Chapter 4

Ethical and Social Issues in

Information Systems
LEARNING OBJECI!ES
After readin" this chapter# you
$ill %e a%le to ans$er the
follo$in" &uestions'
() *hat ethical# social# and political
issues are raised %y information
systems+
,) *hat specific principles for conduct
can %e used to "uide ethical
decisions+
-) *hy do contemporary information
systems technolo"y and the
Internet pose challen"es to the
protection of indi.idual pri.acy and
intellectual property+
4) /o$ ha.e information systems
affected e.eryday life+
Interacti.e Sessions'
Green I at *ipro
0le1i%le Schedulin" at
*al23art' Good or Bad for
Employees+
C/A4ER O5LINE
4)( 5N6ERSAN6ING E/ICAL AN6 SOCIAL
ISS5ES RELAE6 O S7SE3S
A 3odel for hin8in" A%out Ethical# Social# and
4olitical Issues
0i.e 3oral 6imensions of the Information A"e
9ey echnolo"y rends that Raise Ethical Issues
4), E/ICS IN AN IN0OR3AION SOCIE7
Basic Concepts' Responsi%ility# Accounta%ility#
Lia%ility
Ethical Analysis
Candidate Ethical 4rinciples
4rofessional Codes of Conduct
Some Real2*orld Ethical 6ilemmas
4)- /E 3ORAL 6I3ENSIONS O0 IN0OR3AION
S7SE3S
Information Ri"hts' 4ri.acy and 0reedom in the
Internet A"e
4roperty Ri"hts' Intellectual 4roperty
Accounta%ility# Lia%ility# and Control
System :uality' 6ata :uality and System Errors
:uality of Life' E&uity# Access# and Boundaries
4)4 /AN6S2ON 3IS 4ROJECS
3ana"ement 6ecision 4ro%lems
Achie.in" Operational E1cellence' Creatin" a Simple
Blo"
Impro.in" 6ecision 3a8in"' 5sin" Internet
Ne$s"roups for Online 3ar8et Research
LEARNING RAC9S 3O65LES
6e.elopin" a Corporate Code of Ethics for
Information Systems
Creatin" a *e% 4a"e
E/ICAL ISS5ES 0ACING /E 5SE O0 EC/NOLOGIES
0OR /E AGE6 CO335NI7
he Australian "o.ernment ta8es a stron" interest in the use of I for the direct
and indirect care of the a"ed community) Indirect care includes the administrati.e

aspects of a"ed care in nursin" and a"ed care communities) No dou%t# I has the
potential to impro.e the &uality of lifestyle for the a"ed) 0or e1ample# access to the Internet
ma8es the a"ed feel more in touch $ith the rest of the $orld and# in many cases# can assist
$ith day2to2day li.in" such as online "rocery purchases# online %ill payment and chec8in"
%an8 statements) /o$e.er; this is conditional upon .arious factors such as their feelin" com2
forta%le $ith computers# ha.in" the computer 8no$led"e and s8ill and# of course# a trust in
online transactions)
Increasin"ly# ne$ ideas are "enerated throu"h research and de.elopment in an effort to
enhanceet chronic illnesses li8e heart conditions# and dia%etes) It is particularly the use of
these technolo"ies that poses a plethora of ethical issues of concern to healthcare pro.iders
and consumers) he <Smart /ouse< is a Sydney initiati.e# desi"ned to allo$ future "enerations
to remain in their o$n homes $hile a"ein") It uses a ran"e of <telecare< sensor technolo"y)
<his Smart /ouse technolo"y includes passi.e infrared detectors and a door2entry system#
$hich $ill allo$ the resident to see $ho is at the door# .ia their !# and open the door
remotely) he technolo"y also features emer"ency pendants and pull cords to tri""er an emer2
"ency monitorin" system# alon" $ith %ed and chair sensors) 0uture incorporations into the
Smart /ouse $ill include central loc8in" systems# electric $indo$s and doors# electric curtain
and %lind openers and other de.ices)< =BCS# ,>>?@)A
A recurrin" ethical issue in
the use of such technolo"y is
in.asion of the a"ed con2
sunrers< pri.acy) 3any may
not feel comforta%le a%out
%ein" monitored in their o$n
homes# ,42hours a day# e.en
thou"h they may see the %ene2
fits of such systems) here is
also the &uestion of a$areness#
consent# o$nership# and
access of any data collected
from these a"ed consumers)
/ealth2related data is particu2
larly .ery sensiti.e and# thus#
should not %e "i.en pu%lic
access $ithout prior pri.acy#
security# and safety considera2
tions) Socially and culturally#
these systems may also not %e
accepta%le as a replacement
for traditional human carers
=most often close family mem2
%ers@ $ho can produce a much
more personalised le.el of
care) In Australia# a num%er of
a"ed care pro.iders focus on
(4B
(
(C> 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
different minority "roups =for e1ample Chinese and 9oreans@ and there is
increasin" a$areness that the technolo"y adopted for them must %e socially
accepta%le and culturally competent# *ith the facility to adapt to the social and
cultural needs of these minority "roups =for e1ample# use of appropriate
lan"ua"e 2 .oice or te1tual 2 interface# or e1hi%itin" understandin" of the
li.in" ha%its and preferences in the desi"n of the technolo"y@)
Sources' BCS =,>>?@) Smart /ouse holds 8ey to future a"ed care needs# Baptist Community
Ser.ices NS* E AC# 3edia Release# (st 3ay ,>>?# http'FF$$$)%cs)or")auF
resourceF R>>CGCorp)pdf)
he openin" case hi"hli"hts a num%er of ethical issues that are specific to
healthcare for the a"ein" population) /o$e.er# some of these are recur2
rin" issues in other healthcare domains# or in or"aniDations in "eneral =such as
pri.acy and security@) 0or e1ample# the data collected from the monitorin" and
trac8in" of consumers can %e %oth %eneficial from a %usiness .ie$point =in the
openin" case# it can impro.e the &uality of life# andFor the clinical care of the
a"ed@# %ut at the same time# it also creates opportunities for ethical a%use %y
in.adin" the pri.acy of consumers) Such ethical dilemmas arise in the %uildin"
of ne$ information systems that potentially promise increased efficiency and
effecti.eness in %usiness processes) In this chapter# $e *ish to hi"hli"ht the
need to %e a$are of the ne"ati.e impact of information systems# alon"side the
positi.e %enefits) In many cases# mana"ement needs to create an accepta%le
trade2off throu"h the creation of appropriate policies and standards# as a"reed
upon %y all sta8eholders# prior to system implementation)
H Case contri%uted %y 6r) Lesley Land# 5ni.ersity of Ne$ South *ales
Business
Challen"es
H In.ol.e users in
desi"n process
H 6esi"n features $ith
ethical considerations
in mind
H Redesi"n %usiness
processes
H Allocate sufficient
3ana"ement
Oitir"anDaon r
H Administration %urden due
to uninte"rated systems
H Lac8 of I s8ills for consumers
and administrators
Information usiness
System Ilutions I
resources
H 6eploy ne$
technolo"ies to meet
user needs
H Assist a"ed care H Increase efficiency
residents in mana"in" H Increase &uality of care
echnolo"y their health usin"
health care technolo"ies
I
Chapter 4 Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems (C(
5N6ERSAN6ING E/ICAL AN6 SOCIAL ISS5ES
RELAE6 O S7SE3S
n the past ten years $e ha.e $itnessed# ar"ua%ly# one of the most
ethically challen"in" periods for 5)S) and "lo%al %usiness) a%le 42(
pro.ides a small sample of recent cases demonstratin" failed ethical
Jud"ment %y senior and middle mana"ers) hese lapses in mana"ement
ethical and %usiness Jud"ment occurred across a %road spectrum of industries)
In today<s ne$ le"al en.ironment# mana"ers $ho .iolate the la$ and are
con.icted $ill most li8ely spend time in prison) 5)S) 0ederal Sentencin"
Guidelines adopted in (BGK mandate that federal Jud"es impose stiff sentences
on %usiness e1ecuti.es %ased on the monetary .alue of the crime# the presence
of a conspiracy to pre.ent disco.ery of the crime# the use of structured
financial transactions to hide the crime# and failure to cooperate $ith
prosecutors =5)S) Sentencin" Commission# ,>>4@)
Althou"h in the past %usiness firms $ould often pay for the le"al defense of
their employees enmeshed in ci.il char"es and criminal in.esti"ations# no$
f i rms are encoura"ed to cooperate $ith prosecutors to reduce char"es a"ainst
the entire firm for o%structin" in.esti"ations) hese de.elopments mean that#
more than e.er# as a mana"er or an employee# you $ill ha.e to decide for
yourself $hat constitutes proper le"al and ethical conduct)
Althou"h these maJor instances of failed ethical and le"al Jud"ment $ere not
masterminded %y information systems departments# information systems $ere
instrumental in many of these frauds) In many cases# the perpetrators of these
crimes artfully used financial reportin" information systems to %ury their
decisions from pu%lic scrutiny in the .ain hope they $ould ne.er %e cau"ht)
*e deal $ith the issue of control in information systems in Chapter G) In this
chapter# $e tal8 a%out the ethical dimensions of these and other actions %ased
on the use of information systems)
Ethics refers to the principles of ri"ht and $ron" that indi.iduals# actin" as
free moral a"ents# use to ma8e choices to "uide their %eha.iors) Information
systems raise ne$ ethical &uestions for %oth indi.iduals and societies %ecause
they create opportunities for intense social chan"e# and thus threaten e1istin"
distri%utions of po$er# money# ri"hts# and o%li"ations) Li8e other technolo"ies#
such as steam en"ines# electricity# the telephone# and the radio# information
technolo"y can %e used to achie.e social pro"ress# %ut it can also %e used to
RECEN ELA34LES O0 0AILE6 E/ICAL J56G3EN B7 3ANAGERS
Enron
op three e1ecuti.es con.icted for misstatin" earnin"s usin" ille"al accountin" schemes and ma8in" false
representations to shareholders) Ban8ruptcy declared in ,>>()
*orldCom
Second2lar"est 5)S) telecommunications firm) Chief e1ecuti.e con.icted for improperly inflatin" re.enue %y
%illions usin" ille"al accountin" methods) Ban8ruptcy declared in July ,>>, $ith M4( %illion in de%ts)
Brocade Communications
CEO con.icted for %ac8datin" stoc8 options and concealin" millions of dollars of compensation e1penses
from shareholders)
4armalat
en e1ecuti.es in Italy<s ei"hth2lar"est industrial "roup con.icted for misstatin" more than MC %illion in
re.enues# earnin"s# and assets o.er se.eral years)
Bristol23yers S&ui%%
4harmaceutical firm a"reed to pay a fine of M(C> million for misstatin" its re.enues %y M()C %illion# and
inflatin" its stoc8 .alue)
(C,
4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
commit crimes and threaten cherished social .alues) he de.elopment of
information technolo"y $ill produce %enefits for many and costs for others)
Ethical issues in information systems ha.e %een "i.en ne$ ur"ency %y the
rise of the Internet and electronic commerce) Internet and di"ital firm
technolo"ies ma8e it easier than e.er to assem%le# inte"rate# and distri%ute
information# unleashin" ne$ concerns a%out the appropriate use of customer
information# the protection of personal pri.acy# and the protection of intellec2
tual property)
Other pressin" ethical issues raised %y information systems include
esta%lishin" accounta%ility for the conse&uences of information systems#
settin" standards to safe"uard system &uality that protects the safety of the
indi.idual and society# and preser.in" .alues and institutions considered
essential to the &uality of life in an information society) *hen usin" informa2
tion systems# it is essential to as8# A*hat is the ethical and socially responsi%le
course of action+A
A 3O6EL 0OR /IN9ING ABO5 E/ICAL# SOCIAL#
AN6 4OLIICAL ISS5ES
Ethical# social# and political issues are closely lin8ed) he ethical dilemma
you may face as a mana"er of information systems typically is reflected in
social and political de%ate) One $ay to thin8 a%out these relationships is "i.en
in 0i"ure 42() Ima"ine society as a more or less calm pond on a summer day#
a delicate ecosystem in partial e&uili%rium $ith indi.iduals and $ith social
and political institutions) Indi.iduals 8no$ ho$ to act in this pond %ecause
social institutions =family# education# or"aniDations@ ha.e de.eloped
$ell2honed rules of %eha.ior# and these are supported %y la$s de.eloped in
the political sector that prescri%e %eha.ior and promise sanctions for
.iolations) No$ toss a roc8 into the center of the pond) But ima"ine instead of
a roc8 that the distur%in" force is a po$erful shoc8 of ne$ information
technolo"y and systems hittin" a society more or less at rest) *hat happens+
Ripples# of course)
Suddenly# indi.idual actors are confronted $ith ne$ situations often not
co.ered %y the old rules) Social institutions cannot respond o.erni"ht to these
ripples2it may ta8e years to de.elop eti&uette# e1pectations# social responsi%il2
ity# politically correct attitudes# or appro.ed rules) 4olitical institutions also
re&uire time %efore de.elopin" ne$ la$s and often re&uire the demonstration
of real harm %efore they act) In the meantime# you may ha.e to act) 7ou may%e
forced to act in a le"al "ray area)
*e can use this model to illustrate the dynamics that connect ethical# social#
and political issues) his model is also useful for identifyin" the main moral
dimensions of the information society# $hich cut across .arious le.els of
action2 indi.idual# social# and political)
0I!E 3ORAL 6I3ENSIONS O0 /E IN0OR3AION AGE
he maJor ethical# social# and political issues raised %y information systems
include the follo$in" moral dimensions'
Information ri"hts and o%li"ations) *hat information ri"hts do indi.iduals
and or"aniDations possess $ith respect to themsel.es+ *hat can they protect+
*hat o%li"ations do indi.iduals and or"aniDations ha.e concernin" this
information+
Chapter 4
Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems (C-
!It 5Rt 4)(
/E RELAIONS/I4 BE*EEN E/ICAL# SOCIAL# AN6 4OLIICAL
ISS5ES IN AN IN0OR3AION SOCIE7
:uality of Life
he introduction of ne$ information technolo"y has a ripple effect# raisin" ne$ ethical# social# and
political issues that must %e dealt $ith on the indi.idual# social# and political le.els) hese issues ha.e fi.e
moral dimensions' information ri"hts and o%li"ations# property ri"hts and o%li"ations# system &uality# &uality of
life# and accounta%ility and control)
4roperty li"hts and o%li"ations) /o$ $ill traditional intellectual property ri"hts %e
protected in a di"ital society in $hich tracin" and accountin" for o$nership are
difficult and i"norin" such property ri"hts is so easy+
Accounta%ility and control) *ho can and $ill %e held accounta%le and lia%le for
the harm done to indi.idual and collecti.e information and property ri"hts+
System &uality) *hat standards of data and system &uality should $.e demand to
protect indi.idual ri"hts and the safety of society+
:uality of life) *hat .alues should %e preser.ed in an information2 and
8no$led"e2%ased society+ *hich institutions should $e protect from .iolation+
*hich cultural .alues and practices are supported %y the ne$ information
technolo"y+
*e e1plore these moral dimensions in detail in Section 4)-)
9E7 EC/NOLOG7 REN6S /A RAISE E/ICAL
ISS5ES
Ethical issues lon" preceded information technolo"y) Ne.ertheless# informa2
tion technolo"y has hei"htened ethical concerns# ta1ed e1istin" social arran"e2
ments# and made some la$s o%solete or se.erely crippled) here are four 8ey
technolo"ical trends responsi%le for these ethical stresses and they are summariDed
in a%le 42,)
(C4
4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
EC/NOLOG7 REN6S /A RAISE E/ICAL ISS5ES
REN6 I34AC
Computin" po$er dou%les e.ery (G months
6ata stora"e costs rapidly declinin"
6ata analysis ad.ances
Net$or8in" ad.ances and the Internet
3ore or"aniDations depend on computer systems for critical operations
Or"aniDations can easily maintain detailed data%ases on indi.iduals
Companies can analyDe .ast &uantities of data "athered on indi.iduals to de.elop detailed
profiles of indi.idual %eha.ior
Copyin" data from one location to another and accessin" personal data from remote
locations are much easier
he dou%lin" of computin" po$er e.ery (G months has made it possi%le for
most or"aniDations to use information systems for their core production
processes) As a result# our dependence on systems and our .ulnera%ility to
system errors and poor data &uality ha.e increased) Social rules and la$s ha.e
not yet adJusted to this dependence) Standards for ensurin" the accuracy and
relia%ility of information systems =see Chapter G@ are not uni.ersally accepted
or enforced)
Ad.ances in data stora"e techni&ues and rapidly declinin" stora"e costs ha.e
%een responsi%le for the multiplyin" data%ases on indi.iduals2employees#
customers# and potential customers2maintained %y pri.ate and pu%lic
or"aniDations) hese ad.ances in data stora"e ha.e made the routine .iolation
of indi.idual pri.acy %oth cheap and effecti.e) Already massi.e data stora"e
systems are cheap enou"h for re"ional and e.en local retailin" firms to use in
identifyin" customers)
Ad.ances in data analysis techni&ues for lar"e pools of data are another
technolo"ical trend that hei"htens ethical concerns %ecause companies and
"o.ernment a"encies are a%le to find out much detailed personal information
a%out indi.iduals) *ith contemporary data mana"ement tools =see Chapter ?@#
companies can assem%le and com%ine the myriad pieces of information a%out
you stored on computers much more easily than in the past)
hin8 of all the $ays you "enerate computer information a%out yourself2
credit card purchases; telephone calls; ma"aDine su%scriptions; .ideo rentals;
mail2order purchases; %an8in" records; local# state# and federal "o.ernment
records =includin" court and police records@; and .isits to *e% sites) 4ut
to"ether and mined properly# this information could re.eal not only your credit
information %ut also your dri.in" ha%its# your tastes# your associations# and
your political interests)
Companies $ith products to sell purchase rele.ant information from these
sources to help them more finely tar"et their mar8etin" campai"ns) Chapters -
and ? descri%e ho$ companies can analyDe lar"e pools of data from multiple
sources to rapidly identify %uyin" patterns of customers and su""est indi.idual
responses) he use of computers to com%ine data from multiple sources and
create electronic dossiers of detailed information on indi.iduals is called
profilin")
0or e1ample# hundreds of *e% sites allo$ 6ou%leClic8 =$$$)dou%leclic8)net@#
an Internet ad.ertisin" %ro8er# to trac8 the acti.ities of their .isitors in e1chan"e
for re.enue from ad.ertisements %ased on .isitor information 6ou%leClic8
"athers) 6ou%leClic8 uses this information to create a profile of each online
Chapter 4
Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems (CC
Credit card purchases can
ma8e personal information
a.aila%le to rnarlNet
researchers# telemar8eters#
and direct2mail companies)
Ad.ances in information
technolo"y facilitate the
in.asion of pri.acy)
.isitor# addin" more detail to the profile as the .isitor accesses an associated
6ou%leClic8 site) O.er time# 6ou%leClic8 can create a detailed dossier of a
person<s spendin" and computin" ha%its on the *e% that is sold to companies to
help them tar"et their *e% ads more precisely)
Choice4oint "athers data from police# criminal# and motor .ehicle records;
credit and employment histories; current and pre.ious addresses; professional
licenses; and insurance claims to assem%le and maintain electronic dossiers
on almost e.ery adult in the 5nited Sates) he company sells this personal
information to %usinesses and "o.ernment a"encies) 6emand for personal
data is so enormous that data %ro8er %usinesses such as Choice4oint are
flourishin")
A ne$ data analysis technolo"y called nono%.ious relationship a$areness
=NORA@ has "i.en %oth the "o.ernment and the pri.ate sector e.en more
po$erful profilin" capa%ilities) NORA can ta8e information a%out people from
many disparate sources# such as employment applications# telephone records#
customer listin"s# andA $antedA lists# and correlate relationships to find o%scure
hidden connections that mi"ht help identify criminals or terrorists =see
0i"ure 42,@)
NORA technolo"y scans data and e1tracts information as the data are
%ein" "enerated so that it could# for e1ample# instantly disco.er a man at an
airline tic8et counter $ho shares a phone num%er $ith a 8no$n terrorist
%efore that person %oards an airplane) he technolo"y is considered a
.alua%le tool for homeland security %ut does ha.e pri.acy implications
%ecause it can pro.ide such a detailed picture of the# acti.ities and associa2
tions of a sin"le indi.idual)
0inally# ad.ances in net$or8in"# includin" the Internet# promise to reduce
"reatly the costs of mo.in" and accessin" lar"e &uantities of data and open the
possi%ility of minin" lar"e pools of data remotely usin" small des8top
machines# permittin" an in.asion of pri.acy on a scale and $ith a precision
heretofore unima"ina%le)
(C? 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
E) (? 54# NONOB!IO5S RELAIONS/I4 A*ARENESS =NORA@
NORA Alerts
Name standardiDation
3atch
3er"e
NORA technolo"y can ta8e information a%out people from disparate sources and find o%scure#
nono%.ious relationships) It mi"ht disco.er# for e1ample# that an applicant for a Jo% at a casino shares a
telephone num%er $ith a 8no$n criminal and issue an alert to the hirin" mana"er)
he de.elopment of "lo%al di"ital superhi"h$ay communication net$or8s
*idely a.aila%le to indi.iduals and %usinesses poses many ethical and social
concerns) *ho $ill account for the flo$ of information o.er these net$or8s+
*ill you %e a%le to trace information collected a%out you+ *hat $ill these
net$or8s do to the traditional relationships %et$een family# $or8# and
leisure+ /o$ $ill traditional Jo% desi"ns %e altered $hen millions of
AemployeesA %ecome su%contractors usin" mo%ile offices for $hich they
themsel.es must pay+ In the ne1t section# $e consider some ethical princi2
ples and analytical techni&ues for dealin" $ith these 8inds of ethical and
social concerns)
E/ICS IN AN IN0OR3AION SOCIE7
Ethics is a concern of humans $ho ha.e freedom of choice) Ethics is a%out
indi.idual choice' *hen faced $ith alternati.e courses of action# $hat is the
correct moral choice+ *hat are the main features of ethical choice+
Chapter 4 Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems (CK
BASIC CONCE4S' RES4ONSIBILI7# ACCO5NABILI7#
AN6 LIABILI7
Ethical choices are decisions made %y indi.iduals $ho are responsi%le for the
conse&uences of their actions) Responsi%ility is a 8ey element of ethical
action) Responsi%ility means that you accept the potential costs# duties# and
o%li"ations for the decisions you ma8e) Accounta%ility is a feature of systems
and social institutions' It means that mechanisms are in place to determine
$ho too8 responsi%le action# $ho is responsi%le) Systems and institutions in
$hich it is impossi%le to find out $ho too8 $hat action are inherently incapa%le
of ethical analysis or ethical action) Lia%ility e1tends the concept of responsi2
%ility further to the area of la$s) Lia%ility is a feature of political systems in
$hich a %ody of la$s is in place that permits indi.iduals to reco.er the dama"es
done to them %y other actors# systems# or or"aniDations) 6ue process is a
related feature of la$2"o.erned societies and is a process in $hich la$s are
8no$n and understood and there is an a%ility to appeal to hi"her authorities to
ensure that the la$s are applied correctly)
hese %asic concepts form the underpinnin" of an ethical analysis of
information systems and those $ho mana"e them) 0irst# information technolo2
"ies are filtered throu"h social institutions# or"aniDations# and indi.iduals)
Systems do not ha.e impacts %y themsel.es) *hate.er information system
impacts e1ist are products of institutional# or"aniDational# and indi.idual
actions and %eha.iors) Second# responsi%ility for the conse&uences of technol2
o"y falls clearly on the institutions# or"aniDations# and indi.idual mana"ers $ho
choose to use the technolo"y) 5sin" information technolo"y in a socially
responsi%le manner means that you can and $ill %e held accounta%le for the
conse&uences of your actions) hird# in an ethical# political society# indi.iduals
and others can reco.er dama"es done to them throu"h a set of la$s characteriDed
%y due process)
E/ICAL ANAL7SIS
*hen confronted $ith a situation that seems to present ethical issues# ho$
should you analyDe it+ he follo$in" fi.e2step process should help)
() Identify and descri%e clearly the facts) 0ind out $ho did $hat to $hom# and
$here# $hen# and ho$) In many instances# you $ill %e surprised at the errors in
the initially reported facts# and often you $ill find that simply "ettin" the facts
strai"ht helps define the solution) It also helps to "et the opposin" parties
in.ol.ed in an ethical dilemma to a"ree on the facts)
,) 6efine the conflict or dilemma and identify the hi"her2order .alues in.ol.ed) Ethical#
social# and political issues al$ays reference hi"her# .alues) he parties to a
dispute all claim to %e pursuin" hi"her .alues =e)"); freedom# pri.acy# protection
of property# and the free enterprise system@) ypically# an ethical issue in.ol.es
a dilemma' t$o diametrically opposed courses of action that support
$orth$hile .alues) 0or e1ample# the chapter2endin" case study illustrates
t$o competin" .alues' the need to impro.e health care record 8eepin" and
the need to protect indi.idual pri.acy)
-) Identify the sta8eholders) E.ery ethical# social# and political issue has sta8ehold2
ers' players in the "ame $ho ha.e an interest in the outcome# $ho ha.e
in.ested in the situation# and usually $ho ha.e .ocal opinions) 0ind out the
identity of these "roups and $hat they $ant) his JAOill %e useful later $hen
desi"nin" a solution)
(CG 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
4) Identify the options that you can reasona%ly ta8e) 7ou may find that none of the
options satisfy all the interests in.ol.ed# %ut that some options do a %etter Jo%
than others) Sometimes arri.in" at a "ood or ethical solution may not al$ays %e
a %alancin" of conse&uences to sta8eholders)
C) IdentifiJ the potential conse&uences of your options) Some options may %e ethically
correct %ut disastrous from other points of .ie$) Other options may N.or8 in one
instance %ut not in other similar instances) Al$ays as8 yourself# A*hat if I
choose this option consistently o.er time+A
CAN6I6AE E/ICAL 4RINCI4LES
Once your analysis is complete# $hat ethical principles or rules should you use to
ma8e a decision+ *hat hi"her2order .alues should inform your Jud"ment+
Althou"h you are the only one $ho can decide $hich amon" many ethical
principles you $ill follo$# and ho$ you $ill prioritiDe them# it is helpful to
consider some ethical principles $ith deep roots in many cultures that ha.e
sur.i.ed throu"hout recorded history)
() 6o unto others as you $ould ha.e them do unto you =the Golden Rule@)
4uttin" yourself into the place of others# and thin8in" of yourself as the o%Ject of
the decision# can help you thin8 a%out fairness in decision ma8in")
,) If an action is not ri"ht for e.eryone to ta8e# it is not ri"ht for anyone
=Immanuel 9ant<s Cate"orical Imperati.e@) As8 yourself# AIf e.eryone did
this# could the or"aniDation# or society# sur.i.e+A
-) If an action cannot %e ta8en repeatedly# it is not ri"ht to ta8e at all =6escartes<
rule of chan"e@) his is the slippery2slope rule' An action may %rin" a%out a
small chan"e no$ that is accepta%le# %ut if it is repeated# it $ould %rin"
unaccepta%le chan"es in the lon" run) In the .ernacular# it mi"ht %e stated as
Aonce started do$n a slippery path# you may not %e a%le to stop)A
4) a8e the action that achie.es the hi"her or "reater .alue =5tilitarian
4rinciple@) his rule assumes you can prioritiDe .alues in a ran8 order and
understand the conse&uences of .arious courses of action)
C) a8e the action that produces the least harm or the least potential cost =Ris8
A.ersion 4rinciple@) Some actions ha.e e1tremely hi"h failure costs of .ery
lo$ pro%a%ility =e)")# %uildin" a nuclear "eneratin" facility in an ur%an area@ or
e1tremely hi"h failure costs of moderate pro%a%ility =speedin" and automo%ile
accidents@) A.oid these hi"h2failure2cost actions# payin" "reater attention to
hi"h2failure2cost potential of moderate to hi"h pro%a%ility)
?) Assume that .irtually all tan"i%le and intan"i%le o%Jects are o$ned %y someone
else unless there is a specific declaration other$ise) =his is the ethical Ano
free lunchA rule)@ If somethin" someone else has created is useful to you# it
has .alue# and you should assume the creator $ants compensation for this
$or8)
Althou"h these ethical rules cannot %e "uides to action# actions that do not
easily pass these rules deser.e some .ery close attention and a "reat deal of
caution) he appearance of unethical %eha.ior may do as much harm to you and
your company as actual unethical %eha.ior)
4RO0ESSIONAL CO6ES O0 CON65C
*hen "roups of people claim to %e professionals# they ta8e on special ri"hts
and o%li"ations %ecause of their special claims to 8no$led"e# $isdom# and
respect) 4rofessional codes of conduct are promul"ated %y associations of
Chapter 4
Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems
(CB
professionals# such as the American 3edical Association =A3A@# the American
Bar Association =ABA@# the Association of Information echnolo"y 4rofessionals
=AI4@# and the Association of Computin" 3achinery =AC3@) hese profes2
sional "roups ta8e responsi%ility for the partial re"ulation of their professions
%y determinin" entrance &ualifications and competence) Codes of ethics are
promises %y professions to re"ulate themsel.es in the "eneral interest of
society) 0or e1ample# a.oidin" harm to others# honorin" property ri"hts =includin"
intellectual property@# and respectin" pri.acy are amon" the General 3oral
Imperati.es of the AC3<s Code of Ethics and 4rofessional Conduct)
SO3E REAL2*ORL6 E/ICAL 6ILE33AS
Information systems ha.e created ne$ ethical dilemmas in $hich one set of
interests is pitted a"ainst another) 0or e1ample# many of the lar"e telephone
companies in the 5nited States are usin" information technolo"y to reduce the
siDes of their $or8forces) !oice reco"nition soft$are reduces the need for
human operators %y ena%lin" computers to reco"niDe a customer<s responses to
a series of computeriDed &uestions) 3any companies monitor $hat their
employees are doin" on the Internet to pre.ent them from $astin" company
resources on non2%usiness acti.ities =see the Chapter K Interacti.e Session on
3ana"ement@)
In each instance# you can find competin" .alues at $or8# $ith "roups lined
up on either side of a de%ate) A company may ar"ue# for e1ample# that it has a
ri"ht to use information systems to increase producti.ity and reduce the siDe of
its $or8force to lo$er costs and stay in %usiness) Employees displaced %y
information systems may ar"ue that employers ha.e some responsi%ility for
their $elfare) Business o$ners mi"ht feel o%li"ated to monitor employee e2mail
and Internet use to minimiDe drains on producti.ity) Employees mi"ht %elie.e
they should %e a%le to use the Internet for short personal tas8s in place of the
telephone) A close analysis of the facts can sometimes produce compromised
solutions that "i.e each side Ahalf a loaf)A ry to apply some of the principles of
ethical analysis descri%ed to each of these cases) *hat is the ri"ht thin" to do+
/E 3ORAL 6I3ENSIONS O0 IN0OR3AION
S7SE3S
In this section# $e ta8e a closer loo8 at the fi.e moral dimensions of informa2
tion systems first descri%ed in 0i"ure 42() In each dimension $$re identify the
ethical# social# and political le.els of analysis and use real2$orld e1amples to
illustrate the .alues in.ol.ed# the sta8eholders# and the options chosen)
IN0OR3AION RIG/S' 4RI!AC7 AN6 0REE6O3 IN
/E INERNE AGE
4ri.acy is the claim of indi.iduals to %e left alone# free from sur.eillance or
interference from other indi.iduals or or"aniDations# includin" the state)
Claims to pri.acy are also in.ol.ed at the $or8place' 3illions of employees are
su%Ject to electronic and other forms of hi"h2tech sur.eillance =Ball#
,>>(@)
Information technolo"y and systems threaten indi.idual claims to pri.acy %y
ma8in" the in.asion of pri.acy cheap# profita%le# and effecti.e)
(?>
4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
he claim to pri.acy is protected in the 5)S)# Canadian# and German
constitutions in a .ariety of different $ays and in other countries throu"h
.arious statutes) In the 5nited States# the claim to pri.acy is protected primar2
ily %y the 0irst Amendment "uarantees of freedom of speech and association#
the 0ourth Amendment protections a"ainst unreasona%le search and seiDure of
one<s personal documents or home# and the "uarantee of due process)
a%le
42-
descri%es the maJor 5)S) federal statutes that set forth the
conditions for handlin" information a%out indi.iduals in such areas as credit
reportin"# education# financial records# ne$spaper records# and electronic
communications) he 4ri.acy Act of (BK4 has %een the most important of these
la$s# re"ulatin" the federal "o.ernment<s collection# use# and disclosure of
information) At present# most 5)S) federal pri.acy la$s apply only to the federal
"o.ernment and re"ulate .ery fe$ areas of the pri.ate sector)
3ost American and European pri.acy la$ is %ased on a re"ime called 0air
Information 4ractices =0I4@ first set forth in a report $ritten in (BK- %y a
federal "o.ernment ad.isory committee =5)S) 6epartment of /ealth#
Education# and *elfare# (BK-@) 0I4 is a set of principles "o.ernin" the collection
and use of information a%out indi.iduals) 0I4 principles are %ased on the notion
of a mutuality of interest %et$een the record holder and the indi.idual) he
indi.idual has an interest in en"a"in" in a transaction# and the record 8eeper2
usually a %usiness or "o.ernment a"ency2re&uires information a%out the
indi.idual to support the transaction) Once information is "athered# the
indi.idual maintains an interest in the record# and the record may not %e used
to support other acti.ities $ithout the indi.idual<s consent) In (BBG# the 0ederal
rade Commission =0C@ restated and e1tended the ori"inal 0I4 to pro.ide
"uidelines for protectin" online pri.acy) a%le 424 descri%es the 0C<s 0air
Information 4ractice principles)
he 0C<s 0I4 are %ein" used as "uidelines to dri.e chan"es in pri.acy
le"islation) In Jul@# (BBG# the 5)S) Con"ress passed the Children<s Online
4ri.acy 4rotection Act =CO44A@# re&uirin" *e% sites to o%tain parental permis2
sion %efore collectin" information on children under the a"e of (-) =his la$ is
in dan"er of %ein" o.erturned)@ he 0C has recommended additional le"isla2
tion to protect online consumer pri.acy in ad.ertisin" net$or8s that collect
K 0E6ERAL 4RI!AC7 LA*S IN /E 5NIE6 SAES
GENERAL 0E6ERAL 4RI!AC7 LA*S
0reedom of Information Act of (B?? as Amended =C 5SC CC,@
4ri.acy Act of (BK4 as Amended =C 5SC CC,a@
Electronic Communications 4ri.acy Act of (BG?
Computer 3atchin" and 4ri.acy 4rotection Act of (BGG
Computer Security Act of (BGK
0ederal 3ana"ers 0inancial Inte"rity Act of (BG,
6ri.er<s 4ri.acy 4rotection Act of (BB4
E2Go.ernment Act of ,>>,
4RI!AC7 LA*S A00ECING 4RI!AE INSI5IONS
0air Credit Reportin" Act of (BK>
0amily Educational Ri"hts and 4ri.acy Act of (BK4
Ri"ht to 0inancial 4ri.acy Act of (BKG
4ri.acy 4rotection Act of (BG>
Ca%le Communications 4olicy Act of (BG4
Electronic Communications 4ri.acy Act of (BG?
!ideo 4ri.acy 4rotection Act of (BGG
he /ealth Insurance 4orta%ility and Accounta%ility Act of (BB? =/ I
4AA@
Children<s Online 4ri.acy 4rotection Act of (BBG =CO44A@
0inancial 3oderniDation Act =Gramm2Leach2Bliley Act@ of (BBB
Chapter 4 Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems (?(
0E6ERAL RA6E CO33ISSION 0AIR IN0OR3AION 4RACICE 4RINCI4LES
()
NoticeFa$areness =core principle@) *e% sites must disclose their information practices %efore collectin" data) Includes identification of
collector; uses of data; other recipients of data; nature of collection =acti.eFinacti.e@; .oluntary or re&uired status; conse&uences of refusal; and
steps ta8en to protect confidentiality# inte"rity# and &uality of the data)
,)
ChoiceFconsent =core principle@) here must %e a choice re"ime in place allo$in" consumers to choose ho$ their information $ill %e used for
secondary purposes other than supportin" the transaction# includin" internal use and transfer to third parties)
-)
AccessFparticipation) Consumers should %e a%le to re.ie$ and contest the accuracy and completeness of data collected a%out them in a
timely# ine1pensi.e process)
4)
Security) 6ata collectors must ta8e responsi%le steps to assure that consumer information is accurate and secure from unauthoriDed use)
C)
Enforcement) here must %e in place a mechanism to enforce 0I4 principles) his can in.ol.e self2re"ulation# le"islation "i.in" consumers le"al
remedies for .iolations# or federal statutes and re"ulations#
records of consumer *e% acti.ity to de.elop detailed profiles# $hich are then
used %y other companies to tar"et online ads) Other proposed Internet pri.acy
le"islation focuses on protectin" the online use of personal identification
num%ers# such as Social Security num%ers; protectin" personal information
collected on the Internet that deals $ith indi.iduals not co.ered %y the
Children<s Online 4ri.acy 4rotection Act of (BBG; and limitin" the use of data
minin" for homeland security)
4ri.acy protections ha.e also %een added to recent la$s dere"ulatin" finan2
cial ser.ices and safe"uardin" the maintenance and transmission of health
information a%out indi.iduals) he Gramm2Leach2Bliley Act of (BBB# $hich
repeals earlier restrictions on affiliations amon" %an8s# securities firms# and
insurance companies# includes some pri.acy protection for consumers of finan2
cial ser.ices) All financial institutions are re&uired to disclose their policies and
practices for protectin" the pri.acy of nonpu%lic personal information and to
allo$ customers to opt out of information2sharin" arran"ements $ith
nonaffiliated third parties)
he /ealth Insurance 4orta%ility and Accounta%ility Act of (BB? =/I4AA@#
$hich too8 effect on April (4# ,>>-# includes pri.acy protection for medical
records) he la$ "i.es patients access to their personal medical records
maintained %y healthcare pro.iders# hospitals# and health insurers and the ri"ht to
authoriDe ho$ protected information a%out themsel.es can %e used or
disclosed) 6octors# hospitals# and other healthcare pro.iders must limit the
disclosure of personal information a%out patients to the minimum amount
necessary to achie.e a "i.en purpose)
he European 6irecti.e on 6ata 4rotection
In Europe# pri.acy protection is much more strin"ent than in the 5nited States)
5nli8e the 5nited States# European countries do not allo$ %usinesses to use
personally identifia%le information $ithout consumers< prior consent) On
Octo%er ,C# (BBG# the European Commission<s 6irecti.e on 6ata 4rotection
$ent into effect# %roadenin" pri.acy protection in the European 5nion =E5@
nations) he directi.e re&uires companies to inform people $hen they collect
information a%out them and disclose ho$ it $ill %e stored and used) Customers
must pro.ide their informed consent %efore any company can le"ally use data
a%out them# and they ha.e the ri"ht to access that information# correct it# and
re&uest that no further data %e collected) Informed consent can %e defined as
consent "i.en $ith 8no$led"e of all the facts needed to ma8e a rational
decision) E5 mem%er nations must translate these principles into their o$n
(?, 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
la$s and cannot transfer personal data to countries# such as the 5nited States#
that do not ha.e similar pri.acy protection re"ulations)
*or8in" $ith the European Commission# the 5)S) 6epartment of Commerce
de.eloped a safe har%or frame$or8 for 5)S) firms) A safe har%or is a pri.ate#
self2re"ulatin" policy and enforcement mechanism that meets the o%Jecti.es of
"o.ernment re"ulators and le"islation %ut does not in.ol.e "o.ernment re"ula2
tion or enforcement) 5)S) %usinesses $ould %e allo$ed to use personal data
from E5 countries if they de.elop pri.acy protection policies that meet E5
standards) Enforcement $ould occur in the 5nited States usin" self2policin"#
re"ulation# and "o.ernment enforcement of fair trade statutes)
Internet Challen"es to 4ri.acy
Internet technolo"y has posed ne$ challen"es for the protection of indi.idual
pri.acy) Information sent o.er this .ast net$or8 of net$or8s may pass throu"h
many different computer systems %efore it reaches its final destination) Each of
these systems is capa%le of monitorin"# capturin"# and storin" communications
that pass throu"h it)
It is possi%le to record many online acti.ities# includin" $hat searches ha.e
%een conducted# $hich *e% sites and *e% pa"es ha.e %een .isited# the online
content a person has accessed# and $hat items that person has inspected or
purchased o.er the *e%) 3uch of this monitorin" and trac8in" of *e% site .is2
itors occurs in the %ac8"round $ithout the .isitor<s 8no$led"e) It is conducted
not Just %y indi.idual *e% sites %ut %y ad.ertisin" net$or8s such as
6ou%leClic8 that are capa%le of trac8in" all %ro$sin" %eha.ior at thousands of
*e% sites) ools to monitor .isits to the *orld *ide *e% ha.e %ecome popular
%ecause they help %usinesses determine $ho is .isitin" their *e% sites and
ho$ to %etter tar"et their offerin"s) =Some firms also monitor the Internet
usa"e of their employees to see ho$ they are usin" company net$or8
resources)@ he commercial demand for this personal information is .irtually
insatia%le)
*e% sites can learn the identities of their .isitors if the .isitors .oluntarily
re"ister at the site to purchase a product or ser.ice or to o%tain a free ser.ice#
such as information) *e% sites can also capture information a%out .isitors
$ithout their 8no$led"e usin" coo8ie technolo"y)
Coo8ies are tiny files deposited on a computer hard dri.e $hen a user .isits
certain *e% sites) Coo8ies identify the .isitor<s *e% %ro$ser soft$are and trac8
.isits to the *e% site) *hen the .isitor returns to a site that has stored a coo8ie#
the *e% site soft$are $ill search the .isitor<s computer# find the coo8ie# and
8no$ $hat that person has done in the past) It may also update the coo8ie#
dependin" on the acti.ity durin" the .isit) In this $ay# the site can customiDe its
contents for each .isitor<s interests) 0or e1ample# if you purchase a %oo8 on the
AmaDon)com *e% site and return later from the same %ro$ser# the site $ill
$elcome you %y name and recommend other %oo8s of interest %ased on your
past purchases) 6ou%leClic8# descri%ed earlier in this chapter# uses coo8ies to
%uild its dossiers $ith details of online purchases and to e1amine the %eha.ior of
*e% site .isitors) 0i"ure 42- illustrates ho$ coo8ies $or8)
*e% sites usin" coo8ie technolo"y cannot directly o%tain .isitors< names and
addresses) /o$e.er# if a person has re"istered at a site# that information can %e
com%ined $ith coo8ie data to identify the .isitor) *e% site o$ners can also
com%ine the data they ha.e "athered from coo8ies and other *e% site monitor2
in" tools $ith personal data from other sources# such as offline data collected
from sur.eys or paper catalo" purchases# to de.elop .ery detailed profiles of
their .isitors)
0IG5RE 42P /O* COO9IES I6ENI07 *EB !ISIORS
*indo$s L4
> IE
Chapter 4 Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems (?-
!ersion K)>
Coo8ie
B-(>-,B44 4re.ious %uyer
*elcome %ac8# Jane 6oeQ >
5ser Ser.er
() he *e% ser.er reads the user<s *e% %ro$ser and determines the operatin" system#
%ro$ser name# .ersion num%er# Internet address# and other information)
,) he ser.er transmits a tiny te1t file $ith user identification information called a coo8ie#
$hich the user<s %ro$ser recei.es and stores on the user<s computer hard dri.e)
-) *hen the user returns to the *e% site# the ser.er re&uests the contents of any coo8ie
it deposited pre.iously in the user<s computer)
4) he *e% ser.er reads the coo8ie# identifies the .isitor# and calls up data on the user)
Coo8ies are $ritten %y a *e% site on a .isitor<s hard dri.e) *hen the .isitor returns to that *e% site#
the *e% ser.er re&uests the I6 num%er from the coo8ie and uses it to access the data stored %y that
ser.er on that .isitor) he *e% site can then use these data to display personaliDed information)
here are no$ e.en more su%tle and surreptitious tools for sur.eillance of
Internet users) 3ar8eters use *e% %u"s as another tool to monitor online
%eha.ior) *e% %u"s are tiny "raphic files em%edded in e2mail messa"es and
*e% pa"es that are desi"ned to monitor $ho is readin" the e2mail messa"e or
*e% pa"e and transmit that information to another computer) Other spy$are
can secretly install itself on an Internet user<s computer %y pi""y%ac8in" on
lar"er applications) Once installed# the spy$.are calls out to *e% sites to send
%anner ads and other unsolicited material to the user# and it can also report the
user<s mo.ements on the Internet to other computers) 3ore information is
a.aila%le a%out *e% %u"s# spy$.are# and other intrusi.e soft$are in Chapter G)
Goo"le has started usin" %eha.ioral tar"etin" to help it display more rele.ant
ads %ased on users< search acti.ities) One of its pro"rams ena%les ad.ertisers to
tar"et ads %ased on the search histories of Goo"le users# alon" $ith any other
information the user su%mits to Goo"le or Goo"le can o%tain# such as a"e#
demo"raphics# re"ion# and other *e% acti.ities
=such as %lo""in"@) An
additional pro"ram allo$s Goo"le to help ad.ertisers select 8ey$ords and
desi"n ads for .arious mar8et se"ments %ased on search histories# such as
helpin" a clothin" *e% site create and test ads tar"eted at teena"e females)
Goo"le has also %een scannin" the contents of messa"es recei.ed %y users of
its free *e%2%ased e2mail ser.ice called Gnnail) Ads that users see $hen they
read their e2mail are related to the su%Jects of these messa"es) 4rofiles are
de.eloped on indi.idual users %ased on the content in their e2mail) Goo"le<s
Chrome *e% %ro$ser# introduced in ,>>G# has a Su""est feature $hich automat2
ically su""ests related &ueries and *e% sites as the user enters a search) Critics
pointed out this $as a 8ey2lo""er de.ice that $ould record e.ery 8eystro8e of
users fore.er) Goo"le su%se&uently announced it $ould anonymiDe the data in
t$enty2four hours)
he 5nited States has allo$ed %usinesses to "ather transaction information
"enerated in the mar8etplace and then use that information for other mar8et2
in" purposes $ithout o%tainin" the informed consent of the indi.idual $hose
information is %ein" used) 5)S) e2commerce sites are lar"ely content to pu%lish
(?4 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
statements on their *e% sites informin" .isitors a%out ho$ their information
$ill %e used) Some ha.e added opt2out selection %o1es to these information
policy statements) An opt2out model of informed consent permits the
collection of personal information until the consumer specifically re&uests that
the data not %e collected) 4ri.acy ad.ocates $ould li8e to see $ider use of an
opt2in model of informed consent in $hich a %usiness is prohi%ited from
collectin" any personal information unless the consumer specifically ta8es
action to appro.e information collection and use)
he online industry has preferred self2re"ulation to pri.acy le"islation for
protectin" consumers) In (BBG# the online industry formed the Online 4ri.acy
Alliance to encoura"e self2re"ulation to de.elop a set of pri.acy "uidelines for
its mem%ers) he "roup promotes the use of online seals# such as that of
R5Se# certifyin" *e% sites adherin" to certain pri.acy principles) 3em%ers of
the ad.ertisin" net$or8 industry# includin" 6ou%leClic8# ha.e created an
additional industry association called the Net$or8 Ad.ertisin" Initiati.e =NAI@ to
de.elop its o$n pri.acy policies to help consumers opt out of ad.ertisin"
net$or8 pro"rams and pro.ide consumers redress from a%uses)
Indi.idual firms li8e AOL# 7ahooQ# and Goo"le ha.e recently adopted policies
on their o$n in an effort to address pu%lic concern a%out trac8in" people
online) AOL esta%lished an opt2out policy that allo$s users of its site to not %e
trac8ed) 7ahoo follo$s NAI "uidelines and also allo$s opt out for trac8in" and
*e% %eacons =*e% %u"s@) Goo"le has reduced retention time for trac8in" data)
In "eneral# most Internet %usinesses do little to protect the pri.acy of their
customers# and consumers do not do as much as they should to protect
themsel.es) 3any companies $ith *e% sites do not ha.e pri.acy policies) Of
the companies that do post pri.acy polices on their *e% sites# a%out half do not
monitor their sites to ensure they adhere to these policies) he .ast maJority of
online customers claim they are concerned a%out online pri.acy# %ut less than
half read the pri.acy statements on *e% sites =Laudon and ra.er# ,>>B@)
*e% sites are postin" their
pri.acy policies for .isitors
to re.ie$) he R5Se
seal desi"nates *e% sites
that ha.e a"reed to adhere
to R5Se<s esta%lished
pri.acy principles of
disclosure# choice# access#
and security)
5 InterCont#nental /otels E Resorts I 4ri.acy State ment 2 mommE 0irer
%le Rdt AEt e$ho /S
INERCONINENAL)
/OELS G RESORS
4RI!AC7 SAE3EN
I/G
truer) ontineutal /otels Group I 4ri.acy and Security
2 ((-( L(
R5Se
ne p Nosy .4 Cetteiy o( 7.1 personal nfanult.n >o Crory rR et>>( to uB) *e do 3I Share y* per(a* ntam>l#or i#
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Chapter 4
Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems (?C
echnical Solutions
In addition to le"islation# ne$ technolo"ies are a.aila%le to protect user
pri.acy durin" interactions $ith *e% sites) 3any of these tools are used for
encryptin" e2mail# for ma8in" e2mail or surfin" acti.ities appear anonymous#
for pre.entin" client computers from acceptin" coo8ies# or for detectin" and
eliminatin" spy $are)
here are no$ tools to help users determine the 8ind of personal data that
can %e e1tracted %y *e% sites) he 4latform for 4ri.acy 4references# 8no$n as
4-4# ena%les automatic communication of pri.acy policies %et$een an
e2commerce site and its .isitors) 4-4 pro.ides a standard for communicatin" a
*e% site<s pri.acy policy to Internet users and for comparin" that policy to the
user<s preferences or to other standards# such as the 0C<s ne$ 0I4 "uidelines
or the European 6irecti.e on 6ata 4rotection) 5sers can use 4-4 to select the
le.el of pri.acy they $ish to maintain $hen interactin" $ith the *e% site)
he 4-4 standard allo$s *e% sites to pu%lish pri.acy policies in a form that
computers can understand) Once it is codified accordin" to 4-4 rules# the
pri.acy policy %ecomes part of the soft$are for indi.idual *e% pa"es =see
0i"ure 424@) 5sers of 3icrosoft Internet E1plorer *e% %ro$sin" soft$are can
access and read the 4-4 site<s pri.acy policy and a list of all coo8ies comin"
from the site) Internet E1plorer ena%les users to adJust their computers to
screen out all coo8ies or let in selected coo8ies %ased on specific le.els of
pri.acy) 0or e1ample# the AmediumA le.el accepts coo8ies from first2party host
sites that ha.e opt2in or opt2out policies %ut reJects third2party coo8ies that use
personally identifia%le information $ithout an opt2in policy)
/o$e.er# 4-4 only $or8s $ith *e% sites of mem%ers of the *orld *ide *e%
Consortium $ho ha.e translated their *e% site pri.acy policies into 4-4
format) he technolo"y $ill display coo8ies from *e% sites that are not part of
the consortium# %ut users $ill not %e a%le to o%tain sender information or
pri.acy statements) 3any users may also need to %e educated a%out interpret2
in" company pri.acy statements and 4-4 le.els of pri.acy)
0IG5RE 424 /E 4-4 SAN6AR6
Re&uest for *e% pa"e
H *e% pa"e
H Compact 4-4 policy
H 4ointer to full 4-4 policy
5ser Ser.er
() he user $ith 4-4 *e% %ro$sin" soft$are re&uests a *e% pa"e)
,) he *e% ser.er returns the *e% pa"e alon" $ith a compact .ersion of the *e%
site<s policy and a pointer to the full 4-4 policy) If the *e% site is not 4-4
compliant# no 4-4 data are returned)
-) he user<s *e% %ro$sin" soft$are compares the response irrom the *e% site
$ith the user<s pri.acy preferences) If the *e% site does not ha.e a 4-4 policy or
the policy does not match the pri.acy le.els esta%lished %y the user# it $arns the
user or reJects the coo8ies from the *e% site) Other$ise# the *e% pa"e loads
normally)
4-4 ena%les *e% sites to translate their pri.acy policies into a standard format that can %e read %y the
user<s *e% %ro$ser soft$are) he %ro$ser soft$are e.aluates the *e% site<s pri.acy policy to determine
$hether it is compati%le $ith the user<s pri.acy preferences)
(?? 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
4RO4ER7 RIG/S' INELLEC5AL 4RO4ER7
Contemporary information systems ha.e se.erely challen"ed e1istin" la$ and
social practices that protect pri.ate intellectual property) Intellectual prop2
erty is considered to %e intan"i%le property created %y indi.iduals or corpora2
tions) Information technolo"y has made it difficult to protect intellectual
property %ecause computeriDed information can %e so easily copied or distri%2
uted on net$or8s) Intellectual property is su%Ject to a .ariety of protections
under three different le"al traditions' trade secrets# copyri"ht# and patent la$)
rade Secrets
Any intellectual $or8 product2a formula# de.ice# pattern# or compilation of
data2used for a %usiness purpose can %e classified as a trade secret# pro.ided
it is not %ased on information in the pu%lic domain) 4rotections for trade secrets
.ary from state to state) In "eneral# trade secret la$s "rant a monopoly on the
ideas %ehind a $or8 product# %ut it can %e a .ery tenuous monopoly)
Soft$are that contains no.el or uni&ue elements# procedures# or compila2
tions can %e included as a trade secret) rade secret la$ protects the actual
ideas in a $or8 product# not only their manifestation) o ma8e this claim# the
creator or o$ner must ta8e care to %ind employees and customers $ith
nondisclosure a"reements and to pre.ent the secret from fallin" into the pu%lic
domain)
he limitation of trade secret protection is that# althou"h .irtually all
soft$are pro"rams of any comple1ity contain uni&ue elements of some sort# it
is difficult to pre.ent the ideas in the $or8 from fallin" into the pu%lic domain
$hen the soft$are is $idely distri%uted)
Copyri"ht
Copyri"ht is a statutory "rant that protects creators of intellectual property
from ha.in" their $or8 copied %y others for any purpose durin" the life of the
author plus an additional K> years after the author<s death) 0or corporate2o$ned
$or8s# copyri"ht protection lasts for BC years after their initial creation)
Con"ress has e1tended copyri"ht protection to %oo8s# periodicals# lectures#
dramas# musical compositions# maps# dra$in"s# art$or8 of any 8ind# and
motion pictures) he intent %ehind copyri"ht la$s has %een to encoura"e
creati.ity and authorship %y ensurin" that creati.e people recei.e the financial
and other %enefits of their $or8) 3ost industrial nations ha.e their o$n
copyri"ht la$s# and there are se.eral international con.entions and %ilateral
a"reements throu"h $hich nations coordinate and enforce their la$s)
In the mid2(B?>s# the Copyri"ht Office %e"an re"isterin" soft$are pro"rams#
and in (BG> Con"ress passed the Computer Soft$are Copyri"ht Act# $hich
clearly pro.ides protection for soft$are pro"ram code and for copies of the
ori"inal sold in commerce# and sets forth the ri"hts of the purchaser to use the
soft$are $hile the creator retains le"al title)
Copyri"ht protects a"ainst copyin" of entire pro"rams or their parts)
6ama"es and relief are readily o%tained for infrin"ement) he dra$%ac8 to
copyri"ht protection is that the underlyin" ideas %ehind a $or8 are not
protected# only their manifestation in a $or8) A competitor can use your
soft$are# understand ho$ it $or8s# and %uild ne$ soft$are that follo$s the
same concepts $ithout infrin"in" on a copyri"ht)
ALoo8 and feelA copyri"ht infrin"ement la$suits are precisely a%out the
distinction %et$een an idea and its e1pression) 0or instance# in the early (BB>s#
Apple Computer sued 3icrosoft Corporation and /e$lett24ac8ard for infrin"e2
Chapter 4 Ethical and Social Issues in
ment of the e1pression of Apple<s 3acintosh interface# claimin" that the defen2
dants copied the e1pression of o.erlappin" $indo$s) he defendants countered
that the idea of o.erlappin" $indo$s can %e e1pressed only in a sin"le $ay and#
therefore# $as not protecta%le under the mer"er doctrine of copyri"ht la$)
*hen ideas and their e1pression mer"e# the e1pression cannot %e copyri"hted)
In "eneral# courts appear to %e follo$in" the reasonin" of a (BGB case2Bro$n
Ba" Soft$are .s) Symantec Corp) 2in $hich the court dissected the elements of
soft$are alle"ed to %e infrin"in") he court found that similar concept#
function# "eneral functional features =e)")# drop2do$n menus@# and colors are
not protecta%le %y copyri"ht la$ =Bro$n Ba" Soft$are .s) Symantec Co@p)# (BB,@)
4atents
A patent "rants the o$ner an e1clusi.e monopoly on the ideas %ehind an
in.ention for ,> years) he con"ressional intent %ehind patent la$ $as to ensure
that in.entors of ne$ machines# de.ices# or methods recei.e the full financial
and other re$ards of their la%or and yet ma8e $idespread use of the in.ention
possi%le %y pro.idin" detailed dia"rams for those $ishin" to use the idea under
license from the patent<s o$ner) he "rantin" of a patent is determined %y the
5nited States 4atent and rademar8 Office and relies on court rulin"s)
he 8ey concepts in patent la$ are ori"inality# no.elty# and in.ention)
he 4atent Office did not accept applications for soft$are patents routinely
until a (BG( Supreme Court decision that held that computer pro"rams could %e a
part of a patenta%le process) Since that time# hundreds of patents ha.e %een
"ranted and thousands a$ait consideration)
he stren"th of patent protection is that it "rants a monopoly on the under2
lyin" concepts and ideas of soft$are) he difficulty is passin" strin"ent criteria
of nono%.iousness =e)")# the $or8 must reflect some special understandin" and
contri%ution@# ori"inality# and no.elty# as $ell as years of $aitin" to recei.e
protection)
Challen"es to Intellectual 4roperty Ri"hts
Contemporary information technolo"ies# especially soft$are# pose se.ere
challen"es to e1istin" intellectual property re"imes and# therefore# create
si"nificant ethical# social# and political issues) 6i"ital media differ from %oo8s#
periodicals# and other media in terms of ease of replication; ease of transmis2
sion; ease of alteration; difficulty in classifyin" a soft$are $or8 as a pro"ram#
%oo8# or e.en music; compactness2ma8in" theft easy; and difficulties in
esta%lishin" uni&ueness)
he proliferation of electronic net$or8s# includin" the Internet# has made it
e.en more difficult to protect intellectual property) Before $idespread use of
net$or8s# copies of soft$are# %oo8s# ma"aDine articles# or films had to %e stored
on physical media# such as paper# computer dis8s# or .ideotape# creatin" some
hurdles to distri%ution) 5sin" net$or8s# information can %e more $idely
reproduced and distri%uted) he 0ifth Annual Glo%al Soft$are 4iracy Study
conducted %y the International 6ata Corporation and the Business Soft$are
Alliance found that -G percent of the soft$are installed in ,>>K on 4Cs
$orld$ide $as o%tained ille"ally# representin" M4G %illion in "lo%al losses from
soft$are piracy) *orld$ide# for e.ery t$o dollars of soft$are purchased
le"itimately# one dollar<s $orth $as o%tained ille"ally =Business Soft$are
Alliance# ,>>G@)
he Internet $as desi"ned to transmit information freely around the $orld#
includin" copyri"hted information) *ith the *orld *ide *e% in particular# you
can easily copy and distri%ute .irtually anythin" to thousands and e.en
Information Systems (?K
(?G 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
millions of people around the $orld# e.en if they are usin" different types of
computer systems) Information can %e illicitly copied from one place and
distri%uted throu"h other systems and net$or8s e.en thou"h these parties do
not $illin"ly participate in the infrin"ement)
Indi.iduals ha.e %een ille"ally copyin" and distri%utin" di"itiDed 34- music
files on the Internet for a num%er of years) 0ile sharin" ser.ices such as
Napster# and later Gro8ster# 9aDaa# and 3orpheus# sprun" up to help users
locate and s$ap di"ital music files# includin" those protected %y copyri"ht)
Ille"al file2sharin" %ecame so $idespread that it threatened the .ia%ility of the
music recordin" industry) he recordin" industry $on some le"al %attles for
shuttin" these ser.ices do$n# %ut has not %een a%le to halt ille"al file sharin"
entirely) As more and more homes adopt hi"h2speed Internet access# ille"al file
sharin" of .ideos $ill pose similar threats to the motion picture industry =see
the case study concludin" Chapter -@)
3echanisms are %ein" de.eloped to sell and distri%ute %oo8s# articles# and
other intellectual property le"ally on the Internet# and the 6i"ital 3illennium
Copyri"ht Act =63CA@ of (BBG is pro.idin" some copyri"ht protection)
he 63CA implemented a *orld Intellectual 4roperty Or"aniDation reaty that
ma8es it ille"al to circum.ent technolo"y2%ased protections of copyri"hted
materials) Internet ser.ice pro.iders =IS4s@ are re&uired to ta8e do$n sites of
copyri"ht infrin"ers that they are hostin" once they are notified of the pro%lem)
3icrosoft and other maJor soft$are and information content firms are
represented %y the Soft$are and Information Industry Association =SIIA@#
$hich lo%%ies for ne$ la$s and enforcement of e1istin" la$s to protect
intellectual property around the $orld) he SIIA runs an antipiracy hotline for
indi.iduals to report piracy acti.ities and educational pro"rams to help
or"aniDations com%at soft$are piracy and has pu%lished "uidelines for
employee use of soft$are)
ACCO5NABILI7# LIABILI7# AN6 CONROL
Alon" $ith pri.acy and property la$s# ne$ information technolo"ies are
challen"in" e1istin" lia%ility la$ and social practices for holdin" indi.iduals and
institutions accounta%le) If a person is inJured %y a machine controlled# in part#
%y soft$are# $ho should %e held accounta%le and# therefore# held lia%le+ Should
a pu%lic %ulletin %oard or an electronic ser.ice# such as America Online# permit
the transmission of porno"raphic or offensi.e material =as %roadcasters@# or
should they %e held harmless a"ainst any lia%ility for $hat users transmit =as is
true of common carriers# such as the telephone system@+ *hat a%out the
Internet+ If you outsource your information processin"# can you hold the
e1ternal .endor lia%le for inJuries done to your customers+ Some real2$orld
e1amples may shed li"ht on these &uestions)
Computer2Related Lia%ility 4ro%lems
6urin" the $ee8end of 3arch (C# ,>>,# tens of thousands of Ban8 of America
customers in California# AriDona# and Ne.ada $ere una%le to use their
paychec8s and Social Security payments that had Just %een deposited electroni2
cally) Chec8s %ounced) *ithdra$als $ere %loc8ed %ecause of insufficient funds)
Because of an operatin" error at the %an8<s computer center in Ne.ada# a %atch
of direct deposit transactions $as not processed) he %an8 lost trac8 of money
that should ha.e %een credited to customers< accounts# and it too8 days to rectify
the pro%lem =Carr and Galla"her# ,>>,@) *ho is lia%le for any economic harm
Chapter 4 Ethical and Social Issues
caused to indi.iduals or %usinesses that could not access their full account
%alances in this period+
his case re.eals the difficulties faced %y information systems e1ecuti.es
$ho ultimately are responsi%le for any harm done %y systems de.eloped %y
their staffs) In "eneral# insofar as computer soft$are is part of a machine# and
the machine inJures someone physically or economically# the producer of the
soft$are and the operator can %e held lia%le for dama"es) Insofar as the
soft$are acts li8e a %oo8# storin" and displayin" information# courts ha.e %een
reluctant to hold authors# pu%lishers# and %oo8sellers lia%le for contents =the
e1ception %ein" instances of fraud or defamation@# and hence courts ha.e %een
$ary of holdin" soft$are authors lia%le for %oo8li8e soft$are)
In "eneral# it is .ery difficult =if not impossi%le@ to hold soft$are producers
lia%le for their soft$are products that are considered to %e li8e %oo8s# re"ardless
of the physical or economic harm that results) /istorically# print pu%lishers#
%oo8s# and periodicals ha.e not %een held lia%le %ecause of fears that lia%ility
claims $ould interfere $ith 0irst Amendment ri"hts "uaranteein" freedom of
e1pression)
*hat a%out soft$are as a ser.ice+ A3 machines are a ser.ice pro.ided to
%an8 customers) Should this ser.ice fail# customers $ill %e incon.enienced and
perhaps harmed economically if they cannot access their funds in a timely
manner) Should lia%ility protections %e e1tended to soft$are pu%lishers and
operators of defecti.e financial# accountin"# simulation# or mar8etin" systems+
Soft$are is .ery different from %oo8s) Soft$are users may de.elop e1pecta2
tions of infalli%ility a%out soft$are; soft$are is less easily inspected than a
%oo8# and it is more difficult to compare $ith other soft$are products for
&uality; soft$are claims actually to perform a tas8 rather than descri%e a tas8# as
a %oo8 does; and people come to depend on ser.ices essentially %ased on
soft$are) Gi.en the centrality of soft$are to e.eryday life# the chances are
e1cellent that lia%ility la$ $ill e1tend its reach to include soft$are e.en $hen
the soft$are merely pro.ides an information ser.ice)
elephone systems ha.e not %een held lia%le for the messa"es transmitted
%ecause they are re"ulated common carriers) In return for their ri"ht to pro.ide
telephone ser.ice# they must pro.ide access to all# at reasona%le rates# and
achie.e accepta%le relia%ility) But %roadcasters and ca%le tele.ision systems are
su%Ject to a $ide .ariety of federal and local constraints on content and
facilities) Or"aniDations can %e held lia%le for offensi.e content on their *e%
sites; and online ser.ices# such as America Online# mi"ht %e held lia%le for
postin"s %y their users) Althou"h 5)S) courts ha.e increasin"ly e1onerated *e%
sites and IS4s for postin" material %y third parties# the threat of le"al action still
has a chillin" effect on small companies or indi.iduals $ho cannot afford to
ta8e their cases to trial)
S7SE3 :5ALI7' 6AA :5ALI7 AN6 S7SE3
ERRORS
he de%ate o.er lia%ility and accounta%ility for unintentional conse&uences of
system use raises a related %ut independent moral dimension' *hat is an
accepta%le# technolo"ically feasi%le le.el of system &uality+ At $hat point
should system mana"ers say# AStop testin"# $e<.e done all $e can to perfect this
soft$are) Ship itQA Indi.iduals and or"aniDations may %e held responsi%le for
a.oida%le and foreseea%le conse&uences# $hich they ha.e a duty to percei.e
and correct) And the "ray area is that some system errors are foreseea%le and
in Information Systems (?B
(K> 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
correcta%le only at .ery "reat e1pense# an e1pense so "reat that pursuin" this
le.el of perfection is not feasi%le economically2no one could afford the
product)
0or e1ample# althou"h soft$are companies try to de%u" their products %efore
releasin" them to the mar8etplace# they 8no$in"ly ship %u""y products
%ecause the time and cost of fi1in" all minor errors $ould pre.ent these
products from e.er %ein" released) *hat if the product $as not offered on the
mar8etplace# $ould social $elfare as a $hole not ad.ance and perhaps e.en
decline+ Carryin" this further# Just $hat is the responsi%ility of a producer of
computer ser.ices2should it $ithdra$ the product that can ne.er %e perfect#
$arn the user# or for"et a%out the ris8 =let the %uyer %e$are@+
hree principal sources of poor system performance are =(@ soft$are %u"s
and errors# =,@ hard$are or facility failures caused %y natural or other causes#
and =-@ poor input data &uality) A Chapter G Learnin" rac8 discusses $hy Dero
defects in soft$are code of any comple1ity cannot %e achie.ed and $hy the
seriousness of remainin" %u"s cannot %e estimated) /ence# there is a techno2
lo"ical %arrier to perfect soft$are# and users must %e a$are of the potential for
catastrophic failure) he soft$are industry has not yet arri.ed at testin" stan2
dards for producin" soft$are of accepta%le %ut not perfect performance)
Althou"h soft$are %u"s and facility catastrophes are li8ely to %e $idely
reported in the press# %y far the most common source of %usiness system failure
is data &uality) 0e$ companies routinely measure the &uality of their data# %ut
indi.idual or"aniDations report data error rates ran"in" from >)C to -> percent)
:5ALI7 O0 LI0E' E:5I7# ACCESS# AN6 BO5N6ARIES
he ne"ati.e social costs of introducin" information technolo"ies and systems
are %e"innin" to mount alon" $ith the po$er of the technolo"y) 3any of these
ne"ati.e social conse&uences are not .iolations of indi.idual ri"hts or property
crimes) Ne.ertheless# these ne"ati.e conse&uences can %e e1tremely harmful to
indi.iduals# societies# and political institutions) Computers and information
technolo"ies potentially can destroy .alua%le elements of our culture and
society e.en $hile they %rin" us %enefits) If there is a %alance of "ood and %ad
conse&uences of usin" information systems# $ho do $e hold responsi%le for the
%ad conse&uences+ Ne1t# $e %riefly e1amine some of the ne"ati.e social conse2
&uences of systems# considerin" indi.idual# social# and political responses)
Balancin" 4o$er' Center !ersus 4eriphery
An early fear of the computer a"e $as that hu"e# centraliDed mainframe
computers $ould centraliDe po$er at corporate head&uarters and in the
nation<s capital# resultin" in a Bi" Brother society# as $as su""ested in Geor"e
Or2$ell<s no.el (BG4) he shift to$ard hi"hly decentraliDed computin"# coupled
$ith an ideolo"y of empo$erment of thousands of $or8ers# and the decentral2
iDation of decision ma8in" to lo$er or"aniDational le.els ha.e reduced the fears
of po$er centraliDation in institutions) 7et much of the empo$erment
descri%ed in popular %usiness ma"aDines is tri.ial) Lo$er2le.el employees may %e
empo$ered to ma8e minor decisions# %ut the 8ey policy decisions may %e as
centraliDed as in the past)
Rapidity of Chan"e' Reduced Response ime to
Competition
Information systems ha.e helped to create much more efficient national and
international mar8ets) he no$2more2efficient "lo%al mar8etplace has reduced
Chapter 4 Ethical and Social Issues in
Information Systems (K(
the normal social %uffers that permitted %usinesses many years to adJust to
competition) ime2%ased competition has an u"ly side' he %usiness you $or8
for may not ha.e enou"h time to respond to "lo%al competitors and may %e
$iped out in a year# alon" $ith your Jo%) *e stand the ris8 of de.elopin" a
AJust2in2time SocietyA $ith < J5St2m2time Jo%sA and AJust2in2timeA $or8places#
families# and .acations)
3aintainin" Boundaries' 0amily# *or8# and Leisure
4arts of this %oo8 $ere produced on trains and planes# as $ell as on .acations
and durin" $hat other$ise mi"ht ha.e %een AfamilyA time) he dan"er to u%i&2
uitous computin"# telecommutin"# nomad computin"# and the Ado anythin"
any$hereA computin" en.ironment is that it mi"ht actually come true) If so#
the traditional %oundaries that separate $or8 from family and Just plain leisure
$ill %e $ea8ened)
Althou"h authors ha.e traditionally $or8ed Just a%out any$here =type$riters
ha.e %een porta%le for nearly a century@# the ad.ent of information
systems# coupled $ith the "ro$th of 8no$led"e2$or8 occupations# means that
more and more people $ill %e $or8in" $hen traditionally they $ould ha.e
%een playin" or communicatin" $ith family and friends) he $or8 um%rella
no$ e1tends far %eyond the ei"ht2hour day)
E.en leisure time spent on the computer threatens these close social
relationships) E1tensi.e Internet use# e.en for entertainment or recreational
purposes# ta8es people a$ay from their family and friends) Amon" middle
school and teena"e children# it can lead to harmful anti2social %eha.ior)
*ea8enin" these institutions poses clear2cut ris8s) 0amily and friends
historically ha.e pro.ided po$erful support mechanisms for indi.iduals# and
they act as %alance points in a society %y preser.in" pri.ate life# pro.idin" a
place for people to collect their thou"hts# allo$in" people to thin8 in $ays
contrary to their employer# and dream)
Althou"h some people enJoy
the con.enience of $or8in"
at home# the Ado anythin"
any$hereA computin"
en.ironment can %lur the
traditional %oundaries
%et$een $or8 and family
time)
(K, 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
INERACI!E SESSION' 3ANAGE3EN
GREEN I)) A *I4RO
*ipro echnolo"ies =*ipro@# a di.ision of *ipro
Limited# pro.ides inte"rated %usiness# technolo"y
and process solutions) In the Indian mar8et# *ipro
is a leader in pro.idin" I solutions and ser.ices for
the corporate se"ment in India# offerin" system inte2
"ration# soft$are solutions and I ser.ices) It is a
"lo%al 5)S) M (> %illion company that has $on
numerous a$ards for its leadership# social responsi2
%ility# and customer care)
*ipro started its "reen Journey $ith consolidation
and .irtualiDation to scale do$n the ener"y con2
sunmption in its o$n datacenter) he e1ponential
"ro$th of *ipro<s ser.er use $as %ecomin" a maJor
pro%lem and created an impact on ener"y costs) he
I team decided to tac8le the pro%lem $ith %lade
ser.ers and .irtualiDation) Commentin" on the deci2
sion# CIO La1man Badi"a said# A))) he amount of
space $e used in the datacenter $as optimiDed %y
consolidatin" our ser.ers for different applications)
his helped open space and optimiDe our coolin"
needs)A
he mo.e to con.ert a non2"reen datacenter into
a "reen one# ho$e.er# $as not easy) here $as a lot
of financial strain associated $ith the mo.e) 0or
e1ample# the initial in.estment to .irtualiDe the
infrastructure $as Rs) ? million# $hich needed to %e
au"mented %y C to (> percent $ith the increase in
%usiness needs) 0urthermore# the entire datacenter
%lueprint 2 $hich maintained data li8e ho$ the or"a2
niDation laid out its rac8s# ho$ much coolin" and
po$er $ere needed per rac8 2 had to under"o
re.ie$; and the po$er and coolin" re&uirements had
to %e re2architected for the ne$ datacenter)
Commentin" on the challen"es# Jethin Chandran
G32I 4lannin"# said# ARetrofittin" can create a lot of
impact) hen there are challen"es in do$ntime)A
In Au"ust ,>>C# the company em%ar8ed on tac82
lin" the e2$aste pro%lem %y "ettin" its manufactur2
in" facility certified under ISO (4>>() A year later#
the company announced an e2$aste disposal pro2
"ram for its customers# $here%y it collected dis2
carded systems from customers and sent them to
.endors certified %y the 4ollution Control Board to
dispose of the parts) he e2$aste mana"ement initia2
ti.e du%%ed 2 Green Computin" 2 ena%led end2to2end
e2$aste mana"ement in its product lifecycle# span2
nin" desi"nin"# manufacturin" and up to the final
disposal of the product)
In June ,>>K# *ipro %ecame the first Indian com2
pany to introduce an eco2friendly ran"e of des8tops
and laptops aimed at reducin" e2$aste in the en.i2
ronment) he ne$ ran"es of products# named
Green*are# $ere compliant $ith the European
Restriction of /aDardous Su%stances =Ro/S@ direc2
ti.e) he Ro/S directi.e# adopted in ,>>- %y the
European 5nion# restricts the use of si1 haDardous
materials in the manufacture of .arious types of
electronic and electrical e&uipment) he ne$ 4Cs
$ould %e free of haDardous materials such as %romi2
nated flame retardants =B0R@# 4oly.inyl chloride
=4!C@ and hea.y metals li8e lead# cadmium and
mercury that had %een re"ularly used in the manu2
facture of computers)
In June ,>>G# *ipro Joined the Green Grid# a
"lo%al consortium dedicated to ad.ancin" ener"y
efficiency in datacenters and %usiness computin"
ecosystems) In the same month# *ipro commenced
the EcoEye initiati.e# a comprehensi.e pro"ram for
increasin" ecolo"ical sustaina%ility in all its opera2
tions and en"a"in" its shareholders)
Commentin" on this initiati.e# Chandran said# A)))
It is a colla%orati.e effort %et$een our customers#
suppliers and employees) *e are also $or8in" on
esta%lishin" supply chain social en.ironment
responsi%ility "uidelines and $or8 $ith suppliers to
identify materials that $ill reduce the en.ironmen2
tal impact of their products)A
All this $ould not ha.e %een possi%le $ithout the
commitment from the top) ADim 4rernJi# chairman
and CEO# made it his personal mission to dri.e the
chan"e)
/e had %een closely in.ol.ed *ith EcoEye from
its inception and monitored its pro"ress on a re"ular
%asis) he "o.ernin" council comprised the senior
most leaders includin" the CIO# C0O# CO# /ead of
/R# and Chief Strate"y Officer) At the lo$er le.el#
%usiness units $ere responsi%le for dri.in" "reen ini2
tiati.es to the BC#>>> plus *ipro employees) All pro2
Jects $ere loo8ed at from an ecolo"ical# as $ell as
i f nancial# perspecti.e and $ere si"ned off %y the
"o.ernin" council)
As a result of adoptin" "reen I practices# *ipro
reduced its ser.ers from 4>> to (>> and sa.ed a%out
I million 9*h of po$er annually) he po$er con2
sumption reduced %y ,? percent as a result of rollin"
out po$er mana"ement tools) *ith .irtualiDation
and consolidation# the company is tar"etin" a reduc2
tion in its ser.er footprint %y - percent)
CASE S567 :5ESIONS
() *hat $ere the .arious "reen initiati.es under2
ta8en %y *ipro+
,) *hat $ere some of the challen"es faced %y
*ipro+ *hat %enefits did *ipro reap from "reen
computin"+
-) *hat lessons can other or"aniDations learn from
*ipro<s e1perience+
4) Should "reen2computin" %e dri.en %y I .endors#
or should it %e dri.en %y corporate customers+
6iscuss)
Chapter 4 Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems (K-
Sources' John Ri%eriro# A*ipro Goes Green as India<s E2*aste
3ounts#A $$$)cio)com# June ,>>K; AE1pandin" Green I#A
$$$)cio)in# No.em%er ,>>G; A*ipro Launches EcoEye Initiati.e#A
$XmarX#)thehindu%usinessline)conr# June ,>>G; im Gray# A*ipro
Joins the Green Gnd#A "reen)trncnetconr# June ,>>G)
3IS IN ACION
!isit the *e% site at $$$)$ipro)com and also
search the Internet to ans$er the follo$in" &ues2
tions'
() /o$ is I contri%utin" to increased car%on
emissions+ *hat are some estimates of the e1tent
of the pro%lem+ *hich I practices are some of
the %i""est culprits+
,) *hat is *ipro<s car%on accountin" tool+ /o$
can it help companies+
-) *hat are car%on credits+ /o$ can they %e used
%y *ipro+
4) *hat are the "reen initiati.es underta8en %y
other maJor I .endors# specifically IB3#
3icrosoft# and /4+
H Case contri%uted %y NeerJa Sethi and !iJay Sethi# Nanyan" echnolo"ical 5ni.ersity
6ependence and !ulnera%ility
oday# our %usinesses# "o.ernments# schools# and pri.ate associations# such as
churches# are incredi%ly dependent on information systems and are# therefore#
hi"hly .ulnera%le if these systems fail) *ith systems no$ as u%i&uitous as the
telephone system# it is startlin" to remem%er that there are no re"ulatory or
standard2settin" forces in place that are similar to telephone# electrical# radio#
tele.ision# or other pu%lic utility technolo"ies) he a%sence of standards and the
criticality of some system applications $ill pro%a%ly call forth demands for national
standards and perhaps re"ulatory o.ersi"ht)
(K4 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
Computer Crime and A%use
Ne$ technolo"ies# includin" computers# create ne$ opportunities for commit2
tin" crime %y creatin" ne$ .alua%le items to steal# ne$ $ays to steal them# and
ne$ $ays to harm others) Computer crime is the commission of ille"al acts
throu"h the use of a computer or a"ainst a computer system) Computers or
computer systems can %e the o%Ject of the crime =destroyin" a company<s
computer center or a company<s computer files@# as $ell as the instrument of a
crime =stealin" computer lists %y ille"ally "ainin" access to a computer system
usin" a home computer@) Simply accessin" a computer system $ithout autho2
riDation or $ith intent to do harm# e.en %y accident# is no$ a federal crime)
Computer a%use is the commission of acts in.ol.in" a computer that may
not %e ille"al %ut that are considered unethical) he popularity of the Internet
and e2mail has turned one form of computer a%use2spammin"2into a serious
pro%lem for %oth indi.iduals and %usinesses) Spam is Jun8 e2mail sent %y an
or"aniDation or indi.idual to a mass audience of Internet users $ho ha.e
e1pressed no interest in the product or ser.ice %ein" mar8eted) Spammers tend
to mar8et porno"raphy# fraudulent deals and ser.ices# outri"ht scams# and
other products not $idely appro.ed in most ci.iliDed societies) Some countries
ha.e passed la$s to outla$ spammin" or to restrict its use) In the 5nited States#
it is still le"al if it does not in.ol.e fraud and the sender and su%Ject of the
e2mail are properly identified)
Spammin" has mushroomed %ecause it only costs a fe$ cents to send
thousands of messa"es ad.ertisin" $ares to Internet users) Accordin" to
Sophos# a leadin" .endor of security soft$are# spam accounted for B,)- percent
of all e2mail traffic durin" the first &uarter of ,>>G =Sophos# ,>>G@) Spam costs
for %usinesses are .ery hi"h =an estimated MC> %illion per year@ %ecause of the
computin" and net$or8 resources consumed %y %illions of un$anted e2mail
messa"es and the time re&uired to deal $ith them)
Internet ser.ice pro.iders and indi.iduals can com%at spam %y usin" spam
filterin" soft$are to %loc8 suspicious e2mail %efore it enters a recipient<s e2mail
in%o1) /o$e.er# spam filters may %loc8 le"itimate messa"es) Spammers 8no$
ho$ to s8irt around filters %y continually chan"in" their e2mail accounts# %y
incorporatin" spam messa"es in ima"es# %y em%eddin" spam in e2mail attach2
ments and electronic "reetin" cards# and %y usin" other people<s computers
that ha.e %een hiJac8ed %y %otnets =see Chapter G@) 3any spam messa"es are
sent from one country $hile another country hosts the spam *e% site)
Spammin" is more ti"htly re"ulated in Europe than in the 5nited States)
On 3ay -># ,>>,# the European 4arliament passed a %an on unsolicited
commercial messa"in") Electronic mar8etin" can %e tar"eted only to people
$ho ha.e "i.en prior consent)
he 5)S) CAN2S4A3 Act of ,>>-# $hich $ent into effect on January (# ,>>4#
does not outla$ spannin" %ut does %an decepti.e e2mail practices %y re&uirin"
commercial e2mail messa"es to display accurate su%Ject lines# identify the true
senders# and offer recipients an easy $ay to remo.e their names from e2mail
lists) It also prohi%its the use of fa8e return addresses) A fe$ people ha.e %een
prosecuted under the la$# %ut it has had a ne"li"i%le impact on spammin")
Employment' ric8le26o$n echnolo"y and
Reen"ineerin" Jo% Loss
Reen"ineerin" $or8 is typically hailed in the information systems community
as a maJor %enefit of ne$ information technolo"y) It is much less fre&uently
noted that redesi"nin" %usiness processes could potentially cause millions of
middle2le.el mana"ers and clerical $or8ers to lose their Jo%s) One economist
Chapter 4 Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems (KC
has raised the possi%ility that *e $ill create a society run %y a small Ahi"h tech
elite of corporate professionals ))) in a nation of the permanently unemployedA
=Rif8in# (BB-@)
Other economists are much more san"uine a%out the potential Jo% losses)
hey %elie.e relie.in" %ri"ht# educated $or8ers from reen"ineered Jo%s *ill
result in these $or8ers mo.in" to %etter Jo%s in fast2"ro$th industries)
3issin" from this e&uation are uns8illed# %lue2collar *or8ers and older# less
$ell2educated middle mana"ers) It is not clear that these "roups can %e
retrained easily for hi"h2&uality =hi"h2payin"@ Jo%s) Careful plannin" and
sensiti.ity to employee needs can help companies redesi"n *or8 to minimiDe
Jo% losses)
he Interacti.e Session on 3ana"ement e1plores another conse&uence of
reen"ineered Jo%s) In this case# *al23art<s chan"es in Jo% schedulin" for more
efficient use of its employees did not cause employees to lose their Jo%s
directly) But it did impact their personal li.es and forced them to accept
more irre"ular part2time $or8) As you read this case# try to identify the
pro%lem this company is facin"# $hat alternati.e solutions are a.aila%le to
mana"ement# and $hether the chosen solution *as the %est $ay to address
this pro%lem)
E&uity and Access' Increasin" Racial and Social Class
Clea.a"es
6oes e.eryone ha.e an e&ual opportunity to participate in the di"ital a"e+
*ill the social# economic# and cultural "aps that e1ist in the 5nited States and
other societies %e reduced %y information systems technolo"y+ Or *ill the
clea.a"es %e increased# permittin" the %etter off to %ecome e.en more %etter
off relati.e to others+
hese &uestions ha.e not yet %een fully ans$ered %ecause the impact of
systems technolo"y on .arious "roups in society has not %een thorou"hly
studied) *hat is 8no$n is that information# 8no$led"e# computers# and
access to these resources throu"h educational institutions and pu%lic
li%raries are ine&uita%ly distri%uted alon" ethnic and social class lines# as are
many other information resources) Se.eral studies ha.e found that certain
ethnic and income "roups in the 5nited States are less li8ely to ha.e com2
puters or online Internet access e.en thou"h computer o$nership and
Internet access ha.e soared in the past fi.e years) Althou"h the "ap is nar2
ro$in"# hi"her2income families in each ethnic "roup are still more li8ely to
ha.e home computers and Internet access than lo$er2income families in the
same "roup)
A similar di"ital di.ide e1ists in 5)S) schools# *ith schools in
hi"h2po.erty areas less li8ely to ha.e computers# hi"h2&uality educational
technolo"y pro"rams# or Internet access a.aila%ility for their students) Left
uncorrected# the di"ital di.ide could lead to a society of information ha.es#
computer literate and s8illed# .ersus a lar"e "roup of information ha.e2nots#
computer illiterate and uns8illed) 4u%lic interest "roups $ant to narro$ this
di"ital di.ide %y ma8in" di"ital information ser.ices2includin" the Internet2
a.aila%le to .irtually e.eryone# Just as %asic telephone ser.ice is no$)
/ealth Ris8s' RSI# C!S# and echnostress
he most common occupational disease today is repetiti.e stress inJury
=RSI@) RSI occurs *hen muscle "roups are forced throu"h repetiti.e actions
often $ith hi"h2impact loads =such as tennis@ or tens of thousands of repetitions
under lo$2impact loads =such as *or8in" at a computer 8ey%oard@)
(K? 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
INERACI!E SESSION' 3ANAGE3EN
0LELIBLE SC/E65LING A *AL23AR' GOO6 OR BA6 0OR
E34LO7EES+
*ith nearly ()4 million $or8ers domestically#
*al23art is the lar"est pri.ate employer in the
5nited States) *al23art is also the nation<s num%er
one retailer in terms of sales# re"isterin" nearly M-KB
%illion in sales re.enue for the fiscal year endin"
January -(# ,>>G) *al23art achie.ed its lofty status
throu"h a com%ination of lo$2$O prices and lo$
operational costs# ena%led %y a super% continuous
in.entory replenishment system)
No$ *al23art is tryin" to lo$er costs further %y
chan"in" its methods for schedulin" the $or8 shifts
of its employees) In early ,>>K# *al23art re.ealed
that it $as adoptin" a computeriDed schedulin"
system# a mo.e that has %een roundly criticiDed %y
$or8ers< ri"hts ad.ocates for the impact it may ha.e
on employees< li.es)
raditionally# schedulin" employee shifts at %i"
%o1 stores such as *al23art $as the domain of store
mana"ers $ho arran"ed schedules manually)
hey %ased their decisions in part on current store
promotions as $ell as on $ee8ly sales data from the
pre.ious year) ypically# the process re&uired a full
day of effort for a store mana"er) 3ultiply that la%or
intensity %y the num%er of stores in a chain and you
ha.e an e1pensi.e tas8 $ith results that are
mar"inally %eneficial to the company)
By usin" a computeriDed schedulin" system# such
as the system from 9ronos that *al23art adopted# a
retail enterprise can produce $or8 schedules for
e.ery store in its chain in a matter of hours)
3ean$hile# store mana"ers can de.ote their time to
runnin" their indi.idual stores more effecti.ely)
he 9ronos schedulin" systenK trac8s indi.idual
store sales# transactions# units sold# and customer
traffic) he system lo"s these metrics o.er (C2minute
increments for se.en $ee8s at a time# and then
measures them a"ainst the same data from the
pre.ious year) It can also inte"rate data such as the
num%er of in2store customers at certain hours or the
a.era"e time re&uired to sell a tele.ision set or
unload a truc8 and predict the num%er of $or8ers
needed at any "i.en hour)
A typical result of this type of schedulin" mi"ht
call for a sparse staff early in the day# a si"nificant
increase for the midday rush# scalin" %ac8 to$ard
the end of the afternoon# and then fortifyin" the staff
once a"ain for an e.enin" cro$d) /o$e.er# for a
chain li8e *al23art# $hich operates thousands of ,42
hour stores and has also run into trou%le pre.iously
for its la%or practices# the transition to a computer2
iDed schedulin" system has resulted in contro.ersy)
0or *al23art# usin" I ronos translates to impro.ed
producti.ity and customer satisfaction) 3ana"ement
reported a (,2percent "ain in la%or producti.ity in the
&uarter endin" January -(# ,>>G)
0or *al23art employees# 8no$n to the company as
associates# the chan"e may decrease the sta%ility of their
Jo%s and# possi%ly# create financial hardship)
he schedulin" "enerated %y 9ronos can %e unpre2
dicta%le# re&uirin" associates to %e more fle1i%le $ith
their $or8 hours) Stores may as8 them to %e on call in
case of a rush# or to "o home durin" a sloeO spell)
Irre"ular hours# and inconsistent paychec8s# ma8e it
more difficult for employees to or"aniDe their li.es#
from schedulin" %a%ysitters to payin" %ills) Alerts
from the system may also ena%le store mana"ers to
a.oid payin" o.ertime or full2time $a"es %y cuttin"
%ac8 the hours of associates $ho are approachin" the
thresholds that cause e1tra %enefits to 8ic8 in)
Associates are almost al$ays people $ho need all the
$or8 they can "et)
Accordin" to 4aul Blan8 of the *e% site
*a8e5p*al3art)com# $hich is supported %y the
5nited 0ood and Commercial *or8ers union# A*hat
the computer is tryin" to optimiDe is the most num%er
of part2time and least num%er of full2time $or8ers at
lo$er la%or costs# $ith no re"ard for the effect that it
has on $or8ers< li.es)A Sarah Clar8# spea8in" on %ehalf
of Aral23art# insists the system<s "oal is simply to
impro.e customer ser.ice %y shortenin" chec8out
lines and %etter meetin" the needs of shoppers)
o assist in the deployment of its computeriDed
schedulin" system in all of its stores# *al23art
re&uests that its associates su%mit Apersonal a.aila%il2
ityA forms) Lan"ua"e on the form instructs associates
that ALimitin" your personal a.aila%ility may restrict
the num%er of hours you are scheduled)A Anecdotal
e.idence su""ests that some $or8ers ha.e indeed
seen their hours cut and their shifts %ounced around)
E1perienced associates $ith hi"h pay rates ha.e
e1pressed concern that the system ena%les mana"ers
to pressure them into &uittin") If they are un$illin"
to $or8 ni"hts and $ee8ends# mana"ers ha.e a
Justification for replacin" them $ith ne$ $or8ers
$ho $ill ma8e much less per hour) Sarah Clar8
denies that the system is used in this manner)
Critics of the system can cite the Clayton Antitrust
Act of (B(4# $hich states# he la%or of a human
%ein" is not a commodity or article of commerce)A
No le"al %attles o.er computeriDed schedulin"
appear imminent# so interpretin" $hether <Aral23art<s
strate"y e&uals treatin" its la%or force as a commod2
ity $ill ha.e to $ait)
CASE S567 :5ESIONS
() *hat is the ethical dilemma facin" *al23art in
this case+ 6o *al23art<s associates also face an
ethical dilemma+ If so# $hat is it+
,) *hat ethical principles apply to this case+ /o$ do
they apply+
-) *hat are the potential effects of computeriDed
schedulin" on employee morale+ *hat are the
conse&uences of these effects for *al23art+
Chapter 4 Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems (KK
In the meantime# *al23art is once a"ain at the
forefront of technolo"y trends in its industry) Ann
aylor Stores# Limited Brands# Gap# *illiams2
Sonoma# and GameStop ha.e all installed similar
$or8force schedulin" systems)
Sources' !anessa O<Connell# ARetailers Repro"ram *or8ers in
Efficiency 4ush#A he *all Street Journal# Septem%er (># ,>>G; *as
3aher# A*al23art See8s Ne$ 0le1i%ility in *or8er Shifts#A he *all
Sheet Journal# January -# ,>>K; $ $$)8ronos)corn# accessed July (C#
,>>G; Bo% E.ans# A*al23art<s Latest <Or$ellian< echnolo"y 3o.e'
Get O.er It#A Infonnation*ee8# April ?# ,>>K and A3ore opinions on
*al23art<s 0le1i%le Schedulin"#A Infonnntion*ee8# April (K# ,>>K)
3IS IN ACION
!isit the *e% site at $nI .$$$)*a8e5p*al3art)com and
then ans$er the follo$in" &uestions'
() *hat are this "roup<s maJor points of contention
$ith *al23art+
,) /o$ $ell does the *e% site ser.e their cause+
6oes the site help their cause or hurt it+
-) *hat other approach could the or"aniDation ta8e
to %rin" a%out chan"e+
5sin" *al23art<s *e% site and Goo"le for research#
ans$er the follo$Oin" &uestions'
4) /o$ does *al23art address the issues raised %y
or"aniDations such as *a8e5p*al3art)com+
C) Are the company<s methods effecti.e+
?) If you $ere a pu%lic relations e1pert ad.isin"
*al23art# $hat su""estions $ould you ma8e for
handlin" criticism+
Repetiti.e stress inJury
=RSI@ is the leadin" occupa2
tional disease today) he
sin"le lar"est cause of RSI
is computer 8ey%oard $or8)
(
(KG 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
he sin"le lar"est source of RSI is computer 8ey%oards) he most common
8ind of computer2related RSI is carpal tunnel syndrome =CS@# in $hich
pressure on the median ner.e throu"h the $rist<s %ony structure# called a
carpal tunnel# produces pain) he pressure is caused %y constant repetition of
8eystro8es' In a sin"le shift# a $ord processor may perform ,-#>>> 8eystro8es)
Symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome include num%ness# shootin" pain# ina%il2
ity to "rasp o%Jects# and tin"lin") 3illions of $or8ers ha.e %een dia"nosed $ith
carpal tunnel syndrome)
RSI is a.oida%le) 6esi"nin" $or8stations for a neutral $rist position =usin" a
$rist rest to support the $rist@# proper monitor stands# and footrests all
contri%ute to proper posture and reduced RSI) Ne$# er"onomically correct
8ey%oards are also an option) hese measures should %e supported %y fre&uent
rest %rea8s and rotation of employees to different Jo%s)
RSI is not the only occupational illness computers cause) Bac8 and nec8
pain# le" stress# and foot pain also result from poor er"onomic desi"ns of
$or8stations) Computer .ision syndrome =C!S@ refers to any eyestrain
condition related to computer display screen use) Its symptoms# $hich are
usually temporary# include headaches# %lurred .ision# and dry and irritated
eyes)
he ne$est computer2related malady is technostress# $hich is stress
induced %y computer use) Its symptoms include a""ra.ation# hostility to$ard
humans# impatience# and fati"ue) Accordin" to e1perts# humans $or8in"
continuously $ith computers come to e1pect other humans and human institu2
tions to %eha.e li8e computers# pro.idin" instant responses# attenti.eness# and
an a%sence of emotion) echnostress is thou"ht to %e related to hi"h le.els of
Jo% turno.er in the computer industry# hi"h le.els of early retirement from
computer2intense occupations# and ele.ated le.els of dru" and alcohol a%use)
he incidence of technostress is not 8no$n %ut is thou"ht to %e in the
millions and "ro$in" rapidly in the 5nited States) Computer2related Jo%s no$
top the list of stressful occupations %ased on health statistics in se.eral industri2
aliDed countries)
o date# the role of radiation from computer display screens in occupational
disease has not %een pro.ed) !ideo display terminals =!6s@ emit nonioniDin"
electric and ma"netic fields at lo$ fre&uencies) hese rays enter the %ody and
ha.e un8no$n effects on enDymes# molecules# chromosomes# and cell
mem%ranes) Lon"2term studies are in.esti"atin" lo$2le.el electroma"netic
f i
elds and %irth defects# stress# lo$ %irth $ei"ht# and other diseases) All manu2
facturers ha.e reduced display screen emissions since the early (BG>s# and
European countries# such as S$eden# ha.e adopted stiff radiation emission
standards)
he computer has %ecome a part of our li.es2personally as $ell as socially#
culturally# and politically) It is unli8ely that the issues and our choices $ill
%ecome easier as information technolo"y continues to transform our $orld)
he "ro$th of the Internet and the information economy su""ests that all the
ethical and social issues $e ha.e descri%ed $ill %e hei"htened further as $e
mo.e into the first di"ital century)
Chapter 4
Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems (KB
/AN6S2ON 3IS 4ROJECS
he proJects in this section "i.e you hands2on e1perience in analyDin" the
pri.acy implications of usin" online data %ro8ers# de.elopin" a corporate policy
for employee *e% usa"e# usin" %lo" creation tools to create a simple %lo"# and
usin" Internet ne$s"roups for mar8et research)
3ana"ement 6ecision 4ro%lems
() 5SA6ata<s *e% site is lin8ed to massi.e data%ases that consolidate personal
data on millions of people) Anyone $ith a credit card can purchase mar8etin"
lists of consumers %ro8en do$n %y location# a"e# income le.el# and interests)
If you clic8 on Consumer Leads to order a consumer mailin" list# you can find
the names# addresses# and sometimes phone num%ers of potential sales leads
residin" in a specific location and purchase the list of those names) One could
use this capa%ility to o%tain a list# for e1ample# of e.eryone in 4ee8s8ill# Ne$
7or8# ma8in" M(C>#>>> or more per year) 6o data %ro8ers such as 5SA6ata
raise pri.acy issues+ *hy or $hy not+ If your name and other personal
information $ere in this data%ase# $hat limitations on access $ould you $ant
in order to preser.e your pri.acy+ Consider the follo$in" data users' "o.ern2
ment a"encies# your employer# pri.ate %usiness firms# other indi.iduals)
,) As the head of a small insurance company $ith si1 employees# you are
concerned a%out ho$ effecti.ely your company is usin" its net$or8in" and
human resources) Bud"ets are ti"ht# and you are stru""lin" to meet payrolls
%ecause employees are reportin" many o.ertime hours) 7ou do not %elie.e that
the employees ha.e a sufficiently hea.y $or8 load to $arrant $or8in" lon"er
hours and are loo8in" into the amount of time they spend on the Internet)
Each employee uses a computer $ith Internet access on the Jo%) 7ou re&uested
the follo$in" $ee8ly report of employee *e% usa"e from your information
systems department)
*EB 5SAGE RE4OR 0OR /E *EE9 EN6ING JAN5AR7 B# ,>>B'
5SER NA3E 3IN5ES ONLINE *EB SIE !ISIE6
9elleher# Claire
4C
$$$)dou%leclic8)net
9elleher# Claire
(>K $$$)yahoo)com
9elleher# Claire B? $$$)ins$e%)com
3c3ahon# 4atricia
G- $$$)itunes)com
3c3ahon# 4atricia 44 $$$)ins$e%)com
3illi"an# Ro%ert
((, $$$)youtu%e)com
3illi"an# Ro%ert 4- $$$)tra.elocity)com
Oli.era# Ernesto
4> $$$)CNN)com
al%ot# /elen (,C $$$)etrade)com
al%ot# /elen ,K
$$$)nordstrom)com
al%ot# /elen
-C $$$)yahoo)com
al%ot# /elen K- $$$)e%ay)com
*ri"ht# Ste.en
,- $$$)face%oo8)com
*ri"ht# Ste.en (C $$$)auto%ytel)com
(G> 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
H Calculate the total amount of time each employee spent on the *e% for the
$ee8 and the total amount of time that company computers $ere used for
this purpose) Ran8 the employees in the order of the amount of time each
spent on2line)
H 6o your findin"s and the contents of the report indicate any ethical
pro%lems employees are creatin"+ Is the company creatin" an ethical
pro%lem %y monitorin" its employees< use of the Internet+
H 5se the "uidelines for ethical analysis presented in this chapter to de.elop a
solution to the pro%lems you ha.e identified)
Achie.in" Operational E1cellence' Creatin" a Simple
Blo"
Soft$are s8ills' Blo" creation
Business s8ills' Blo" and *e% pa"e desi"n
In this proJect# you<ll learn ho$ to %uild a simple %lo" of your o$n desi"n usin"
the online %lo" creation soft$are a.aila%le at Blo""er)com) 4ic8 a sport# ho%%y#
or topic of interest as the theme for your %lo") Name the %lo"# "i.e it a title# and
choose a template for the %lo") 4ost at least four entries to the %lo"# addin" a
la%el for each postin") Edit your posts# if necessary) 5pload an ima"e# such as a
photo from your hard dri.e or the *e% to your %lo") =Goo"le recommends Open
4hoto# 0lic8r' Creati.e Commons# or Creati.e Commons Search as sources for
photos) Be sure to credit the source for your ima"e)@ Add capa%ilities for other
re"istered users# such as team mem%ers# to comment on your %lo") Briefly
descri%e ho$ your %lo" could %e useful to a company sellin" products or ser.ices
related to the theme of your %lo") List the tools a.aila%le to Blo""er =includin"
Gad"ets@ that $ould ma8e your %lo" more useful for %usiness and descri%e the
%usiness uses of each) Sa.e your %lo" and sho$ it to your instructor)
Impro.in" 6ecision 3a8in"' 5sin" Internet
Ne$s"roups for Online 3ar8et Research
Soft$are S8ills' *e% %ro$ser soft$are and Internet ne$s"roups
Business S8ills' 5sin" Internet ne$s"roups to identify potential customers
his proJect $ill help de.elop your Internet s8ills in usin" ne$s"roups for
mar8etin") It $ill also as8 you to thin8 a%out the ethical implications of usin"
information in online discussion "roups for %usiness purposes)
7ou are producin" hi8in" %oots that you sell throu"h a fe$ stores at this time)
7ou thin8 your %oots are more comforta%le than those of your competition) 7ou
%elie.e you can undersell many of your competitors if you can si"nificantly
increase your production and sales) 7ou $ould li8e to use Internet discussion
"roups interested in hi8in"# clim%in"# and campin" %oth to sell your %oots and to
ma8e them $ell 8no$n) !isit "roups) "o o"le)com# $hich stores discussion
postin"s from many thousands of ne$s"roups) hrou"h this site you can locate
all rele.ant ne$s"roups and search them %y 8ey$ord# author<s name# forum#
date# and su%Ject) Choose a messa"e and e1amine it carefully# notin" all the
information you can o%tain# includin" information a%out the author)
H /o$ could you use these ne$s"roups to mar8et your %oots+
H *hat ethical principles mi"ht you %e .iolatin" if you use these messa"es to
sell your %oots+ 6o you thin8 there are ethical pro%lems in usin" ne$s"roups
this $ay+ E1plain your ans$er)
Chapter 4 Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems (G(
Ne1t use Goo"le or 7ahoo)com to search the hi8in" %oots industry and locate
sites that $ill help you de.elop other ne$ ideas for contactin" potential cus2
tomers)
Gi.en $hat you ha.e learned in this and pre.ious chapters# prepare a plan to
use ne$s"roups and other alternati.e methods to %e"in attractin" .isitors to
your site)
LEARNING RAC9 3O65LES
he follo$in" Learnin" rac8s pro.ide content rele.ant to the topics co.ered in
this chapter'
() 6e.elopin" a Corporate Code of Ethics for Information Systems
,) Creatin" a *e% 4a"e
Re.ie$ Summary
() *hat ethical# social# and political issues are raised %y information systems+
Information technolo"y is introducin" chan"es for $hich la$s and rules of accepta%le conduct
ha.e not yet %een de.eloped) Increasin" computin" po$er# stora"e# and net$or8in"
capa%ilitiesincludin" the Internet2e1pand the reach of indi.idual and or"aniDational actions and
ma"nify their impacts) he ease and anonymity $ith $hich information is no$ communicated#
copied# and manipulated in online en.ironments pose ne$ challen"es to the protection of pri.acy
and intellectual property) he main ethical# social# and political issues raised %y information
systems center around information ri"hts and o%li"ations# property ri"hts and o%li"ations#
accounta%ility and control# system &uality# and &uality of life)
,)
*hat specific principles for conduct can %e used to "uide ethical decisions+
Si1 ethical principles for Jud"in" conduct include the Golden Rule# Immanuel 9ant<s Cate"orical
Imperati.e# 6escartes< rule of chan"e# the 5tilitarian 4rinciple# the Ris8 A.ersion 4rinciple# and the
ethical Ano free lunchA rule) hese principles should %e used in conJunction $ith an ethical analysis)
-) *hy do contemporary information systems technolo"y and the Internet pose challen"es to the
protection of indi.idual pri.acy and intellectual property+
Contemporary data stora"e and data analysis technolo"y ena%les companies to easily "ather
personal data a%out indi.iduals from many different sources and analyDe these data to create detailed
electronic profiles a%out indi.iduals and their %eha.iors) 6ata flo$in" o.er the Internet can %e
monitored at many points) Coo8ies and other *e% monitorin" tools closely trac8 the acti.ities of *e%
site .isitors) Not all *e% sites ha.e stron" pri.acy protection policies# and they do not al$ays allo$ for
informed consent re"ardin" the use of personal information) raditional copyri"ht la$s are
insufficient to protect a"ainst soft$are piracy %ecause di"ital material can %e copied so easily and
transmitted to many different locations simultaneously o.er the Internet)
4)
/o$ ha.e information systems affected e.eryday life+
Althou"h computer systems ha.e %een sources of efficiency and $ealth# they ha.e some ne"ati.e
impacts) Computer errors can cause serious harm to indi.iduals and or"aniDations) 4oor data &uality
is also responsi%le for disruptions and losses for %usinesses) Jo%s can %e lost $hen computers replace
$or8ers or tas8s %ecome unnecessary in reen"ineered %usiness processes) he a%ility to o$n and
use a computer may %e e1acer%atin" socioeconomic disparities amon" different racial "roups and
social classes) *idespread use of computers increases opportunities for computer crime and
computer a%use) Computers can also create health pro%lems# such as RSI# computer .ision
syndrome# and technostress)
(G, 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed
I=ey erms
AccoDnDta%ility# (CK
Carpal tunnel syndrome =CS@# (KG
Computer a%use# (K4
Computer crime# (K4
Computer .ision syndrome =C!S@# (KG
Coo8ies# (?,
Copyri"ht# (??
6escartes< rule of chan"e# (CG
6i"ital di.ide# (KC
6i"ital 3illennium Copyri"ht Act =663CA@# (?G
6ue process# (CK
Ethical Ano free lunchA rule# (CG
Ethics# (C(
0air Information 4ractices =0I4@# (?>
Golden Rule# (CG
Immanuel 9ant<s Cate"orical Imperati.e# (CG
Information ri"hts# (C,
Informed consent# (?(
Intellectual property# (??
Re.ie$ :uestions
() *hat ethical# social# and political issues are raised
%y information systems+
H E1plain ho$ ethical# social# and political
issues are connected and "i.e some e1am2
ples)
H List and descri%e the 8ey technolo"ical trends
that hei"hten ethical concerns)
H 6ifferentiate %et$een responsi%ility#
accounta%ility# and lia%ility+
,) *hat specific principles for conduct can %e used
to "uide ethical decisions+
H List and descri%e the fi.e steps in an ethical
analysis)
H Identify and descri%e si1 ethical principles)
-) *hy do contemporary information systems
technolo"y and the Internet pose challen"es to
the protection of indi.idual pri.acy and intellec2
tual property+
H 6efine pri.acy and fair information practices)
Enterprise
Lia%ility# (CK
Norto%.ious relationship a$areness =NORA@# (CC
Opt2in# (?4
Opt2out# (?4
4-4# (?C
4atent# (?K
4ri.acy# (CB
4rofilin"# (C4
Repetiti.e stress inJury =RSI@# (KC
Responsi%ility# (CK
Ris8 A.ersion 4rinciple# (CG
Safe har%or# (?,
Spain# (K4
Spyi.are# (?-
echnostress# (KG
rade secret# (??
5tilitarian 4rinciple# (CG
*e% %u"s# (?-
H E1plain ho$ the Internet challen"es the
protection of indi.idual pri.acy and intellec2
tual property)
H E1plain ho$ informed consent# le"islation#
industry self2re"ulation# and technolo"y tools
help protect the indi.idual pri.acy of Internet
users)
H List and define are the three different re"imes
that protect intellectual property ri"hts)
4) /o$ ha.e information systems ha.e affected
e.eryday life+
H E1plain $hy it is so difficult to hold soft$are
ser.ices lia%le for failure or inJury)
H List and descri%e the principal causes of
system &uality pro%lems)
H Name and descri%e four &uality of life impacts
of computers and information systems)
H 6efine and descri%e technostress and RSI
and e1plain their relationship to information
technolo"y)
6iscussion :uestions
() Should producers of soft$are2%ased ser.ices# such
as A3s# %e held lia%le for economic inJuries
suffered $hen their systems fail+
,) Should companies %e responsi%le for unemploy2
ment caused %y their information systems+
*hy or $hy not+
Chapter 4 Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems (G-
!ideo Cases
7ou $ill find .ideo cases illustratin" some of the
concepts in this chapter on the Laudon *e% site alon"
$ith &uestions to help you analyDe the cases)
Colla%oration and eam$or8' 6e.elopin" a Corporate Ethics Code
*ith three or four of your classmates# de.elop a cor2
porate ethics code on pri.acy that addresses %oth
employee pri.acy and the pri.acy of customers and
users of the corporate *e% site) Be sure to consider
e2mail pri.acy and employer monitorin" of $or82
sites# as $ell as corporate use of information a%out
employees concernin" their off2the2Jo% %eha.ior
=e)")# lifestyle# marital arran"ements# and so forth@)
If possi%le# use Goo"le Sites to post lin8s to *e%
pa"es# team communication announcements# and
$or8 assi"nments; to %rainstorm; and to $or8
colla%orati.ely on proJect documents) ry to use
Goo"le 6oes to de.elop your solution and presenta2
tion for the class)
A
(G4 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
Should Goo"le Or"aniDe 7our 3edical Records+
CASE S567
$rin" a typical trip to the doctor# you $ill self2a.o$ed mission and the indi.idual<s ri"ht to
see shel.es full of folders and papers pri.acy) As $ith similar cases such as "o.ernment
6 de.oted to the stora"e of medical records)
E.ery time you .isit# your records are
created or modified# and often duplicate copies are
"enerated throu"hout the course of a .isit to the doctor
or a hospital) he maJority of medical records are
currently paper2%ased# ma8in" effecti.e communica2
tion and access to the records difficult) Americans
made $ell o.er a %illion .isits to doctors and hospitals
o.er the past year# $ith each American ma8in"
appro1imately four .isits on a.era"e) As a result# there
are millions of paper medical records linin" the corri2
dors of thousands of local medical practices# and for
the most part# they cannot %e systematically e1am2
ined# and they are difficult to share) hou"h the chal2
len"e of updatin" this anti&uated system is enormous#
companies such as Goo"le appear to %e ta8in" up the
tas8)
In 3arch ,>>G# Goo"le announced an application
that it hopes $ill alle.iate the inefficiency of the
current medical record stora"e system' Goo"le
/ealth) Goo"le /ealth $ill allo$ consumers to enter
their %asic medical data into an online respository
and in.ite doctors to send rele.ant information to
Goo"le electronically) he ser.ice is free to users)
0eatures $ill include a <health profile< for medica2
tions# conditions# and aller"ies# reminder messa"es
for prescription refills or doctor .isits# directories for
near%y doctors# and personaliDed health ad.ice)
he application $ill also %e a%le to accept informa2
tion from many different record8eepin" technolo"ies
currently in use %y hospitals and other institutions)
he intent of the system is to ma8e patients< records
easily accessi%le and more complete and to stream2
line record8eepin")
Goo"le<s mission is Ato or"aniDe the $orld<s
information and ma8e it uni.ersally accessi%le and
useful)A It<s hard to disa"ree $ith the $orthiness of
this "oal# and as the undisputed leader in *e% search#
Goo"le has pro.en that it is .ery "ood at $hat it does)
But $hat if Goo"le $ere see8in" personal information
a%out you+ 7ou mi"ht not feel as "ood a%out Goo"le<s
&uest to or"aniDe the $orld<s information $hen you
consider that some of that information is information
that you<d prefer remain pri.ate)
Goo"le<s de.elopment of its Goo"le /ealth
application illustrates the conflict %et$een its
sur.eillance and data a""re"ation# the &uestion is
$hether or not the pri.acy ris8s posed %y informa2
tion systems are si"nificant enou"h to a%andon or
curtail the collection of useful information) If infor2
mation "atherin" should %e curtailed2%ut not
eliminated2ho$ $ill this %e decided and $ho should
decide+ Goo"le is no stran"er to this conflict of
.alues; this is merely one e1ample of many $here
Goo"le has clashed $ith pri.acy ad.ocates re"ardin"
its information collection practices and handlin" of
that information)
*ith the launch of Goo"le /ealth# Goo"le aims to
%e the catalyst for the process of di"itiDin" and
standardiDin" the nation<s medical records in an
easy2to2use format) Currently only a small fraction#
under (CX# of American medical practices 8eep their
medical records online# ma8in" it difficult for
patients and other doctors to &uic8ly and easily
access them) *hen a patient chan"es doctors# %e"ins
seein" a ne$ doctor# or mo.es# the a%sence of online
medical records can %e a source of needless hassle
and effort on the part of %oth patient and practice)
Sometimes# access to medical records can e.en %e a
life or death matter in the rare cases $hen po$er
failure pre.ents access to local data stora"e systems)
But the added con.enience of easily accessi%le
medical records is Just one potential %enefit of "oin"
electronic) As the healthcare industry continues to
face %ud"et pressures from 3edicare cut%ac8s and
reductions in mana"ed2care fees# di"itiDin" patient
records has %ecome increasin"ly attracti.e as a
cost2cuttin" measure) Althou"h many practices
consider the costs of implementin" ne$ soft$are to
%e prohi%iti.e# the potential %enefits for the industry
as a $hole are si"nificant) One sur.ey found that ,?
percent of healthcare technolo"y professionals cited
lac8 of financial support as the most important factor
pre.entin" them from di"itiDin" their record8eepin")
But once practices ma8e the initial in.estment in
ne$ technolo"y# the increase in efficiency is li8ely to
reduce future costs %y an estimated MG> to M,4>
%illion dollars# more than enou"h to ma8e the s$itch
$orth$hile)
Goo"le /ealth and other efforts to con.ert to
electronic health records stand to pro.ide much2
needed or"aniDation and efficiency to the healthcare
industry# the sin"le lar"est se"ment of America<s
"ross domestic product =G64@) But concerned
indi.iduals and pri.acy ad.ocates ar"ue that
electronic health records $ill %e stored in such a $ay
that increases the li8elihood of pri.acy in.asions)
Some potential users of the system are concerned
that Goo"le $ill ma8e their medical information
accessi%le to ad.ertisers in a manner similar to the
tar"eted ad.ertisements Gmail users currently see
%ased on the content of their e2mail)
hese pri.acy concerns are far from unfounded)
/I4AA2the /ealth insurance 4orta%ility and
Accounta%ility Act of (BB?2pro.ides .ery limited
protections for personal medical records)
=It primarily co.ers information flo$in" %et$een
healthcare pro.iders# health insurers# and clearin"2
houses for payment processin")@ here are currently
no federal pri.acy protections for patients $ho set up
personal health records online) E.en hospitals and
practices that currently use electronic stora"e
formats report a hi"h incidence of security %reaches#
$ith a &uarter of healthcare technolo"y professionals
reportin" at least one security %reach in the past
year) Accordin" to a ,>>? 0ederal rade Commission
study# a%out ,4B#>>> Americans had their personal
information misused for the purpose of o%tainin"
medical treatment# supplies# or ser.ices) But
%reaches and other forms of medical identity theft
are not the %i""est concern surroundin" electronic
health records)
3ost people are more $orried that sensiti.e infor2
mation le"itimately accessi%le .ia electronic health
records mi"ht lead to their losin" health insurance or
Jo% opportunities) 0or instance# if employers 8ne$
that you had a chronic heart condition# $ould they
$ant to hire you+
hou"h the healthcare industry ar"ues that
these pri.acy concerns are for the most part
misplaced# there is e.idence that these fears are
Justified) /orror stories li8e those of 4atricia Gal.in
reinforce the $orries many people ha.e a%out the
pri.acy of their medical records) Gal.in<s attempts
to ac&uire disa%ility %enefits for her chronic %ac8
pain $ere turned do$n on the %asis of her
psycholo"ist<s notes# $hich $ere supposed to %e
confidential) he num%er of monthly medical2
pri.acy complaints recei.ed %y the 6epartment of
/ealth and /uman Ser.ices has %een steadily
approachin" KC> per month o.er the past se.eral
years# up from (C> in ,>>-) 4eople fear that a
s$itch to electronic medical records could %e e.en
more .ulnera%le to security %reaches and pri.acy
.iolations)
Chapter 4 Ethical and Social Issues in Information Systems (GC
4roponents of electronic health records ar"ue that
computer technolo"y# once fully implemented#
$ould enhance security rather than threaten it)
hey also %elie.e that it is more important to first "et
the system up and runnin" than to $orry a%out
pri.acy matters) Con"ressional Representati.e Joe
Barton of e1as# an ad.ocate of le"islation that $ould
speed the de.elopment of such records# said that
A=p@ri.acy is an important issue# %ut more important
is that $e "et a health information system in place)A
La$ma8ers li8e Barton feel that the %enefits of
systems li8e Goo"le /ealth out$ei"h the pri.acy
ris8s# and that further le"islation to impose pri.acy
controls can %e added after the fact)
Some e1perts disa"ree $ith that stance# sayin"
that unless an electronic system has sufficient
pri.acy controls from the outset# it is less li8ely to
%ecome uni.ersally used) E.en if the system<s
security controls are sufficient# it is important that
consumers are a$are of those controls and confident
that they can use the system $ithout fear of their
records %ein" accessed %y unauthoriDed parties)
Creatin" an electronic health system $ithout the
proper security controls $ould not only %e an
unaccepta%le pri.acy ris8# %ut $ould %e doomed to
failure %ecause potential users $ould %e un$illin" to
cooperate $ith the information re&uirements of the
system)
Goo"le has tried to reassure the pu%lic that its
security is iron2ti"ht and that %usinesses and indi.id2
uals should ha.e confidence in its a%ility to store and
protect their data) Accordin" to Goo"le senior
security mana"er Eran 0ei"en%aum# A*e<.e ta8en an
in2depth approach to security# $ith lots of different
layers that %uild on each other)A /o$e.er# Goo"le has
not pro.ided much detail a%out its security
practices2$here its computer centers are located#
ho$ many people it employs in its security depart2
ment# and ho$ it protects its army of ser.ers a"ainst
attac82for fear of openin" itself up to attac8s)
ABusinesses are hopin" Goo"le $ill pic8 the ri"ht
tools to secure the infrastructure# %ut they ha.e no
assurances and no say in $hat it $ill pic8#A notes
Randall Gam%y# security analyst for Burton Group# a
3id.ale# 5tah# research and ad.isory firm)
0ei"en%aum adds that Goo"le relies on its o$n
security system and applications for its day2to2day
%usiness operations# and that should %e proof that its
security $or8s)
Goo"le is not the only company to set its si"hts on
online medical records) 3icrosoft and Re.olution
/ealth Group LLC# founded %y AOL co2founder Ste.e
Case# amon" others# are also launchin" similar sites
(G? 4art One Or"aniDations# 3ana"ement# and the Net$or8ed Enterprise
$here users can maintain online health profiles)
As of yet it is too early to tell $hether any of these
.entures $ill %e successful in the lon" term# %ut
Re.olution /ealth Group $as forced to fire a &uarter of
its employees in the face of lo$er2than2e1pected
earnin"s in ,>>K) 3icrosoft<s .enture# /ealth!ault# is
still in its infancy alon" $ith Goo"le /ealth)
he federal office in char"e of creatin" a national
net$or8 of electronic health records# the office of the
Coordinator of /ealth Information echnolo"y#
announced in 3arch of ,>>G that it plans to inte"rate
its system $ith %oth Goo"le and 3icrosoft<s healthcare
data%ases# amon" others) he office did not pro.ide
details or a timeta%le on ho$ the inte"ration $ould
occur) 4ri.acy concerns are not li8ely to halt the shift
to$ards di"itiDin" our records entirely# %ut $ill
CASE S567 :5ESIONS
() *hat concepts in the chapter are illustrated in this
case+ *ho are the sta8eholders in this case+
,) *hat are the pro%lems $ith America<s current
medical record8eepin" system+ /o$ $ould
electronic medical records alle.iate these
pro%lems+
-) *hat mana"ement# or"aniDation# and technolo"y
factors are most critical to the creation and
de.elopment of electronic medical records+
continue to %e ar"ua%ly the most si"nificant o%stacle
for these .entures as they $or8 to$ards creatin" a
standardiDed# di"ital system for medical record8eepin")
Sources' Eric8a Chic8o$as8i# Are Goo"le<s Security 4ractices 5p
to Snuff+A Baselinema")com# 3ay ,-# ,>>G; Chris Gonsal.es#
AGoo"le# 3icrosoft a8e /ealth Care I 4ulse#A Baselinema")com#
3arch -(# ,>>G and ASecurin"# 6i"itiDin" 3edical Records Remain
4riorities in /ealthcare I#A Baselinema")com# 0e%ruary ,?# ,>>G;
Bo% Bre$in# ANational /ealth Records Net$or8 to /oo8 5p *ith
Goo"le# 3icrosoft#A "o.e1ec)com# 3arch ,K# ,>>G; 9risten
Gerencher# AAs 3ore of Our /ealth Records 3o.e Online# 4ri.acy
Concerns Gro$#A 0o1Business)com# 3arch ,?# ,>>G; A4reyin" on
4atients#A 3ar8et *atch# June (B# ,>>G; and Ao <ust or Not to
rust 4ersonal /ealth Records+A 3ar8et*atch# 3arch ,?# ,>>G;
Christopher La$ton and Ben *orthen# AGoo"le to Offer /ealth
Records On he *e%#A he *all Sheet Jomiial# 0e%ruary ,G# ,>>G;
and Lissa /arris# AGoo"le /ealth /eads to the /ospital#A
rGchnolo"y Re.ie$# 3ay ,G# ,>>G)
4) *hat are the pros and cons of electronic patient
records+ 6o you thin8 the concerns o.er di"itiDin"
our medical records are .alid+ *hy or $hy not+
C) Should people entrust Goo"le $ith their electronic
medical records+ *hy or $hy not+
?) If you $ere in char"e of desi"nin" an electronic
medical record8eepin" system# $hat are some
features you $ould include+ *hat are features
you $ould a.oid+
IL