CHAPTER

ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY

1.1

ELEMENTARY NOTATION

1.

: A set of objects. : A member of a set. For example


     

2.

.
      

3.


: The set of real numbers. For example



4. 5.
%

: The set of integers. For example

  &

"

.
% )

: Less than, greater than. For example

( -

,
+

&

6.
,

: Less than or equal to, greater than or equal to. : Becomes. For example
  .  . / . (

7.
.

.
 , , 

8.
8

<

: Bounds of a variable. For example

E

<

means
E

.


9.
B

: Bounds of a variable. For example

 K J "

means


10.
J

: Tends to. For example

R

as

.
 R 

11.

: Approximately equal to. For example



"

1. 2.

means are real numbers (constants). Hence

_ .
b B E . 9 g ; h 9  ;    g  o .
h (   

is the set of all functions and .

b _      _

where
9

also written as

means that .
o

is the set of all numbers bigger than or equal to 5. This is

ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY

1.2

FRACTIONS

A fraction is of the form tor.

9

where
9 ;

is called the numerator and is called the denomina;

Rules for operating on fractions

u w 9 u u ; 9 g u ;   g . B . " E

u u

x w

x 9 9 g ;

 g

x .

x B

"

x 9 u z ; 9u ;

x .

x B

"

x u w

9 9

9 u

x  . . B ;   . " E

1.
~

 z



) 

. .

2.
 

3.

4. To rearrange the equation



to nd
" 

write

 

. 

"

"

/ .

NOT


"

"

"

"

MODULUS

1.3

MODULUS

The absolute value or modulus of , written



, is dened by

if if

"

"

The absolute value is the magnitude of a number and ignores whether it is positive or negative.

1.

2.

3.

1.4

INEQUALITIES

1. If

&

then

&

for any .
9 9 % 9

2. If

&

then
9

&

if
9

is positive, but
g & g

if
9

is negative.

3. If

&

and

&

, then

1. To nd

such that


write
 , 

2. To nd values of

such that
g

&

we write

&

ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY

Inequalities with modulus 1. The inequality

 ; % 9

can be written as
 9

.
 ; E %  9

2. The inequality

&

can be written as

&

or
B

1. To nd

such that

write
,  . /   ,    , 

2. To nd

such that

write

{ -

or


{ ,

or
 

or

 

1.5

EXPANSION AND FACTORISATION

1.
B

EXPANSION AND FACTORISATION

2.
B

"

"

"

3.

 B

4.
B

9 g  E . B 9 g  E B 9 g  9 g  E

1.5.1 BINOMIAL EXPANSION

g 9

(See also Section 1.13). To remember the coefcients of each term use Pascals triangle where each number is the sum of the two numbers above it.


"

"

Each term in a row represents the coefcients of the corresponding term in the expansion.

1.
B

2.
B

3. The coefcient of

in
B

is


{ z

"

"

ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY

1.5.2

FACTORISING POLYNOMIALS

Factorising a polynomial is the opposite of the expansion described above, that is, splitting the polynomial into its factors:
B E . B  9 E B  9 E B  9 E 

1.

2.

3.


4.

5.
9

1.6

PARTIAL FRACTIONS

It is sometimes convenient to write

u x g . g

where and are constants found by equating the numerators of both sides once the right hand side is written as one fraction:
u x g . B g ; E g B g 9 E 

Some similar partial fraction expansions are

 . g g

 u

PARTIAL FRACTIONS

1. Writing
 B g  E

in the form
B   E B   E g B

implies
  

The constants

and

can be found two simple ways. First, setting

 .  . / .

 

Alternatively the equation could be expanded as

g  g . 

and the coefcients of

and
g

equated giving
. "

Solving these equations simultaneously gives

.    .

and
.  

. Thus

2. To expand
 B g

using partial fractions write

  E  g 

giving
B   E g B g + E .  g  

Setting implies coefcients of

. 

and setting

implies
.

. Alternatively, equating the

gives
g . 

These simultaneous equations are solved for

 g   .

and
 g

to give
. 

and
.

. Hence

ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY

3. The partial fraction for

 B g  E 

is
B g  E

giving
 . B g  E B g  E g B g  E g B g  E

so that
.   . /  .

order

"

Thus
    .  g 

4. The partial fraction for

 B g g 

is
 E B g  E g

giving
 . B g E B g  E g B g g  E 

Hence
.   . / . 

"

order

"

Thus
    .  

POLYNOMIAL DIVISION

1.7

POLYNOMIAL DIVISION

Polynomial division is a type of long division for polynomials best illustrated by the following examples.

1. When dividing by goes into , times. Thus step is therefore

g  g B

consider only the leading order terms to begin with. Thus , which is subtracted from . The rst
{ . g g  g

The division is completed by considering that (the leading order of times. Subtracting from gives
{  B g  E  g

) goes into


two

Thus

g 

2. Dividing


by

gives

 +

3.

10

ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY

1.8

SURDS

A surd is of the form

(
.

):

1.


 9 ; .

 9 ;

2.


3.
;

1.


 

 

"

2.


 

3.


 

"

 

"

 

"

4.


1.8.1

RATIONALISING SURD DENOMINATORS

For an expression of the form

9 u

it may be preferable to have a rational denominator. A surd denominator is rationalised

u

by multiplying the expression by

; ; 9 u

 u

(
. u

):
u ;  u

u   

u E

. 

QUADRATIC EQUATION

11

1.
(  g

 (

g 

 

 (

 (

 (

. {

2.
)  g

. {

1.9

QUADRATIC EQUATION

A quadratic equation is of the form

u . 9 g ; g

where
9

are constants. The roots of a quadratic equation (when

u {  ;  ;  9

"

) are

. 

A quadratic is factorised if it is written in the form

. 9 B  E B  E 

1. The solutions to

"

are
 (

or


 

2. The quadratic

is factorised into


3. The quadratic

is factorised into

12

ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY

4. The solutions to


"

are
 (   

so that
 ( g    .

or


 

1.10

SUMMATION

The summation sign

is dened as

T {

"

1.11

FACTORIAL NOTATION

The factorial notation is dened as follows:

.  B   E  B   E        

where

is an integer.

1.
(

{ z z z z

"

2.
"

by denition.
B   E 

3.

4.


PERMUTATIONS

13

1.12 PERMUTATIONS

A permutation is a particular ordering of a set of unique objects. The number of permutations of unique objects, chosen from a group of , is given by
. 

The number of ways a batting lineup of 3 can be chosen from a squad of 8 cricket players is given by
    z z

. .

1.13 COMBINATIONS

If order is not important when choosing possible combinations is given by

. 

things from a group of

then the number of

B  E

1. The number of possible groups of 4 delegates chosen from a group of 11 is given by

 z z ~ z        "

{ .

{ .

{ z z z .

"

B    E +   

2. The number ways of choosing a team of 5 people from 7 is

.

14

ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY

1.14

GEOMETRY

The trigonometric ratios can be expressed in terms of the sides of a right-angled triangle:

9 u

u ;

. 

. .

The longest length, opposite the right angle, is called the hypotenuse. Pythagoras Theorem states
u 9 g ; . 

The sine, cosine and tangent of the common angles can be related to the following triangles:

GEOMETRY

15

,


 

 

The three common triangles are the 1. isosceles: any two sides are of equal length. 2. equilateral: all three sides of of equal length. 3. right angled: one of the angles is

.


All triangles have three angles that sum to .

1. A right angled triangle has one other angle

. Hence the third angle is

)

.


2. An equilateral triangle must have three identical angles of

.


1.14.1 CIRCLES

A circle of radius has

1. area
.

2. circumference
.

1. The area of a circle with diameter

is


.
+

2. The circumference of the circle with diameter

is
+

16

ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY

1.15

EXAMPLE QUESTIONS

5. Write the following expressions as partial fractions. (i)

(Answers are given in Chapter 14)

1. Simplify the following. (i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(ii)

(v)

(iii)

6. Simplify the following.

(iv)

(i)

(ii)

(v)

(iii) (iv)

(vi)

2. Find the solution set for the following inequalities. (i)

7. Factorise the following quadratic equations. (i)

(ii)

(ii)

(iii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(iv)

8. Find the zeros of the following quadratics.

(v) (vi)

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

3. Expand the following. (i)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(ii)

9. Use polynomial division to calculate the following.

(iii)

(i)

(ii)

(iv)

(iii)

(v)

10. Find the following.

4. Use Pascals triangle (Binomial theorem) to nd (i) the expansion of

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(ii) the expansion of

(iii) the coefcient of

in

(iv)