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363 1358
Extending from these results, women were also
more likely than men to report Emotional Exhaus-
tion, again closely relating to past ndings (e.g. Lau
et al., 2005) and prior theoretical underpinnings
of the female role in society (Byrne, 1991). One
interpretation states that many women are still
responsible for both emotional and physical needs
of their family, and female teachers may feel
required to express emotional investment through
a double dose of caring both in the school
and in the home, leading to extensive emotional
exhaustion (Byrne, 1991, p. 205). Certainly, the
propensity for this social role characteristic remains
a concern when dealing with stress. In turn,
interventions may be adapted to address this
concern with more open dialogue regarding female
teachers perspectives on this issue and ideas for
helping to ameliorate stressors. Certainly, this is
only one plausible explanation; further research
studies with more focus on gender may further
elucidate the mechanisms by which this gender
difference emerges.
Second, with regard to Personal Accomplish-
ment, the instructional management component of
the school climate was most closely related. This
component was comprised of (a) the amount of
clearly delineated sets of rules for students in the
school, (b) degree of classroom time devoted to
learning activities, and (c) the extent of outside
interruptions. With increased value the school
places on the amount of quality time provided for
class work and learning activities and fewer inter-
ruptions due to administrative tasks and outside
interferences, teacher-rated feelings of efcacy and
personal accomplishment also tend to positively
increase. That is, those teachers who feel they are
able to devote a majority of classroom time to
learning and have few interruptions are likely to
report higher feelings of Personal Accomplishment
in their occupations. This nding parallels the
increasing role demands placed on teachers outside
of direct academic instruction, such as management
of Individual Education Plans and mental health
programming for students. Further, the strain
exerted by current legislative demands for district-
wide academic reports is directly felt by educators
(Hepburn & Brown, 2001; Woodrum, 2005). In
applying the information gained from these results,
it may be worthwhile to re-evaluate school policies
such as those that deal with the amount of paper-
work and extra duties for teachers, and decrease
demands by increasing paraprofessionals in the
buildings. By increasing the amount of time and
resources for teachers to focus their attention on
learning activities, teachers are likely to experience
higher levels of personal accomplishment.
Finally, factors related to teacher relationships
with other members of the school system (including
both students and administration) related most
closely with the Depersonalization subfactor. Re-
sults revealed that the three most predictive school
climate components affecting educator cynicism
were teacherstudent relations, student academic
orientation, and administration. The teacherstu-
dent relationship is based upon the amount of
positive interactions shared between the two in-
dividuals as well as the degree of alignment in values
and goals with regard to education. Thus, the
teacherstudent relations factor measured such
concepts as fairness with students, extra effort
offered by teachers, and willingness to understand
and meet the needs of each student. Student
academic orientation included questions regarding
student interest in learning, willingness to work
hard on their assignments, and understanding why
they are in school. Logically, students with a
studious and driven focus on academics are more
likely to bi-directionally affect teachers in a
positively way than those who are uninterested
and preoccupied with issues outside of the class-
room. Those teachers who are able to keep positive
relations with their pupils are also more likely to
remain motivated, enthusiastic, and enjoy their
workplace. This nding aligns with supportive
literature regarding student misbehavior (e.g. dis-
respect, violence, and challenging the teachers
authority) as signicantly associated with teacher
stress and burnout (Byrne, 1991; Friedman, 1995;
Kokkinos et al., 2005).
Similarly, the teacheradministrator relationship
is an important contributor to teachers feelings of
connectedness to the system in which the adminis-
trator serves as leadership. Not surprisingly, re-
search shows that teachers who are satised with the
decisions and degree of support provided by school
administrators show more positive attitudes regard-
ing their occupation (Hepburn & Brown, 2001;
Schwab, 2001). In light of these ndings, future
studies may test interventions focused on improving
teacher relations within the school building in order
to promote a sense of connectedness with the goals
and values of their occupational expectations,
school district leadership, and community of stu-
dents with whom they work.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.L. Grayson, H.K. Alvarez / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363 1359
4.2. Mediating role of teacher satisfaction
Although a negative school climate can set the
stage for increased stress and burnout among every
individual within the system, each teacher also has a
unique set of needs and resources that will inuence
the degree to which he/she is affected by this
climate. For example, those teachers who are highly
content with the support from parents and commu-
nity members in the area may have lesser reactions
to negative stressors in their work climates, such as
poor student attitudes. As such, the current
investigation sought to examine whether teacher
satisfaction as it related to various school climate
characteristics would serve as a mediator to the
relationship between school climate components
and burnout. Results demonstrated partial support
for this mediator relationship. In particular, among
the current sample, teacher satisfaction signicantly
mediated the relationship between school climate
and both Emotional Exhaustion and Depersonali-
zation (see Tables 3 and 5). However, these patterns
did not hold when predicting variations in Personal
Accomplishment (see Table 4).
In further exploring these results, while Emo-
tional Exhaustion and Depersonalization may be
considered more central and inherent experiences
for the teacher, Personal Accomplishment may be
more inuenced by external, tangible events. With
the advent of No Child Left Behind legislature, for
instance, teachers are judged based on national
standardized examinations on which their students
are expected to pass (Woodrum, 2005). A teacher
may experience low feelings of personal accomplish-
ment if, for instance, his/her cohort of students do
not excel or fail these tests. External judgment
criteria, as such, may not be as amenable to the
mediating effects of personal teacher satisfaction
with his/her role.
Generally, as teacher satisfaction levels increase,
negative emotional reactions are less likely to occur
as a product of school climate factors. In turn,
interventions affecting school climate should also be
targeted at improving teachers satisfaction levels
within the workplace, in order to more comprehen-
sively address teacher stress. Thus, interventions
may include more personal components focused on
active coping or frequently praising teachers for
school accomplishments. Further, because the pre-
sent study collected data concurrently, there is a
likely potential for a bi-directional relationship
between climate and satisfaction. That is, a negative
school climate may decrease teacher satisfaction,
which in turn may lead to actions and behaviors
that further exacerbate the negativity in the school
climate. Certainly, future studies should focus on
longitudinal designs to more decisively understand
the nature of burnout predictors within the school
environment. Also, further directions include deli-
neation of predicting mechanisms for different
aspects of burnout, as well as tests of the interven-
tions that are best suited for targeted components.
4.3. Limitations
One potential limitation of the present study lies
within its dissemination method. Because variance
occurred with each school principals choice of how
to distribute the surveys to teachers, this may have
affected the rate of return and teachers attitudes
and motivation toward the measures. For instance,
those teachers whose administrators verbally sup-
ported the surveys and presented them in a manner
of encouragement and usefulness of potential results
may have been more likely to complete the measure
than those who received anonymous packets in their
school mailboxes. Trends revealed that greater
representation on the part of teachers occurred in
schools where the administrator took an active role
in disseminating the surveys. Future studies may
benet from determining reasons for lacking parti-
cipation on the part of teachers, noting also if a
more positively or negatively extreme subset of
individuals is more apt to respond. Also, the
anonymous nature of the surveys increased the
uncontrolled environment in which the survey was
completed. Therefore, situational variables, such as
time of day, place, life events, or mood may have
signicantly contributed to more positive or nega-
tive results. Finally, because the sample used in the
present study was from a limited geographic locale
in southeast Ohio, results require further replication
before broad generalizations may be appropriately
offered. For instance, a number of results from
southeast Ohio teachers on the measures of school
climate were skewed compared wiht national
normative samples. Also, the sample was nearly
homogeneous in terms of race, with Caucasian
respondents representing the majority of partici-
pants. Further studies with more diverse samples
may reveal other important relationships between
school climate and teacher burnout, differentially
related to the geographic and contextual factors
as well.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.L. Grayson, H.K. Alvarez / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363 1360
4.4. Educational implications
An understanding of factors that may play a role
in the development and exacerbation of burnout
among teachers is a valuable goal in the context of
school environments marked by increasing profes-
sional pressures and continued limited resources. In
particular, a focus on this school context may point
to targets of intervention that can have wide-
reaching effects for school staff. Importantly, the
relationship between school factors and burnout
may be especially important because of its propen-
sity for positive change. Organizational factors such
as school climate are more amenable to intervention
than characteristics within the community context
or individual demographic characteristics. For
instance, an acknowledgement of problems with
school climate may prompt the implementing of
behavior management strategies to support tea-
chers, developing staff leadership teams, and devel-
oping teacher in-service programs (Howard &
Johnson, 2004). Further research testing interven-
tions specically targeting the components of school
climate most highly related to teacher stress should
result in more positive experiences for teachers,
ultimately enhancing their teaching effectiveness
and job satisfaction. This rst includes fostering a
work environment where teachers may feel free to
disclose their stress to administrators as an im-
portant rst step in targeting and reducing teacher
burnout. Further interventions, based on the results
from the present study, may include school-wide
initiatives targeting student misbehavior and en-
couraging more collaborative relationships between
parents and teachers.
However, it is important to note that a change in
any system often requires shifts in philosophy,
allocation of resources, and training opportunities
for all members of that system. Unfortunately, these
are not typically afforded to schools, and particu-
larly to those that are facing the very stressors that
dispose teachers to higher burnout. As an example,
the current study demonstrated the inuence of
student behavior problems and teacherstudent
relations on burnout experiences. Although extant
research has demonstrated that effective school
interventions recognize and reinforce appropriate
student behavior to promote a positive classroom
climate (e.g. DuPaul & Eckert, 1997; Mayer, 1993),
many behavior management procedures tend to
be reactive, punitive, or control oriented (Furlong,
Morrison, & Pavlevski, 2000). Changes in class-
room management strategies and school policy
surrounding behavior management require a change
in beliefs about what constitutes effective discipline
and also adequate in-service training to successfully
engage in the new strategies. Because a small
minority of teacher pre-service training programs
in the United States offer coursework that teachers
classroom management techniques (Landau, 2001;
Wesley & Vocke, 1992), the burden falls on leader-
ship within school districts to provide these tools for
its staff. As highlighted in the current study, the
signicant emotional costs of school stressors such
as student behavior problems cannot be ignored.
4.5. Future directions
Together, the current ndings served as an initial
investigation of school factors that may inform
educational and clinical research efforts to better
address the needs of teachers across grade levels.
This work highlights the importance of this line of
research for those who work in many roles within
the educational system as well as point to a number
of future directions focusing on delineating the most
focal teacher stressors and improving the school
climate and work environment. An important rst
step in reducing teacher burnout involves the
development and dissemination of strategies across
the prevention continuum, which target both
individual and system-level needs that cause and/
or exacerbate stress reactions among teachers. In
this paper, different methods of teacher training and
technical assistance focused on non-academic topics
that may promote a more positive climate in which
to provide classroom instruction.
References
Alliance for Excellent Education. (2005). Teacher attrition: A
costly loss to the nation and to the states. /www.all4ed.orgS.
Aluja, A., Blanch, A., & Garcia, L. F. (2005). Dimensionality of
the Maslach Burnout Inventory in school teachers. European
Journal of Psychological Assessment, 21, 6776.
Anderson, M. B., & Iwanicki, E. F. (1984). Teacher motivation
and its relationship to burnout. Educational Administration
Quarterly, 20, 109132.
Birnbaum, A. S., Lytle, L. A., Perry, C. L., Murray, D., & Story,
M. (2003). Developing a school functioning index for middle
schools. Journal of School Health, 73, 232238.
Blase , J. J. (1982). A socialpsychological grounded theory of
teacher stress and burnout. Educational Administration
Quarterly, 18, 93113.
Brofenbrenner, U. (1974, June). Psychological costs of quality
and equality in education. Paper presented at the con-
ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.L. Grayson, H.K. Alvarez / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363 1361
ference on psychological factors on poverty, Madison,
Wisconsin.
Brouwers, A., & Tomic, W. (2000). A longitudinal study of
teacher burnout and perceived self-efcacy in classroom
management. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 239253.
Bull, S., Eakin, E., Reeves, M., & Riley, K. (2006). Multi-level
support for physical activity and healthy eating. Issues and
Innovations in Nursing Practice, 8, 585593.
Burke, R. J., & Greenglass, E. R. (1996). Work stress, social
support, psychological burnout and emotional and physical
well-being among teachers. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 1,
193205.
Burke, R. J., Greenglass, E. R., & Schwarzer, R. (1996).
Predicting teacher burnout over time: Effects of work stress,
social support, and self-doubts on burnout and its con-
sequences. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 9, 261275.
Burns, B., Costello, E., Angold, A., et al. (1995). Childrens
mental health service use across service sectors. Health
Affairs, 14, 147159.
Byrne, B. M. (1991). Burnout: Investigating the impact of
background variables for elementary, intermediate, secondary
and university educators. Teaching and Teacher Education, 7,
197209.
Cano-Garcia, F. J., Padilla-Munoz, E. M., & Carrasco-Ortiz, M.
A. (2005). Personality and contextual variables in teacher
burnout. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 929940.
Capel, S. A. (1991). A longitudinal study of burnout in
teachers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 61,
3645.
DuPaul, G. J., & Eckert, T. L. (1997). The effects of school-based
interventions for attention decit hyperactivity disorder: A
meta-analysis. School Psychology Review, 26, 527.
Evers, W. J. G., Tomic, W., & Brouwers, A. (2004). Burnout
among teachers: Students and teachers perceptions com-
pared. School Psychology International, 25, 131148.
Ferrando, J., & Perez, J. (1996). A measure of burnout in
teachers: Catalan adaptation of the Maslach Burnout
Inventory. Revista de Psiquiatria de la Facultad de Medicina
de Barcelona, 23, 1118.
Friedman, I. A. (1995). Student behavior patterns contributing to
teacher burnout. Journal of Educational Research, 88,
281333.
Furlong, M., Morrison, G., & Pavlevski, R. (2000). Trends in
school psychology for the 21st century: Inuences of school
violence on professional change. Psychology in the Schools,
37, 8190.
Gold, Y., Bachelor, P., & Michael, W. B. (1989). The
dimensionality of a modied form of the Maslach Burnout
Inventory for university students in a teacher-training
program. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 49,
549561.
Halderson, C., Kelley, E. A., Keefe, J. W., & Berge, P. (2001).
Comprehensive Assessment of School Environments: Technical
manual for school climate survey. Reston, VA: National
Association of Secondary School Principals.
Hepburn, A., & Brown, S. D. (2001). Teacher stress and the
management of accountability. Human Relations, 54,
691715.
Hock, R. R. (1988). Professional burnout among public school
teachers. Public Personnel Management, 17, 167187.
Howard, S., & Johnson, B. (2004). Resilient teachers: Resisting
stress and burnout. Social Psychology of Education, 7,
399420.
Kokkinos, C. M., Panayiotou, G., & Davazoglou, A. M. (2005).
Correlates of teacher appraisals of student behaviors.
Psychology in the Schools, 42, 7989.
Kuszman, F. L., & Schnall, H. (1987). Managing teachers stress:
Improving discipline. The Canadian School Executive, 6, 310.
Landau, B. M. (2001, April). Teaching classroom management: A
stand-alone necessity for preparing new teachers. Paper
presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, Seattle, WA.
Lau, P. S., Yuen, M. T., & Chan, R. M. (2005). Do demographic
characteristics make a difference to burnout among Hong
Kong secondary school teachers? Social Indicators Research,
71, 491516.
Leithwood, K. A., Menzies, T., Jantzi, D., & Leithwood, J.
(1999). Teacher burnout: A critical challenge for leaders of
restructuring schools. In R. Vandenberghe, & A. M. Huberman
(Eds.), Understanding and preventing teacher burnout: A
sourcebook of international research and practice (pp. 113).
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). The measurement of
experienced burnout. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 2,
99113.
Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E., & Leiter, M. P. (1996). Maslach
Burnout Inventory manual (3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consult-
ing Psychologists Press, Inc.
Mayer, G. R. (1993). A dropout prevention program for at-risk
high school students: Emphasizing consulting to promote
positive classroom climates. Education and Treatment of
Children, 16, 135146.
McGuire, W. H. (1979). Teacher burnout. Todays Education, 68,
5.
Ohio Department of Education. (2004). Condition of teacher
supply and demand in Ohio (pp. 154).
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures
for estimating the indirect effects in simple mediation models.
Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36,
717731.
Roach, A. T., & Kratochwill, T. R. (2004). Evaluating school
climate and school culture. Teaching Exceptional Children, 37,
1017.
Schonfeld, I. S. (2001). Stress in rst-year women teachers: The
context of social support and coping. Genetic, Social, and
General Psychology Monographs, 127, 75478756.
Schwab, R. L. (2001). Teacher burnout: Moving beyond
psychobabble. Theory Into Practice, 22, 2127.
Schwab, R. L., & Iwanicki, E. F. (1982). Who are our burned out
teachers? Educational Research Quarterly, 7, 516.
Schwab, R. L., Jackson, S. E., & Schuler, R. S. (1986). Educator
burnout: Sources and consequences. Educational Research
Quarterly, 10, 1430.
Stokols, D. (2000). The social ecological paradigm of wellness
promotion. In M. S. Jammer, & D. Stokols (Eds.), Promoting
human wellness: New frontiers for research, practice, and
policy (pp. 2137). Los Angeles, CA: University of California
Press.
Szelenyi, K., Bryant, A. N., & Lindholm, J. A. (2005). What
money can buy: Examining the effects of prepaid monetary
incentives on survey response rates among college students.
Educational Research and Evaluation, 11, 385404.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.L. Grayson, H.K. Alvarez / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363 1362
Tatar, M., & Horenczyk, G. (2003). Diversity-related burn-
out among teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 19,
397408.
Wesley, D. A., & Vocke, D. E. (1992, February). Classroom
discipline and teacher education. Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the Association of Teacher Educators, Orlando,
FL.
Whittemore, R., Melkus, G. D., & Grey, M. (2004). Applying the
social ecological theory to type 2 diabetes prevention and
management. Journal of Community Health Nursing, 21,
8799.
Woodrum, A. (2005). State-mandated testing and cultural
resistance in Appalachian schools: Competing values and
expectations. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 19, 19.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.L. Grayson, H.K. Alvarez / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 13491363 1363