Casting Terms ( figure 1 to view)

1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed.
Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred to by various names
such as drag - lower molding flask, cope - upper molding flask, cheek - intermediate molding flask
used in three piece molding.
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the help of
pattern.
3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the mold.
4. Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a
mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.
5. Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the
mold cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
6. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create
openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten metal is
poured.
8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mold
cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.
9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
10. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
11. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its own
weight and overcome the metallostatic force.

12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and
solidifies. Also known as "feed head".
13. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.
Figure 1 : Mold Section showing some casting terms
Steps in Making Sand Castings
There are six basic steps in making sand castings as given below:
Pattern making: The pattern is a physical model of the casting used to make the mold. The mold is
made by packing some readily formed aggregate material, such as molding sand, around the pattern.
When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint provides the mold cavity, which is ultimately filled with metal
to become the casting. If the casting is to be hollow, as in the
case of pipe fittings, additional patterns, referred to as cores, are used to form these cavities.
Core making: Cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a mold cavity to form
the interior surfaces of castings. Thus the void space betwe en the core and mold cavity surface is
what eventually becomes the casting.
Molding: Molding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a mold for receiving molten metal.
Molding usually involves placing a molding aggregate around a pattern held with a supporting
frame, withdrawing the pattern to leave the mold cavity, setting the cores in the mold cavity and
finishing and closing the mold.
Melting and Pouring: The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as melting.
Melting is usually done in a specifically designated area of the foundry, and the molten metal is
transferred to the pouring area where the molds are filled.
Cleaning: Cleaning refers to all operations necessary to the removal of sand, scale, and excess
metal from the casting. Burned-on sand and scale are removed to improved the surface
appearance of the casting. Excess metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is
removed. Inspection of casting for defects and general quality is performed.
The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It is the replica of the object to
be made by the casting process, with some modifications. The main modifications are the
addition of pattern allowances, and the provision of core prints. If the casting is to be
hollow, additional patterns called cores are used to create these cavities in the finished
product. The quality of the casting produced depends upon the material of the pattern, its
design, and construction. The costs of the pattern and the related equipment are reflected
in the cost of the casting. The use of an expensive pattern is justified when the quantity of
castings required is substantial.
Functions of the Pattern
1. A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.
2. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a core and need to
be made hollow.
3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold cavity may form a part of the
pattern.
4. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting defects.
5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings.
Figure 2: A typical pattern attached with gating and risering system
Pattern Allowances
Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of the
casting. Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the
sizes specified in the finished component drawing so that a casting with the particular
specification can be made. The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce
machining costs and avoid rejections. The allowances usually considered on patterns and
core boxes are as follows:
Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance
All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling. The metal shrinkage is of two
types:
i. Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid state to
solid state at the solidus temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid metal
to the casting, are provided in the mold.
ii. Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses emperature in solid
state. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.
The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material. For example steel
contracts to a higher degree compared to aluminum. To compensate the solid shrinkage, a
shrink rule must be used in laying out the measurements for the pattern. A shrink rule for
cast iron is 1/8 inch longer per foot than a standard rule. If a gear blank of 4 inch in
diameter was planned to produce out of cast iron, the shrink rule in measuring it 4 inch
would actually measure 4 -1/24 inch, thus compensating for the shrinkage.
Exercise 1
The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern. Assuming only shrinkage
allowance, calculate the dimension of the pattern. All Dimensions are in Inches.
Solution 1
The shrinkage allowance for cast iron for size up to 2 feet is o.125 inch per feet For dimension 18
inch, allowance = 18X 0.125 / 12 = 0.1875 inch 0.2 inch
For dimension 14 inch, allowance = 14X 0.125 / 12 = 0.146 inch 0.15 inch
For dimension 8 inch, allowance = 8 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0833 inch 0. 09 inch
For dimension 6 inch, allowance = 6 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0625 inch 0. 07 inch
The pattern drawing with required dimension is shown in next page.
Draft or Taper Allowance
By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of the
pattern so that it can be removed from the sand without tearing away the sides of the sand
mold and without excessive rapping by the molder. Figure 3 (a) above shows a pattern having
no draft allowance being removed from the pattern. In this case, till the pattern is
completely lifted out, its side s will remain in contact with the walls of the mold, thus
tending to break it. Figure 3 (b) is an illustration of a pattern hav ing proper draft
allowance. Here, moment the pattern lifting commences, all of its surfaces are well
away from sand surface. Thus pattern can be removed without damaging mold
cavity.
Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the sand job. But in general inner details of the pattern
require higher draft than outer surfaces. The amount of draft depends upon the length of the vertical
side of the pattern to be extracted; the intricacy of the pattern; the method of molding; and pattern
material.
Figure 3 (a) Pattern Having No Draft on Vertical Edges
Figure 3 (b) Pattern Having Draft on Vertical Edges
Machining or Finish Allowance
The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and the refore when
the casting is functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate,
it is generally achieved by subsequent machining. Machining or finish allowances are
therefore added in the pattern dimension. The amount of machining allowance to be
provided for is affected by the method of molding and casting used viz. hand molding or
machine molding, sand casting or metal mold casting. The amount of machining
allowance is also affected by the size and shape of the casting; the casting orientation; the
metal; and the degree of accuracy and finish required.
Exercise 2
The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern. Assuming only machining
allowance, calculate the dimension of the pattern. All Dimensions are in Inches
Solution 2
The machining allowance for cast iron for size, up to 12 inch is o.12 inch and from 12
inch to 20 inch is 0.20 inch
For dimension 18 inch, allowance = 0.20 inch
For dimension 14 inch, allowance = 0.20 inch
For dimension 8 inch, allowance = 0.12 inch
For dimension 6 inch, allowance = 0.12 inch
The pattern drawing with required dimension is shown in Figure above.
Distortion or Camber Allowance
Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due to their typical shape. For
example, if the casting has the form of the letter U, V, T, or L etc. it will tend to contract
at the closed end caus ing the vertical legs to look slightly inclined. This can be prevented
by making the legs of the U, V, T, or L shaped pattern converge slightly (inward) so that
the casting after distortion will have its sides vertical.
The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses. These internal stresses are caused on
account of unequal cooling of different section o f the casting and hindered contraction. Measure
taken to prevent the distortion in casting include:
i. Modification of casting design
ii. Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion affect
iii. Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber or distortion allowance (inverse
reflection)
Figure 4: Distortions in Casting
Rapping Allowance
Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical
faces to enlarge the mold cavity slightly, which facilitate its removal. Since it enlarges the
final casting made, it is de sirable that the original pattern dimension should be reduced to
account for this increase. There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance, since it is
highly dependent on the foundry personnel practice involved. It is a negative allowance
and is to be applied only to those dimensions that are parallel to the parting plane.
Core and Core Prints
Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of various sizes and shapes. These
impressions can be obtained by using cores. So where coring is requ ired, provision
should be made to support the core inside the mold cavity. Core prints are used to serve
this purpose. The core print is an added projection on the pattern and it forms a seat in the
mold on which the sand core rests during pouring of the m old. The core print must be of
adequate size and shape so that it can support the weight of the core during the casting
operation. Depending upon the requirement a core can be placed horizontal, vertical and
can be hanged inside the mold cavity. A typical job, its pattern and the mold cavity with
core and core print is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: A Typical Job, its Pattern and the Mold Cavity
Core Boxes:
1. Half box: Used to form two identical halves of a symmetrical core. After they are shaped and
baked, the core halves are pasted togeyher.
2. Dump box: designed to form a complete core that requires no pasting.
3. Split box: consists of two halves which are clamped together.
4. Strickle box: used when a core with an irregular shape is required.
5. Right & Left box: when two half cores made in the same box cannot be pasted together to form an
entire core.
6. Gang box: where large number of cores are to be made.
7. Sweep & skeleton box: looks like a sweep & skeleton pattern. Used for large cores required in
small quantities.
Green Sand Molding
Green sand is the most diversified molding method used in metal casting operations. The
process utilizes a mold made of compressed or compacted moist sand. The term "green"
denotes the presence of moisture in the molding sand. The mold material consists of
silica sand mixed with a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) and moisture.
Advantages
Most metals can be cast by this method.
Pattern costs and material costs are relatively low.
No Limitation with respect to size of casting and type of metal or alloy used
Disadvantages
Surface Finish of the castings obtained by this process is not good and machining is often
required to achieve the finished pro duct.
Sand Mold Making Procedure
The procedure for making mold of a cast iron wheel is shown in (Figure 8 (a), (b), (c).
The first step in making mold is to place the pattern on the molding board.
The drag is placed on the board ((Figure 8 (a)
Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a non sticky layer.
Molding sand is then riddled in to cover the pattern with the fingers; then the drag is
completely filled.
The sand is then firmly packed in the drag by means of han d rammers. The ramming must
be proper i.e. it must neither be too hard or soft.
After the ramming is over, the excess sand is leveled off with a straight bar known as a
strike rod.
With the help of vent rod, vent holes are made in the drag to the full de pth of the flask as well
as to the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases during pouring and solidification.
The finished drag flask is now rolled over to the bottom board exposing the pattern. Cope
half of the pattern is then placed over the drag pa ttern with the help of
locating pins. The cope flask on the drag is located aligning again with the help of
pins ( (Figure 8 (b)).
The dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag and on the pattern.
A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at a small distance from the pattern.
Also, riser pin, if required, is placed at an appropriate place.
The operation of filling, ramming and venting of the cope proceed in the same manner as
performed in the drag.
The sprue and riser pins are removed first and a pouring basin is scooped out at the top to
pour the liquid metal.
Then pattern from the cope and drag is removed an d facing sand in the form of
paste is applied all over the mold cavity and runners which would give the finished casting a
good surface finish.
The mold is now assembled. The mold now is ready for pouring (Figure 8 (c) )
Figure 8 (a)
Figure 8 (b)
Figure 8 (c)
Molding Material and Properties
A large variety of m olding materials is used in foundries for manufacturing molds and
cores. They include molding sand, system sand or backing sand, facing sand, parting
sand, and core sand. The choice of molding materials is based on their processing
properties. The properti es that are generally required in molding materials are:
1. Refractoriness: It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the liquid metal
to be poured so that it does not get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the silica sand is
highest.
2. Permeability: During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases
and steam is generated. These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal during melting,
air absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding and core sand. If these
gases are not allowed to escape from the mold, they would be entrapped inside the casting and cause
casting defects. To overcome this problem the
molding material must be porous. Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the
gases that are generated inside the mold cavity.
3. Cohesiveness: This is the ability of sand particles to stick together. Insufficient strength may lead
to a collapse in the mould or its partial destruction during conveying, turning over or closing.
3.1 Green Strength: The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The green
sand particles must have the ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to the mold. The
green sand must have enough strength so that the constructed mold retains its
shape.
3.2 Dry Strength: When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold cavity is
quickly converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand e vaporates due to the heat of the
molten metal. At this stage the molding sand must posses the sufficient strength to retain the exact
shape of the mold cavity and at the same time it must be able to withstand the metallostatic
pressure of the liquid material.
3.3 Hot Strength: As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high temperature
when the metal in the mold is still in liquid state. The strength of the sand that is required to hold the
shape of the cavity is called hot strength.
4. Collapsibility: The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the contraction of
the solidified casting it does not provide any resistance, which may result in cracks in the
castings.Besides these specific properties the molding material should be cheap, reusable
and should have good thermal conductivity.
5. Flowability: Ability to behave like a fluid so that, when rammed it will flow to all portions of a mould
and pack all-round the pattern and take up the required shape. It increases as clay and water content
increase.
6. Adhesiveness: Sand particles must be capable of adhering to another body i.e. should cling to the
sides of moulding boxes.
Shell Molding Process ( also called Croning process or C-process)
It is a process in which, the sand (100-150 mesh) mixed with a thermosetting resin is allowed to come
in contact with a heated pattern plate (200
0
C) (preferabl made of gre CI), this ca!ses a s"in (#hell)
of abo!t $%5 mm of sand & plastic mixt!re to adhere to the pattern% 'hen the shell is remo(ed from the
pattern% 'he cope and drag shells are "ept in a flas" with necessar bac"!p material and the molten
metal is po!red into the mold%
Advantages: 'his process can prod!ce complex parts with good s!rface finish 1%25 ) m to $%*5 ) m,
and dimensional tolerance of 0%5 +% , good s!rface finish and good si-e tolerance red!ce the need for
machining% 'he process o(erall is .!ite cost effecti(e d!e to red!ced machining and clean!p costs%
/loor space and sand .!alit are red!ced% 0ns"illed labo!r can be emploed%
Uses: 'he materials that can be !sed with this process are cast irons, and al!min!m and copper allos%
It is !sed for mass prod!ction of steel casting of less than 100 "g%
Limitations: 'he main limitations are its high costs of pattern, resin 1 e.!ipment2 !neconomical for
smal r!ns, maxim!m casting si-e 1 weight are limited2 shrin"age factors (ar with casting practice%
Molding Sand in Shell Molding Process
The molding sand is a mixture of fine grained quartz sand and powdered bakelite. There are two
methods of coating the sand grains with bakelite. First method is Cold coating method and another
one is the hot method of coating.
In the method of cold coating, quartz sand is poured into the mixer and then the solution of powdered
bakelite in acetone and ethyl aldehyde are added. The typical mixture is 92% quartz sand, 5%
bakelite, 3% ethyl aldehyde. During mixing of the ingredients, the resin envelops the sand grains and
the solvent evaporates, leaving a thin film that uniformly coats the surface of sand grains, thereby
imparting fluidity to the sand mixtures.
In the method of hot coating, the mixture is heated to 150 -180
o
C prior to loading the sand. In the
course of sand mixing, the soluble phenol formaldehyde resin is added. The mixer is allowed to cool
up to 80 90
o
C. This method gives bet ter properties to the mixtures than cold method.
Permanent Mold Process
In the processes li"e green sand mo!lding & dr sand mo!lding, a mold need to be prepared for
each of the casting prod!ced% /or large-scale prod!ction, ma"ing a mold, for e(er casting to be
prod!ced, ma be diffic!lt and expensi(e% 'herefore, a permanent mold, called the die ma be made
from which a large n!mber of castings can be prod!ced% , the molds are !s!all made of cast iron or
steel, altho!gh graphite, copper and al!min!m ha(e been !sed as mold materials% /or higher
melting allos s!ch as brass and ferro!s allos, the mo!ld m!st contain large proportion of stale
carides%
It is a casting process in(ol(ing po!ring a molten metal b gra(it into a steel (or cast iron) mold and
is similar to the sand casting process % In distinction from sand molds, which are bro"en after each
casting a permanent mold ma be !sed for po!ring of at least one tho!sand and !p to 120,000 casting
ccles with the rate 5-100 castings&ho!r%
3an!fact!ring metal mold is m!ch more expensi(e than man!fact!ring molds for #and casting or
in(estment casting process mold% 3inim!m n!mber of castings for profitable !se of a permanent
mold is dependent on the complexit of its shape%
, mo!ld material sho!ld ha(e a high melting temperat!re, eno!gh strength not to deform in
repeated !se, high thermal fatig!e resistance to resist premat!re crac"s and low adhesion%
'he process in which we !se a die to ma"e the castings is called permanent mold casting
or gra(it die casting, since the metal enters the mold !nder gra(it% #ome time in die -
casting we in4ect the molten metal with a high press!re% 5hen we appl press!re in
in4ecting the metal it is called press!re die casting process% ,ll cast metals can be cast b permanent
mo!ld method% 6n, C!, ,l, 7b, 3g and #n allos, steel and CIs are most often cast b this method%
0sed for small 1 medi!m si-ed castings (!pto 10 "g) non ferro!s, b!t impractical for large , metals&
allos with high melting temperat!res%
Permanent mold casting process
'he interior s!rfaces of the two parts (cope and drag) of a permanent mold are coated with a
thin ceramic coating% 'he mold is preheated before coating to 150-2809C%
'he cores are inserted and installed in the mold assembl%
'he mold is closed%
'he molten metal is po!red into the mold%
,fter the casting has solidified and cooled down to the desired temperat!re the mold is
opened and the casting is withdrawn from it%
'he gating sstem is c!t awa from the casting%
'he finish operations are carried o!t%
7ermanent cores are commonl !sed for permanent mold castings, howe(er if a casting has
ca(it:s shape not allowing a withdrawal of the core it is made of chemicall bonded sand or
other materials !sed for preparation of expendable cores% ;ew cons!mable cores are added
after each po!r% 'he process combining permanent mold and cons!mable parts (cores) are
called semi-permanent casting%
Advantages: Advantages of permanent mold casting process are determined by relatively high
cooling rate caused by solidification in metallic mold:
<etter mechanical properties%
=omogeneo!s grain str!ct!re and chemical composition%
>ow shrin"age and gas porosit%
?ood s!rface .!alit@ A0-250 )inch (1-8 )m) B
a
%
>ow dimensional tolerances@ tpicall abo!t 0%0AC (1 mmD%
>ittle scrap process%
Disadvantages:
E 'he cost of tooling is !s!all higher than for sand castings
E 'he process is generall limited to the prod!ction of small castings of simple exterior design,
altho!gh complex castings s!ch as al!min!m engine bloc"s and heads are now commonplace%
Die casting
It is a process, in which the molten metal is in4ected into the mold ca(it at an increased press!re !p
to $0,000 psi (200 37a)% 'he re!sable steel mold !sed in the die casting process is called a die% It is a
highl prod!cti(e method of casting parts with low dimensions tolerance and high s!rface .!alit%
'he parts man!fact!red b die casting method are a!tomoti(e connecting rods, pistons, clinder beds,
electronic enclos!res, tos, pl!mbing fittings% 'his process is partic!larl s!itable for 7b, 3g, #n, and
6n allos% 'he molten metal in4ection is carried o!t b a machine called die casting machine. If the
parts are small, se(eral parts ma be cast at one time in what is "nown as m!ltiple-ca(it die%'here
are two principal die casting methods@ hot chamber method and cold chamber method%
Cold chamber die casting@ In the cold chamber die casting machines hdra!licall operated pl!nger
forces a molten metal to flow in the cold clinder (chamber)% , principal scheme of the cold chamber
die casting machine is shown in the pict!re
Cold chamber process:
5hen the press!re chamber is filled with a molten metal the pl!nger starts tra(eling forward
and b!ilds !p a press!re forcing the metal to flow thro!gh the spr!e to the die ca(it%
,fter the metal has solidified the pl!nger ret!rns to its initial position allowing a new portion
of the molten metal to fill the press!re chamber%
'he die then opens and the e4ector pins remo(es the casting from the die%
'he casting ccle now ma be repeated%
Cold chamber method is mainl !sed for casting ,l!min!m allos, 3agnesi!m allos, Copper allos
and -inc allos (incl!ding -inc-al!min!m allos)%
Hot chamber die casting: In this, die casting machines the press!re chamber (clinder) and the
pl!nger are s!bmerged in the molten metal in the pot (cr!cible)%
=ot chamber machines ha(e short casting ccle (abo!t 1 sec%)% 'he are capable to cast thin
wall casting with good filling the ca(it !nder precise temperat!re control of the molten
metal%
=ot chamber process ma be !sed for casting low melting metals, which are chemicall
inert to the material of the pl!nger and other parts of the casting machine@ -inc allos
(except -inc allos containing more than 10+ of al!min!m), tin allos and agnesium
allo!s%
3aintenance of these machines is more expensi(e as compared to the cold chamber process%
Hot chamber process:
'he pl!nger goes !p allowing the melt to fill the clinder space% 'he die is closed at this
stage%
'he pl!nger goes down forcing the melt to flow thro!gh the goosenec" into the die ca(it%
,fter the die has been filled with the melt the pl!nger is held !nder a press!re !ntil the
solidification is completed%
'he die opens% 'he casting stas in the die part e.!ipped with e4ectors%
'he pl!nger goes !p and the melt resid!als ret!rn thro!gh the goosenec" bac" to the pot%
'he e4ectors p!sh the casting o!t of the die%
Advantages of die casting:
=igh prod!cti(it%
?ood dimensional acc!rac%
?ood s!rface finish@ 2-100 )inch (0%5-2%5 )m) B
a
%
'hin wall parts ma be cast%
Fer economical process at high (ol!me prod!ction%
/ine ?rain str!ct!re and good mechanical properties are achie(ed%
Intricate shapes ma be cast%
#mall si-e parts ma be prod!ced%
Disadvantages of die casting:
;ot applicable for high melting point metals and allos (eg% steels)
>arge parts can not be cast%
=igh die cost%
'oo long lead time%
#ome gases m be entrapped in form of porosit%
Centrifugal Casting
In this process, the mold is rotated rapidl abo!t its central axis as the metal is po!red
into it% <eca!se of the centrif!gal force, a contin!o!s press!re will be acting on the metal
as it solidifies% 'he slag, oxides and other incl!sions being lighter, get separated from the
metal and segregate towards the center% 'his process is normall !sed for the ma"ing of
hollow pipes, t!bes, hollow b!shes, etc%, which are ax smmetric with a concentric hole%
#ince the metal is alwas p!shed o!tward beca!se of the centrif!gal force, no core needs
to be !sed for ma"ing the concentric hole% 'he mold can be rotated abo!t a (ertical,
hori-ontal or an inclined axis or abo!t its hori-ontal and (ertical axes sim!ltaneo!sl%
'he length and o!tside diameter are fixed b the mold ca(it dimensions while the inside
diameter is determined b the amo!nt of molten metal po!red into the mold% /ig!re G (Fertical
Centrif!gal Casting), /ig!re 10 ( =ori-ontal Centrif!gal Casting)

'r!e Centrif!gal Casting@ 3olten metal is po!red into a rotating mo!ld to prod!ce t!b!lar parts
s!ch as pipes, t!bes and rings%
#emi- Centrif!gal Casting@ #peed is not as high as in tr!e casting% In this method, centrif!gal force
is !sed to prod!ce solid castings rather than t!b!lar parts% Hensit of the metal in the final casting is
greater in the o!ter sections than at the centre of rotation% 'he process is !sed on parts in which
center of casting is machined awa, s!ch as wheels and p!lles%
Centrif!ged@ #e(eral identical or nearl similar mo!ds are located radiall abo!t a (erticall
arranged central riser or spr!e which feeds metal into ca(ities thro!gh a n!mber of radiall gates%
'he entire mo!ld is rotated with central spr!e which acts as axis of rotation% 'h!s, it is not p!rel
centrif!gal process% #!itable for small, intricate parts where feeding problems are enco!ntered%
Advantages
E /ormation of hollow inte riors in clinders witho!t cores
E >ess material re.!ired for gate
E /ine grained str!ct!re at the o!ter s!rface of the casting free of gas and shrin"age ca(ities and
porosit
Disadvantages
E 3ore segregation of allo component d!ring po!ring !nder the forces of rotation
E Contamination of internal s!rface of castings with non -metallic incl!sions
E Inacc!rate internal diameter%
,s the mold material steels, Cast irons, ?raphite or sand ma be !sed% 'he rotation speed of
centrif!gal mold is commonl abo!t 1000 B73 (ma (ar from 250 B73 to $800 B73)%
, centrif!gal casting machine is schematicall presented in the abo(e pict!re@
Centrifugal casting is carried out as follows:
'he mold wall is coated b a refractor ceramic coating (appling ceramic sl!rr, spinning,
dring and ba"ing)%
#tarting rotation of the mold at a predetermined speed%
7o!ring a molten metal directl into the mold (no gating sstem is emploed)%
'he mold is stopped after the casting has solidified%
Ixtraction of the casting from the mold%
Centrif!gal casting technolog is widel !sed for man!fact!ring of iron pipes, b!shings, wheels,
p!lles bi-metal steel-bron-e bearings and other parts possessing axial smmetr%
"#uee$e casting:
"#uee$e casting is a method combining casting and forging technologies% In contrast to other casting
techni.!es (sand casting, die casting), in which a molten metal is po!red (in4ected) into the mold
ca(it after the two parts of the mold are assembled, s.!ee-e casting mold is closed after a portion of
molten metal has been po!red into the preheated bottom die% 'he !pper die lowers towards the bottom
die ca!sing the melt to fill the mold ca(it% 'he s.!ee-ing press!re is applied !ntil f!ll solidification
of the casting% , scheme of the process is shown in the pict!re gi(en below%
Squeeze castings are characterized by:
low shrin"age and gas porosit2
enhanced mechanical properties beca!se of fine grain str!ct!re ca!sed b rapid
solidification 2
good s!rface .!alit%
#.!ee-e casting is commonl !sed for processing al!min!m and magnesi!m allos% 'his process is
also !sed for fabrication of reinforced metal matrix composites where molten al!min!m infiltrates a
fiber reinforcing str!ct!re%
Continuous casting
It is a casting method, in which the steps of po!ring, solidification and withdrawal
(extraction) of the casting from an open end mold are carried o!t contin!o!sl%
Cross-sectional dimensions of a contin!o!s casting are constant along the casting length and
the are determined onl b the dimensions of the mold ca(it%
'he length of a contin!o!s casting is limited b the life time of the mold%
Contin!o!s casting technolog is !sed for both ferro!s and non-ferro!s allos%
'raditional contin!o!s casting processes !se stationar (or oscillating) molds, in which the solidified
bar mo(es relati(e to the mold s!rface% /riction ca!sed b the mo(ement res!lts in formation of
micro-crac"s and other defects in the s!rface regions of the casting% >!bricating oil s!pplied to the
mold s!rface and self-l!bricating graphite molds decrease the friction & stic"ing and red!ce the
defecti(e s!rface -one% 'his defecti(e -one is commonl machined (milled) prior to Bolling%
'he alternati(e contin!o!s casting methods !se mo(ing JendlessC molds (rolls, belts, wheels)
characteri-ed b -ero relati(e mo(ement between the mold and casting s!rfaces% #trips and slabs
fabricated b Contin!o!s casting in tra(eling mold ha(e low defect s!rface% 'he castings ma be
f!rther processed (rolled) witho!t s!rface machining% Hepending on the mold position ((ertical or
hori-ontal) contin!o!s casting machines ma be (ertical or hori-ontal%
%ertical continuous casting
#teels are commonl cast in these machines% 3olten metal is contin!o!sl s!pplied from the
ladle to the intermediate ladle &t!ndish' from which it is contin!o!sl po!red into the mold at a
controllable rate "eeping the melt le(el at a constant position%
'he water-cooled copper mold &primar cooling -one' extracts the heat of the metal ca!sing its
solidification% 'he mold oscillates in order to pre(ent stic"ing with the casting%
5hen the casting goes o!t from the mold it is cooled in the secondar cooling -one b water (or
water with air) spraed on the casting s!rface%
3ost of (ertical contin!o!s casting machines are e.!ipped with strand g!ide !nits bending the
casting and changing its config!ration from (ertical to hori-ontal% 'he casting is contin!o!sl
extracted from the mold b the withdrawal !nit followed b a c!t-off !nit%
'he casting process begins from inserting a d!mm (primar) bar into the mold% 'hen a molten
metal is po!red into mold where it solidifies and grips the end of the d!mm bar%
'he d!mm bar is disconnected from the casting after passing the withdrawal !nit%
Hori$ontal continuous casting
'his is generall !sed for casting non-ferro!s allos% =ori-ontal contin!o!s casting in stationar mold
with graphite water-cooled molds, 'win-roll caster and 'win-belt caster are most pop!lar methods of
this tpe%
H!e to the water cooling (primar and secondar) solidification rate pro(ided b contin!o!s casting is
higher than in other casting methods therefore contin!o!s castings ha(e more !niform and finer grain
str!ct!re and enhanced mechanical properties
Investment Casting Process (also called lost wax pattern/precision cating process)
The root of the investment casting process, the cire perdue or "lost wax" method dates
back to at least the fourth millennium B.C. The artists and sculptors of ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia used the rudiments of the investment casting process to create intricately
detailed jewelry, pectorals and idols. The investment casting process al os called lost wax
process begins with the production of wax replicas or patterns of the desired shape of the
castings. A pattern is needed for every casting to be produced. The patterns are prepared
by injecting wax or polystyrene in a metal dies. A numbe r of patterns are attached to a
central wax sprue to form a assembly. The mold is prepared by surrounding the pattern
with refractory slurry that can set at room temperature. The mold is then heated so that
pattern melts and flows out, leaving a clean cavi ty behind. The mould is further hardened
by heating and the molten metal is poured while it is still hot. When the casting is
solidified, the mold is broken and the casting taken out.
The basic steps of the investment casting process are (Figure 11 see below ) :
1. Production of heat-disposable wax, plastic, or polystyrene patterns
2. Assembly of these patterns onto a gating system
3. "Investing," or covering the pattern assembly with refractory slurry
4. Melting the pattern assembly to remove the pattern material
5. Firing the mold to remove the last traces of the pattern material
6. Pouring
7. Knockout, cutoff and finishing
Uses: for casting turbine blades, parts of motor cars, sewing machines, typewriters etc.
Advantages
Machining can be largely reduced or eliminated since tolerances close to +0.1 to -0.1 mm and
surface finish of around 1-5microne are possible.
Extremely thin sections (to the extent 0.75 mm)
Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of gas and shrinkage
cavities and porosity
. Sound & defect free casting may be obtained.
. Suitable for mass production of small sized castings.
Disadvantages
Unsuitable for casting more than 5 kg weight
Precision control ir required in all stages.
Expensive in all respect.
Melting Practices
Melting is an equally important parameter for obtaining a quality castings. A
number of furnaces can be used for melting the metal, to be used, to make a
metal casting. The choice of furnace depends on the type of metal to be melted.
Some of the furnaces used in metal casting are as following:.
Crucible furnaces
Cupola
Induction furnace
Reverberatory furnace
Cupola
Kb4ecti(e of the c!pola is to prod!ce iron of desired compositions, temperat!re and properties at the
re.!ired rate in the most economical manner% ,d(antages of c!pola o(er other tpes of f!rnaces are
its simplicit of operation, contin!it of prod!ction and increased o!tp!t co!pled with high degree
of efficienc%
C!pola f!rnaces are tall, clindrical f!rnaces !sed to melt iron and ferro!s allos in fo!ndr
operations% ,lternating laers of metal and ferro!s allos, co"e, and limestone are fed into the
f!rnace from the top% , schematic diagram of a c!pola is shown in /ig!re1A % 'his diagram of a
c!pola ill!strates the f!rnaceLs clindrical shaft lined with refractor and the alternating laers of
co"e and metal scrap% 'he molten metal flows o!t of a spo!t at the bottom of the c!pola%
Description of Cupola
'he c!pola consists of a (ertical clindrical steel sheet, 8 to 12 mm thic", and lined inside
with acid refractor bric"s which consist of #iK
2
and ,l
2
K
$
%
'he lining is generall thic"er in the lower portion of the c!pola as the temperat!re are
higher than in !pper portion% 'here is a charging door thro!gh which co"e, pig iron, steel
scrap and fl!x is charged%
'he shell is mo!nted either on bric" wor" fo!ndation or on steel colo!mns%
In a steel colo!mn arrangement, !sed on most modern c!polas, c!polas are pro(ided with a
drop bottom door thro!gh which debris, consisting of co"e, slag etc% can be discharged at
the end of the melt%
In drop bottom c!polas, the wor"ing bottom is b!ilt !p with mo!lding sand which co(ers
the drop doors%
'hro!gh the tap hole molten metal is po!red into the ladle and it is sit!ated at the lowest
point at the front of c!pola%
, slag hole is pro(ided to remo(e the slag from the melt which is opposite to the tap hole,
and somewhat abo(e the tapping hole%
'he blast is blown thro!gh the t!eres% 'hese t!eres are arranged in one or more row
aro!nd the peripher of c!pola%
=ot gases which ascends from the bottom (comb!stion -one) preheats the iron in the
preheating -one%
,t the top conical cap called the spar" arrest is pro(ided to pre(ent the spar" emerging to
o!tside%
(peration of Cupola
'he c!pola is charged with wood at the bottom% Kn the top of the wood a bed of co"e is b!ilt%
,lternating laers of metal and ferro!s allos, co"e, and limestone are fed into the f!rnace from the
top% 'he p!r pose of adding fl!x is to eliminate the imp!rities and to protect the metal from oxidation
and also to red!ce melting point of slag and to increase its fl!idit for eas disposal% ,ir blast is
opened for the complete comb!stion of co"e% 5hen s!fficient metal has been melted that slag hole is
first opened to remo(e the slag% 'ap hole is then o pened to collect the metal in the ladle%
, constant (ol!me of air for comb!stion is obtained from a motorised blower% 'he air os carried
from blower thro!gh a pipe called windpipe (air blast inlet), first to a circ!lar 4ac"et aro!nd the
shell called windbox and then into the f!rnace thro!gh a n!mber of openings called t!eres which
are pro(ided at a height of between A50 to 500 mm abo(e the wor"ing bottom or bed of the c!pola%
'hese t!eres are generall A, 8 or M in n!mbers depending on the si-e of c!pola and ma be fitted
in one or more n!mber of rows%
FIGURE 14
)ones in a Cupola:
1. Crucible one:
between top of the sand bed and bottom of t!eres%
3olten metal is acc!m!lated here%
,lso caled the well or hearth%
!. Combustion or o"idizing zone:
sit!ated normall 150 to $00 mm abo(e the top of t!eres%
,ll oxgen in the air blast is cons!med here and act!al comb!stion ta"es place here%
>ot of heat is liberated and this is s!pplied to other -ones% =eat is also e(ol(ed d!e to
oxidation of silicon and manganese%
'emp being 1550
0
C to 1M50
0
C
3olten drops of cast iron po!r onto the hearth%
'he chemical reactions are@
C N K
2
- CK
2
N =eat
#i N K - #iK
2 N
=eat
2 3n N K
2
- 2 3nK N =eat
#. $educing zone:
extends from the top of comb!stion -one to the top of the co"e bed%
Bed!ction of CK
2
to CK occ!r and temp drops to abo!t 1200
0
C at the co"e bed%
H!e to the red!cing atmosphere, the charge is protected from an oxiding infl!ence%
'he reaction ta"ing place is@
CK
2
N C (Co"e) - 2CK O =eat
%. &elting one:
starts from the first laer of metal charge abo(e the co"e bed and extend !p to a height of
G00 mm%
highest temp (1800
0
C) is de(eloped in this -one for complete comb!stion of the co"e and
iron is th!s melted here%
, considerable carbon pic"!p b molten metal also occ!rs in this -one@
$/e N 2 CK - /e
$
C N CK
2
'. (reheating one or charging zone:
starts from abo(e melting -one and extends !p to the bottom of the charging door%
Contains c!pola charge as alternate laers of co"e, fl!x and metal
'he are preheated at a temp of 1100
0
C before coming to melting -one%
). Stac* one:
extends from the abo(e the preheating -one to the top of the c!pola%
Carries the gases generated within the f!rnace to the atomsphere%
Capacit of c!pola@
K!tp!t is defined as the tonnes of molten metal obtained per ho!r of the heat%
Capacities (ar from 1 to 15 tonnes ( or e(en more) of melted iron per ho!r%
It has been obser(ed that 1A cm
$
of c!pola plan area b!rns abo!t 1 "g of co"e&ho!r%
Hiameter of c!pola (aries from 1 to 2 m with a height of from $ to 5 times of dia%
Cupola (peration:
1% 7reparation of c!pola
Clean o!t slag 1 ref!se on the lining and aro!nd t!eres
<ad spots or bro"en bric"s are repaired%
7reparation of sand bottom is beg!n%
<ottom doors are raisd 1 bottom sand is introd!ced thro!gh the charging doors and is
rammed well%
#!rface of sand bottom is sloped from all directions%
#lag hole 1 tap hole are formed%
C!pola sho!ld be thoro!ghl dried before firing%
2% /iring of c!pola
5ood is ignited on sand bottom% It sho!ld be done 2%5-$ hrs before molten metal is
re.!ired%
, bed of co"e is b!ilt on the top of wood%
Co"e is added to a le(el slightl abo(e t!eres and air blast is t!rned on a ta lower than
blowing rate to ignite co"e%
,s soon as red spots begin to show o(er the top of f!el bed, additional co"e is introd!ced
(abo(e the !pper row of t!eres)
$% Charging the c!pola
,s soon as co"e bed is b!ilt !p to the correct height and ignited !niforml thro!gho!t,
alternate laers of pig iron, co"e and fl!x are charged !ntil c!pola is filled%
#!itable scrap is also added along with pig iron to control the chemical composition of iron
prod!ced%
A% #oa"ing of iron
Charge sho!ld soa" heat for abo!t A5 min!tes after the c!pola is f!ll charged !pto the
charging door%
Charge gets slowl heated%
5% ,ir blast
5hen f!ll blast is t!rned on% <efore t!rning on blast, t!eres openings and tapping hole are
"ept closed%
,fter the blast is on for a few min!tes (10 mins), molten metal starts acc!m!lating in the
hearth%
,t the end of melt the charging is stopped b!t the blast is "ept on !ntil all the metal has
melted%
8% 'apping and slagging
/irst tapping can be made A0-50 min!tes after f!ll blast t!rned on%
5hen slag acc!m!lates in the well, the slag hole is opened and the slag is r!n off%
3olten metal is collected in ladles and is carried to the mo!lds for po!ring%
*% Closing the c!pola
<last is sh!t off and prop !nder the bottom door is "noc"ed down so that bottom plates
swing open%