Fracture Mechanics of Concrete and Concrete Structures High Performance, Fiber Reinforced Concrete, Special Loadings and Structural

Applications- B. H. Oh, et al. (eds) 2010 Korea Concrete Institute, ISBN 978-89-5708-182-2

Shear strength of steel fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete beams

T. H.-K. Kang & W. Kim
University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA

ABSTRACT: Experimental data were utilized to investigate the effect of steel fibers on the shear strength of a lightweight concrete beam. Prior tests of steel fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete (SFRLC) beams or smallscale concrete mockups were reviewed. Only two large-scale test programs on SFRLC beams are available to date. The variables studied in these programs included the shear span-to-depth ratio and steel fiber volume fraction. The addition of steel fibers with steel fiber volume fractions of 0.5% to 0.75% increased the shear strength by roughly 25% to 45%. It is also found that the shear-to-depth ratio adversely affected the shear strength. Several models for the shear strength of steel fiber-reinforced concrete beams were evaluated using the re-assessed data to evaluate the shear strength of the SFRLC specimens. Finally, design shear strength equations for SFRLC beams without stirrups have been proposed based on the calibration results. 1 INTRODUCTION Use of steel fiber-reinforced concrete (SFRC) is increasingly popular in the U.S. and other countries, as it tends to improve mechanical properties and structural performance relative to conventionally reinforced concrete (with the same steel volume fraction). The addition of steel fibers (Fig. 1) to a reinforced concrete (RC) beam is known to improve shear and flexural behavior. The improved behavior of SFRC members is associated with the postcracking tensile strength of SFRC; thus, the use of SFRC helps in reducing the degree and width of cracking (Fig. 2). Along with these advantages, one of the most useful applications of SFRC is to relieve steel congestion by reducing the amount of shear or confining transverse reinforcement without sacrificing structural performance. A similar improvement may be anticipated in steel fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete (SFRLC); however, the application of minimum steel fiber volume fraction to lightweight concrete is questionable. To address this question, mechanical properties of SFRLC need to be first identified, and then structural performance needs to be verified through largescale experimental testing. Finally, a database would be compiled and studied for development or support of design models and provisions. In this paper, these procedures are conducted using previous and current research on SFRLC materials and structural members. Available studies on the structural behavior for large-scale steel fiber-reinforced members with lightweight concrete are scarce, although a large number of studies on SFRC structural members with normalweight concrete have been conducted by many investigators over the past decades (Narayanan & Darwish 1987, Kwak et al. 2002, Ashour et al. 1992, Swamy et al. 1993, Choi et al. 2007, Kang et al. 2009) (see Fig. 3). Given this gap, a review of experimental studies of the shear behavior of SFRLC beams without stirrups is carried out.

Figure 1. Discrete hooked steel fibers.

Figure 2. Steel fibers that restrain crack opening during shear testing (at Fears Lab of the University of Oklahoma).

The objectives of this study are (1) to verify the effectiveness of steel fibers in lightweight concrete, (2) to assess the shear behavior of SFRLC beams quantitatively, and (3) to develop design shear strength equations for SFRLC beams.

Figure 3. Four-point loading of a steel fiber-reinforced beam (at Fears Lab of the University of Oklahoma).

2 PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMS To date, studies on the use of steel fibers in lightweight concrete have been sparse. Most previous tests of SFRLC materials were performed using approximately 100 x 100 x 360 mm prisms (see Fig. 4), 150 x 300 mm cylinders (see Figs. 4 and 5), and small-scale shear specimens (e.g., 80 x 80 x 155 mm) (Balaguru & Ramakrishman 1987, Balaguru & Dipsia 1993, Balaguru & Foden 1996, Swamy & Jojagha 1982a, b, Kayali et al. 1999, Gao et al. 1997, Higashiyama & Banthia 2008). Only 3 large-scale structural testing programs of SFRLC members were reported (Swamy et al. 1993, Theodorakopoulos & Swamy 1993, Kang & Kim 2009). 2.1 Large-scale structural tests Swamy et al. (1993) tested seven large-scale specimens of SFRLC I-section beams with a span length of 3 m. The test results indicated that the ultimate shear strength was dependent upon span-to-depth ratio (a/d) and tension reinforcing ratio (), and that SFRLC with a steel fiber volume fraction (Vf) of 1% showed significantly greater shear strength (by 60% to 210%) than equivalent beams without steel fibers. Kang & Kim (2009) reported monotonic fourpoint loading tests of nine SFRLC and three SFRC beams, where the parameters of the shear span-todepth ratio (2, 3, and 4) and steel fiber volume fraction (Vf = 0%, 0.5%, and 0.75%) are evaluated. It was reported that 1) the shear strength of SFRC beams was slightly larger than that of SFRLC beams

J = different); D (h, T )h 2) the steel fiber vol(failure modes were ume fractions (Vf) of both 0.5% and 0.75% increased the shear strength of plain concrete by coefficient about 25% D(h,T) The proportionality and 45%, respectively; and 3) the shear moisture permeability and span-toit is a nonlinea depth ratio adversely shear h strength of of theaffected relative the humidity and temperature SFRLC beams. Here, is the modification factor re& Najjar 1972). The moisture mass balanc flecting the reduced properties ofthe lightthat mechanical the variation in time of water mas weight concrete, volume all relative to normalweight conof concrete (water content w) be eq crete of the same divergence compressive (as per Ch. of strength the moisture flux J 2 of ACI 318-08). Theodorakopoulos & Swamy (1993) investigated w = and J punching shear behavior strength of SFRLC t slab-column connections. Twenty connection specimens were tested under various parameters The water content w can of be steel expressed a fiber shapes, Vf (0.5% and 1%), reinforcing ratios of wa of the evaporable water we (capillary tension and compression slab steel (0.32% and vapor, and adsorbed water) and the non-e 0.57%), column size (100, 150, and 200water mm), and (chemically bound) wn (Mil concrete compressive strength ( f = 17.8 to 58.6 c Pantazopoulo & Mills 1995). It is reas MPa). Overall, the addition allevaporable types of steel fi- is a fu assume thatof the water bers in SFRLC slab-column connections increased relative humidity, h, degree of hydration the gravity load at first cracking 33% to 50%), i.e. we=w degree of silica (by fume reaction, s, at yielding (by 12%= to 80%), and at punching (by 30% age-dependent sorption/desorption to 100%). Usage (Norling of paddleMjonell steel fibers with Vf = 1% 1997). Under this assum resulted in the greatest punching shear strength. by substituting Equation 1 into Equati

obtains

w h e + ( D h) = we h h t

w e & & c + s + w c s

where we/h is the slope of the sorption/ isotherm (also called moisture capac governing equation (Equation 3) must be by appropriate boundary and initial conditi The relation between the amount of e water and relative humidity is called Figure 4. Modulus of rupture testing (per ASTM C1609) and isotherm if measured with increasing splitting tensile strength testing and (per ASTM C496) of concrete in th humidity desorption isotherm mixes (at Fears Lab of the University of Oklahoma). case. Neglecting their difference (Xi et al. the following, sorption isotherm will be reference tests to both sorption and desorption c 2.2 Small-scale materials By the way, if the hysteresis&of the Experimental studies were conducted by Balaguru isotherm would be taken intoto account, two Dipsia (1993) and Balaguru & Foden (1996) as- humi relation, evaporable water vs relative sess the applicability of discrete steel fibers for be used according to the sign ofimthe varia proving mechanical properties of normal-strength relativity humidity. The shape of the (42 MPa) and high-strength (62.1 MPa) lightweight isotherm for programs HPC is influenced by many p concrete. The experimental consisted of and especially those that influence extent third-point loading tests reactions of prismsand, per inASTM chemical turn, determ C1018, splitting structure tensile and compressive strength (waterand pore size distribution tests of cylinders ratio, per ASTM C496/496M, and direct cement chemical composition, SF shear tests. In their experimental studies, it was mix curing time and method, temperature, found that the addition of the steel fibers to various lightweight etc.). In literature formulatio concrete increased the compressive strength (fc) isotherm by found to describe the sorption 30% to 40%, splitting tensile strength ( f ) by 80% to in th sp concrete (Xi et (E al.) 1994). However, 100%, and modulus of elasticity by 5% to 25%. c paper theproperties semi-empirical expression pro The improved mechanical were observed Norling Mjornell (1997) is adopted b for all combinations of the fiber lengths (30, 50, and
Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

J = mm) D ( h, T )h steel fiber volume fractions (0.55%, 60 and (1) 0.75%, 0.9%, and 1.1%).

The proportionality coefficient D(h,T) is called moisture permeability and it is a nonlinear function of the relative humidity h and temperature T (Baant & Najjar 1972). The moisture mass balance requires that the variation in time of the water mass per unit volume of concrete (water content w) be equal to the divergence of the moisture flux J
= J
w t

(2)

explicitly accounts for the evolution of hydration plain shapes. reaction SFreviews content. sorption Based and on the of This the prior tests, isotherm steel fireadsin lightweight concrete appear to be equally efbers fective in improving mechanical properties and structural performance as steel fibers in normalweight concrete. However, further 1 rational and sta we (h, c , )= G ( c , s )1 + would s tistical assessment of the increased properties 1 10(g c )h be needed to judge whether of is e the 1 cfactor 0.75 (4) generally applicable for most cases with relatively )h in is 10(g small variations. In this study, the variation c 1 1 c K1 ( c , ) e not considered for design and s model simplification current ACI 318-08 code to be consistent with the provisions (8.6.1).

of 0.25% to 1.65%. Higashiyama & Banthia (2008) evaluated relaw w w h tions between shear and flexural toughness for both e e & & & + ( D h ) = e (3) c + s + wn h h t SFRC and SFRLC. Two fiber volume fractions (Vf = c s 0.5% and 1%) were selected for third-point loading tests in accordance with ASTM C1609 and for direct is the slope of the sorption/desorption where we/h shear tests. The results indicated that for a given fiisotherm (also called moisture capacity). The ber type and volume fraction, SFRC exhibited better governing equation (Equation 3) must be completed shear and flexural toughness properties than SFRLC. by Swamy appropriate boundary and initial conditions. & Jojagha (1982a) performed a variety of The relation between the amount of evaporable workability tests for both SFRC and SFRLC in the water and relative humidity is called adsorption fresh state, including inverted slump cone tests, isotherm if measured with increasing relativity standard slump and flow table tests, and vibratorhumidity and desorption isotherm in the opposite based remolding tests. It was concluded that pulvercase. Neglecting their difference (Xi et al. 1994), in ized fuel ash and water-reducing-plasticizing admixthe following, sorption isotherm will be used with ture should be added to release inter-locking friction reference to both sorption and desorption conditions. between fibers and aggregates. From similar tests of By the way, if the hysteresis of the moisture Balaguru & Ramakrishen (1987), it was concluded isotherm would be taken into account, two different that toughness and energy absorption for SFRLC relation, evaporable water vs relative humidity, must were equivalent to those for SFRC. be Swamy used according to the sign of the variation of the & Jojagha (1982b) experimentally asrelativity humidity. The shape of the sorption sessed material characteristics of SFRC and SFRLC isotherm for HPC is influenced by many parameters, under impact loads by means of a drop hammer test especially those that influence extent and rate of the and a drop ball test in accordance with ACI 544.2Rchemical reactions and, in turn, determine pore 78. Three and four mixes were tested for normalstructure and pore size distribution (water-to-cement weight and lightweight concrete, respectively. Both ratio, cement chemical composition, SF content, SFRC and SFRLC with Vf = 1% had greater impact curing time and method, temperature, mix additives, resistance than those without steel fibers by a subetc.). In the literature various formulations can be stantial degree up to a factor of 10. The effects of found to describe the sorption isotherm of normal steel fiber shape and geometry were evident by the concrete (Xi et al. 1994). However, in the present fact that the number of shocks needed to fail was paper the semi-empirical expression proposed by 536 and 793 for paddle and hooked shapes, respecNorling Mjornell (1997) is adopted because it tively, but much less (124 and 192) for crimped and
Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

The water content w can be expressed as the sum of the evaporable water we (capillary water, water vapor,5.and adsorbed water)tests andofthe non-evaporable Figure Compressive strength SFRLC cylinders per ASTM C496, with two strain gauges per to measure (Mills 1966, (chemically bound) water wn cylinder strains (at Fears Lab the University Note that Pantazopoulo & of Mills 1995). of ItOklahoma). is reasonable to red gravels exposed are expanded shale lightweight aggregates. assume that the evaporable water is a function of relative humidity, h, degree of hydration, c, and Similar experiments were conducted for highdegree of silica fume reaction, s, i.e. we=we(h,c,s) strength SFRLC ( 70 MPa) by Gao et al. (1997) = age-dependent sorption/desorption isotherm and for normal-strength SFRLC by Kayali et and al. (Norling Mjonell 1997). Under this assumption (1999), and similar results were obtained with the fiby substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2 one ber length of about 25 mm and the volume fraction obtains

where the first term (gel isotherm) represents the physically bound (adsorbed) water and the second term (capillary isotherm) represents the capillary 3 DEVELOPMENT & CALIBRATION OF water. This expression is valid only for low content DESIGN SHEAR STRENGTH EQUATIONS of SF. The coefficient G1 represents the amount of water unit volume held most in theavailable gel pores previous at 100% In the per preceding section, relative humidity, and on it can be expressed (Norling experimental research SFRLC was summarized. Mjornell 1997)the as shear strength equations available In this section,

for SFRC beams were evaluated as to whether or not they alsokapplicable SFRLC beams, in considc c + k s to G1 ( are (5) c , of s ) =the vgACI c 318 vg specified ss eration lightweight concrete factor (). Results from the prior SFRLC beam tests reported Swamy et al. parameters. (1993) and From Kang the & ksvg are material where kcvg andby Kim (2009) were used for this evaluation. maximum amount of water per unit volume that can of the analyses, the effect of the dosage fillAs all part pores (both capillary pores and gel pores), one rate of steel fibers strength is investigated. oneshear obtains can calculate K1 as on According to the new provision of ACI 318-08 (5.6.6.2(a)), steel fiber-reinforced concrete should g h c c be considered acceptable for shear resistance when w s + s G e c s less the dosage rate of deformed steel fibers is not (6) 3 K ( c 60 = )kg/m than . This rate is equivalent to a mix with s h specimens g Vf = 0.75%. Although the investigated e c c (Swamy et al. 1993, Kang & Kim 2009) were built before the inclusion of 5.6.6.2 thes ACI 318 code and k this The material parameters kcvg in vg and g1 can series, 12 of 15 specimens satisfied minimum be calibrated by fitting experimental data relevant to requirement (60 kg/m3 or Vf = 0.75%). free (evaporable) water content in concrete at According to ACI 318-08 (5.6.6.2), where various ages (Di Luzio & Cusatis 2009b). ASTM C1609 is referred to, a mid-span deflection (mid) should also be measured during the modulus of testing if a member is designed for shear 2.2rupture Temperature evolution resistance (see Fig. 4). The ACI 318 provision speciNote that, at early age, since the chemical reactions fies that SFRC should be considered acceptable for associated with cement hydration and SF reaction shear resistance only if the prism flexural strength at are exothermic, the temperature field is not uniform mid = L/300 is neither less than 90% of the peak nor for non-adiabatic systems even if the environmental 90% of cracking moment (Mcr), and the strength at temperature is constant. Heat conduction can be mid = L/150 is neither less than 75% of the peak nor described in concrete, at least for temperature not 0.75Mcr. Here, Mcr is calculated using the modulus exceeding 100C (Baant & Kaplan 1996), by of rupture (fr) = 0.63fc MPa per 9.5.2.3 and L is Fouriers law, which reads the prism span length. In order to develop design shear strength modq = T (7) el(s) for SFRLC beams without stirrups, the following three steps of the calibration approach were whereFirst, q is theavailable heat flux, is the absolute used. most shear T strength models for temperature, and is the heat conductivity; in this SFRC beams (none lightweight) were extracted from the literature. Detailed equations are not provided in
10 0 0.188 0.22 1 1 1 , 1 10 1 1

this paper for the sake of brevity. Second, the lightweight concrete modification factor of (= 0.75) was accounted for by replacing fc with 2fc for SFRLC beams. Although the constant is too simplified for predicting the shear strength of various lightweight concrete, this process is analogous to the application in the current ACI 318-08 code as shown in eqution. (1):

fc' 2 f c' vc for lightweight concrete = = vc for normalweight concrete fc' fc'

(1)

Finally, the ratio (vu/vn) of measured peak shear stress to shear stress capacity calculated based on the existing model, except for the replacement of fc by 2fc, was determined for each specimen to make a direct comparison between the models. Here, asmeasured material properties are used for the calculation of vn, and vu and vn are defined as the maximum shear force (Vu) and the nominal shear strength (Vn), divided by the beam web width (bw) and effective depth (d), respectively. Thus, (vu/vn) is the same as (Vu/Vn). The mean, standard deviation, and minimum and maximum values of the ratios, as well as the slope of the linear regression lines were compared in this study (Tables 1 and 2). It is noted that this analysis is based on limited data (only 2 test programs and 15 SFRLC specimens). The lack of data warrants additional large-scale experimental studies.
Table 1. Comparisons of measured peak stresses (vu) and shear stress capacities (vn) based on the available SFRC shear strength models except the replacement of fc by 2fc for SFRLC beams.

J = D (by h, T )Narayanan h cate that the models & Darwish (1987), Ashour et al. (model A; 1992), and Kwak et al. (2002) have reasonable safety margins (about D(h,T) The proportionality coefficient 30%), whereas the models by Ashour et al. (model moisture permeability and it is a nonlinea B; 1992) and Shin et al. (1994) have small of the relative humidity h andsafety temperature margins of 16%, & onNajjar average. Even the ( v /v ) ratios u n 1972). The moisture mass balanc for about 15% ofthat the specimens are below 1.0the (minthe variation in time of water mas imum: 0.86 and volume 0.84 for Ashour et al. (model B; of concrete (water content w) be eq 1992) and Shin et al. (1994), TheJradivergence ofrespectively). the moisture flux ther unconservative models may not be appropriate for the development the shear strength model for wof = J an SFRLC beam, given t the brittleness nature of the shear failure modes. On the other hand, the model by Narayanan & Darwish (1987)content somewhat overestiThe water w can be expressed a mates the shear strength (20% of specimens 1.64, wa of the evaporable water we(capillary with maximum of 1.87), and the models by Khuntia vapor, and adsorbed water) and the non-e et al. (1999), Sharma (1986), and Choi etwater al. (2007) (chemically bound) wn (Mil are overly conservative or provide substantial scatter Pantazopoulo & Mills 1995). It is reas in their predictions (Tablethat 1). the evaporable water is a fu assume

Table 2. Steepness (slope) of the linear regression line for the degree ofstress silica(vu) fume s, i.e. we=w ratio of measured peak shear to reaction, calculated shear = age-dependent sorption/desorption stress capacity (vn), with the consideration of lightweight con(Norling Mjonell 1997). Under this assum crete factor (= 0.75) (see Fig. 4).

relative humidity, h, degree of hydration

by substituting Equation 1 into _________________________________________

Independent variableobtains fc MPa a/d Vf % %

Equati

_________________________________________ w w w

_________________________________________
Model Mean Stdev. 0.22 0.14 0.22 0.25 0.70 0.62 0.36 0.14 0.43 0.71 Max. 1.87 1.57 1.79 1.79 3.40 2.72 2.02 1.34 2.01 2.88 Min.

h Narayanan et al. (1987) 0.0077 0.1237 0.1827e 0.0010 e c s w + ( D h ) = e Ashour et al. [model A]0.0106 h 0.2418 0.0210 h t 0.0002 (1992) [model B] 0.0225 0.0997 0.5945c 0.1431 s Kwak et al. (2002) 0.0006 0.1524 0.0474 0.0274 Khuntia et al. (1999)where 0.0318 0.4688 is the 1.0577 slope of0.2575 the sorption/ we/h Sharma (1986) 0.0759 0.1845 2.2406 0.3732 capac isotherm (also called moisture Imam et al. (1997) 0.0346 0.2397 0.5747 0.0283 governing equation (Equation 3) must be Shin et al. (1994) 0.0046 0.0115 0.1108 0.0307 by appropriate boundary and0.1704 initial conditi Li et al. (1992) 0.0348 0.2258 1.1878 The relation between amount of e Choi et al. (2007) 0.0868 0.1262 2.5708the 0.5114

&+

&+

water and relative humidity is called _________________________________________

_________________________________________
Narayanan et al. (1987) Ashour et al. [model A] (1992) [model B] Kwak et al. (2002) Khuntia et al. (1999) Sharma (1986) Imam et al. (1997) Shin et al. (1994) Li et al. (1992) Choi et al. (2007) 1.37 1.33 1.16 1.30 2.05 1.60 1.38 1.16 1.32 1.39 1.05 1.11 0.86 1.02 1.19 0.72 0.75 0.84 0.69 0.54

_________________________________________

Stdev.: Standard deviation of (vu/vn)s for 15 SFRLC beams. Max: Maximum of (vu/vn)s for 15 SFRLC beams. Min: Minimum of (vu/vn)s for 15 SFRLC beams.

The standard deviation is a good statistical indicator of consistent accuracy. The models by Narayanan & Darwish (1987), Ashour et al. (1992), Kwak et al. (2002), and Shin et al. (1994) showed lower standard deviations (average = 0.19) relative to other models (Table 1). The mean values of (vu/vn) indi-

isotherm if measured with increasing humidity isotherm The slope (steepness) ofand the desorption linear regression line in th case. their difference (Xi et al. for (vu/vn) ratios is oneNeglecting of the most robust statistical the following, sorption isotherm indicators to evaluate the sensitivity of the depend-will be reference both sorption and desorption c ent variable (vu/vn ) to each to independent variable. TaBy the way, if the hysteresis of the ble 2 indicates that the models by Narayanan & taken A; into account, two Darwish (1987), isotherm Ashour would et al. be (model 1992), relation, evaporable water vsoverall relative humi Kwak et al. (2002) and Shin et al. (1994) are be aspect. used according to the the sign of the satisfactory in this Based on review in varia relativity humidity. The shape this and previous paragraphs, the models by Ashour of the isotherm iset influenced et al. (model A; 1992) and for by HPC Kwak al. (2002) by aremany p especially those that influence extent chosen to propose design shear strength model(s) for and chemical reactionsthe and, in turn, determ SFRLC beams. Figure 6 illustrates distributions and different pore size independent distribution (waterof (vu/vn) ratios structure against four ratio,that cement composition, SF variables. It is shown these chemical selected models are curing and method, temperature, not overly sensitive to time the variation of these four mix etc.). In with the literature formulatio main variables, compared the other various models that found to describe the sorption isotherm are quite sensitive to each variable (Figs 6(c), 6(f), concrete (Xi et al. 1994). However, in th 6(i) and 6(l); right column). paper the semi-empirical expression pro The first design shear strength equation proposed Norling b for SFRLC beams is the Mjornell modified (1997) version is of adopted the
Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

J = D ( h , T ) h SFRC shear strength equations developed by Ashour et (1) al. (model A; 1992), as given in equtions. (2) and (3).

( vu / v n)

The proportionality coefficient D(h,T) is called moisture permeability and is a nonlinear function it d 3 (MPa) T (Baant (2) vn = f c + 7 F 3 2 humidity temperature 2.11 and of the relative h a & Najjar 1972). The moisture mass balance requires for (a/ d) 2.5. in time of the water mass per unit that the variation d a be equal to the content volume of concrete vn = [ Eq. w)(MPa) (3) (2) 2.5 (water ] + vb 2.5 divergence of the moisture flux J a d
for (a/d) < 2.5.
w t

explicitly accounts of the SFRLC beamsfor andthe theevolution feasibilityof of hydration using the reactionavailable and SF design content.shear This models sorptionand isotherm readily lightreads concrete modification factor (). weight
5 6 7 c 7 0 4 5 6 3 1 x + 4.7 y = -0.0759 y = -0.016 x + 1.76 y1 = -0.0006 x + 1.33 ( we ( h, c (mean , c , s ) =G + (mean (mean = 1.33; = 1.3; = 0.25) = 1.6; s) 1= 0.14) 10(g c )h = 0.62) e 1 c
4 5 6 7 4 2

Measured f'c [ksi]

Measured f'c [ksi]

Measured f' [ksi]

where we/h is the slope of the sorption/desorption isotherm (also called moisture capacity). The 2/3 d 3 governing (Equation be completed (4) vn = 3.7e ( fequation vb must(MPa) + 0.83) spfc ) a by appropriate boundary and initial conditions. The relation between the amount of evaporable watere and relative humidity is taken called here, is the arch action factor, asadsorption 1.0 if (a/d) isotherm if measured with increasing relativity fiber > 3.4, otherwise taken as 3.4(d /a); vb is the humidity and (= desorption isotherm in splitting the opposite tenpullout stress 0.41F); and fspfc is the case. Neglecting their difference (Xi(5). et al. 1994), in sile strength computed using eqution the following, sorption isotherm will be used with 2 both sorption and desorption conditions. referenceto f cuf (MPa) (5) f spfc = 0.7 +hysteresis F By the way, if + the of the moisture 20 F ( ) isotherm would be taken into account, two different relation, evaporable water vs relative humidity, must be used tostrength the sign of of SFRLC. the variation of the here, fcuf according is the cube The cylinrelativity humidity. The shape of the sorption der strength (fc) is typically 0.75% to 0.95% of the isotherm for HPC is a influenced by many parameters, cube strength; thus, value of f cuf equal to 1.2fc is especially those that influence extent rate of the recommended as was used by Kwak and et al. (2002). chemical reactions and, in turn, determine pore This model empirically considers the arch action, structure and pore size distribution (water-to-cement which tends to occur when (a/d) is less than about ratio, cement chemical SF content, 3.4. In the first design modelcomposition, of equations (2) and (3), the curing time and method, temperature, mix additives, extra shear strength due to the arch action is conseretc.). In considered the literature various formulations can be vatively when (a/d) is less than 2.5. Note found to describe the sorption isotherm of normal that quantification of the effect of arch action for concrete (Xi et al. 1994). inthe theprevious present steel fiber-reinforced beamsHowever, was part of paper the semi-empirical expression proposed by studies (Ashour et al. 1992, Kwak et al. 2002), and Norling Mjornell (1997) is adopted because it this work was limited to evaluating the performance
Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

in MPa; As is the area of tension flexural reinforceThe water content w can be expressed the sum is the fiber pullout stress (= 0.41as F); and ment; vb (capillary water, water of the evaporable water w is the average fiber matrixe interfacial bond stress, vapor, and taken adsorbed water) and the non-evaporable tentatively as 4.15 MPa based on the recom1966, (chemically by bound) water Swamy wn (Mills mendations Li et al. (1992), et al. (1993), Pantazopoulo & Mills 1995). It is reasonable to and Kwak et al. (2002). The lightweight concrete assume that the evaporable water is a function of modification factor () of 0.75 was applied as per and relative h, provisions degree of (8.6.1). hydration, c,fiber the ACI humidity, 318-08 code The , i.e. wL w ( h, , s) degree(F of fume e= e c , swhere is the steel factor ) silica is equal to (reaction, Lf/Df)Vfdf f = age-dependent sorption/desorption isotherm fiber length; Df is the steel fiber diameter; Vf is the (Norling Under this and steel fiberMjonell volume 1997). fraction; and d the bond factor f is assumption by 0.5 substituting Equation 1 plain into Equation 2 one (= for circular section fiber, 0.75 for obtains fiber or hooked fiber, and 1 for indented ficrimped ber (Narayanan & Darwish 1987). w w shear strength w h Alternatively, the second design e e & & & w + + SFRLC ( D h) beams = e equation for is based on (3) the c proposed s + n h h t c developed s SFRC shear strength equation by Kwak et al. (2002), as given in eqution (4).

(2) = J fc is the cylinder concrete strength of SFRLC here,

10(g K1 ( c , s )e 1 c

c )h

(4)

( v u / vn)

0 where the first term (gel 40 isotherm) represents the 30 40 50 30 50 30 40 50 0 physically bound (adsorbed) water Measured and the second Measured f' [MPa] Measured f' [MPa] f' [MPa] Figure The ratio of (vu/vn) vs. measured fc the (continued). term 6. (capillary isotherm) represents capillary water. This expression is valid only for low content /d) /d) /d) the(aamount of of SF. The(acoefficient G (arepresents 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 21 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 3 water per unit volume held in the gel pores at 100% relative humidity, and it can be expressed (Norling Mjornell 1997) as 2
c c c

(a) Ashour et al.(1992) (model A)

(b) Kwak et al.(2002)

(c) Sharma(1986)

y = -0.0002x + 1.33 (mean = 1.33; = 0.14)

y = -0.1524x + 1.8 (mean = 1.3; = 0.25)

y = -0.469x + 3.6 (mean = 2.1; = 0.7)

c c+ ks s G ( c s ) = k vg c vg s 1
, 1

(5)

s (f) Khuntia et al.(1999) (model A) k vg are (e)material Kwak et al.(2002) and parameters. From the where kcvg 0 maximum 0 1 2 amount 3 4 5 of 0 water 1 2 3per 4 unit 5 0 volume 1 2 3 that 4 5 can 6 (a/(both d) (a/pores d) a/d) fill all pores capillary and gel (pores), one Figure 6. The ratio (vone u/vn) vs. (a/d) as obtains (continued). can calculate K1of
(d) Ashour et al.(1992)
0 3 1 0 0.5 1 0 10 1 y = 0.2418 x + 1.12 + 0.22y = 0.0474 1.26 y = 1.1878x + 0.31 0.188 x+ 1 (mean = 1.33; = 0.14) (mean = 1.3; = 0.25) (mean = 1.32; = 0.43) 0 1 )= 10 1 1 0.5 1 0 0.5

Vf [%]

Vf [%]

s G

g c c h

Vf [%]

( vu / vn)

K (2 c s
, 1

(6)

g c c h

Figure 6. The ratio of (vu/vn) vs. Vf (continued).

The(g) material parameters kcvg and ksvg and g1 can Ashour et al.(1992) be calibrated by fitting data relevant to (h)experimental Kwak et al.(2002) (i) Li et al.(1992) (model A) 0 free (evaporable) water content in 0.5concrete at 0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 0 1 0 V (Di [%] Luzio & Cusatis V [%] V [%] various ages 2009b).
f f f

2.2 Temperature evolution [%] [%] [%] 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 3 that, at early age, since the chemical reactions Note associated with cement hydration and SF reaction are 2exothermic, the temperature field is not uniform for non-adiabatic systems even if the environmental temperature is constant. Heat conduction can be 1 described in concrete, at least for temperature not exceeding 100C (Baant & Kaplan 1996), by (j) Ashour et al.(1992) (k) Kwak et al.(2002) (l) Choi et al.(2007) (model Fouriers law,A) which reads 0
y = 0.021x + 1.28 (mean = 1.33; = 0.14) y = 0.0274x + 1.28 (mean = 1.3; = 0.25) y = 0.511x + 0.2 (mean = 1.39; = 0.71)

( vu / v n)

[%] q = T [%] Figure 6. The ratio of (vu/vn) vs. .

[%]

(7)

where q 6is(left the and heat flux,columns) T is the absolute Figure center depicts that temperature, and is the heat conductivity; in these two modified models correspond well to this the
current and prior data of SFRLC beams in terms of

the prediction (mean), consistency (standard deviation), random variation (slope of linear regression line), safety (minimum greater than unity) and structural efficiency (maximum less than 1.8). These models are only applicable to the SFRLC beams without stirrups. The measured peak shear forces of the tested SFRLC beams (Kang & Kim, 2009) are at least 30% larger than the ACI 318 shear strengths (Vn) of imaginary beams with the same details but without steel fibers, also assuming that the ACI 318 specified minimum amount of shear stirrups are provided. Here, the minimum amount is determined based on ACI 318-08, 11.6.4.1(f), and Vn is calculated from equations (11-2), (11-3) and (11-15) of ACI 318-08. The results signal that all the conventional stirrups could be replaced by use of steel fibers for lightweight concrete (as permitted for SFRC by ACI 318-08, 11.6.4.1(f)); however, it is recommended that this study not be considered conclusive on this point due to the lack of data and the absence of comparative studies between SFRLC beams with and without stirrups. This study also signals that the limitation of fc (41.4 MPa) in Section 11.4.6.1(f) could be increased. For these expansions, more experimental data on SFRLC beams both with and without stirrups would be very useful. 4 SUMMARY & FINDINGS The study herein was comprised of a re-assessment of data from previous structural and material tests, and model calibrations using the prior data. The data were evaluated mainly in terms of the steel fiber volume fraction and the shear span-to-depth ratio. Other variables related to steel fibers, material and reinforcing properties, or unit weight of concrete were also examined. Based on the study, the following were found: 1) The shear strength of the steel fiber-reinforced normalweight concrete beam is slightly larger than that of the steel fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete beam; however, for design models, the lightweight concrete modification factor () of 0.75 is conservatively applicable to the steel fiber-reinforced beam. This is mainly due to the brittle nature of shear failure and the lack of available experimental data. 2) The addition of steel fibers with Vf of 0.5% to 0.75% improves the resistance to structural damage and ultimate shear strength in SFRLC by roughly 25% to 45% (based on the research by Kang & Kim 2009). 3) The shear span-to-depth ratio adversely affects the shear strength of the lightweight fiber-reinforced beam. Thus, a term associated with the momentshear interaction (e.g., a/d) should be included in the shear strength equation of SFRLC beams.

J= D ( h , T ) h 4) The ACI 318 minimum requirement of 0.75% 3 (i.e., 60 kg/m ) for shear resistance (5.6.6.2(a)) could be reduced to improve concrete workability, The proportionality coefficient D(h,T) when (a/d) is 3 ormoisture less. permeability and it is a nonlinea 5) Two shear of strength models for SFRLC the relative humidity h andbeams temperature without stirrups [eqution (2) & (3) and eqution (4) & balanc & Najjar 1972). The moisture mass (5)] have been proposed based on available SFRC rethat the variation in time of the water mas search and in accordance the ACI(water 318-08 (11.2) volume with of concrete content w) be eq provision for thedivergence lightweight modification of concrete the moisture flux J factor ( = 0.75). These models correspond well to the existing data with reasonable w = J precision and repeatability. Perhaps these two t models could be conservatively used for precast, prestressed SFRLC girders, which are increasingly popular the United States. Thein water content w can be expressed a 6) The reported results signal that all the of the evaporable water wconvene (capillary wa tional stirrups could be replaced by use of vapor, and adsorbed water)steel and fithe non-e bers for lightweight concrete (as permitted for SFRC (chemically bound) water wn (Mil by ACI 318-08, 11.6.4.1(f)); is recomPantazopoulo however, & Mills it1995). It is reas mended that this assume study not be considered conclusive that the evaporable water is a fu on this point due relative to the lack of data h and the absence humidity, , degree of hydration of comparative studies beams with degreebetween of silica SFRLC fume reaction, s, i.e. we=w and without stirrups. = age-dependent sorption/desorption

(Norling Mjonell 1997). Under this assum by substituting Equation 1 into Equati ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS & FUTURE STUDY obtains

curing time and method, temperature, mix etc.). In the literature various formulatio REFERENCES found to describe the sorption isotherm concrete (Xi et al. 1994). However, in th ACI Committee 318. 2008. Building Code Requirements for paper semi-empirical expression pro Structural Concrete (ACIthe 318-08) and Commentary (318RNorling Mjornell (1997) is adopted b
Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

The work presented in this paper was sponsored by w w w h e the Oklahoma Transportation Center Grante & & + (D h) = under e c + s + w h and REU h Research t No. OTCREOS9.1-27. assistants c s students (Kah Mun Lam, Michael Van Zandt, Kyu Kim, Saagar Patel, andw John Paul Badasci) at the where e/h is the slope of the sorption/ University of Oklahoma (OU), Norman, are heartily capac isotherm (also called moisture acknowledged for their energetic and enthusiastic governing equation (Equation 3) must be participation. The support from the faculty and staff conditi by appropriate boundary and initial of OU is highly appreciated, as well. The relation between the amount of e Also, Prof. Yoon-Keun Kwak at Kumoh National water and relative humidity is called Insititute of Technology and if Prof. Sung-Gul Hong at isotherm measured with increasing Seoul National University, both in Korea, are grate- in th humidity and desorption isotherm fully thanked for their willing discussion and support. case. Neglecting their difference (Xi et al. Finally, the authors would like to recognize Prof.will be the following, sorption isotherm Leonardo Massone at the University of Chile, reference to both sorption andSantidesorption c ago, for his active participation in the project. Prof.of the By the way, if the hysteresis Leonardo Massone and Prof. Thomas Kang (PI) are isotherm would be novel taken into account, two currently co-developing robust and nonlinear relation, evaporable water vs relative humi modeling techniques for according steel fiber-reinforced conbe used to the sign of the varia crete members susceptible to flexure-shear interacrelativity humidity. The shape of the tive failures. As isotherm part of this ongoing work, largefor carried HPC is out influenced by many p scale experimental testing is by theextent au- and especially those that influence thors of this paper at the Donald G. Fears chemical reactions and, Structural in turn, determ Engineering Laboratory of OU, while extensive (waterstructure and pore size distribution calibration analysis is presently OU. ratio, cement underway chemical at composition, SF

J= D (American h, T )h Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, (1) 08). MI, USA: 456. ACI Committee 544. 1978. Measurement of Properties of Fiber The proportionality coefficient is called Reinforced Concrete (ACI 544.2R-78).D(h,T) ACI Journal , Promoisture permeability and it is a nonlinear function ceedings, 75 (7): 283-290. Ashour, S.A., Hassanain, G.S. & Wafa, F.F. 1992.TShear Beof the relative humidity h and temperature (Baant havior of High-Strength FiberReinforced Concrete Beams. & Najjar 1972). The moisture mass balance requires ACI Structural Journal, 89 (2): 176-184. that the variation in time of Aggregate. the water Annual mass per unit ASTM. 1993. Concrete Mineral Book of volume of concrete (water content w ) be equal to the ASTM Standards, West Conshohocken, PA, USA. divergence the moisture J ASTM. 2008. of American Society flux for Testing and Materials Annual Book of ASTM Standards. 04.09, West Conshohocken, PA, USA. (2) w = P. J& Dipsia, M.G. 1993. Properties of Fiber ReinBalaguru, t forced High-Strength Semilightweight Concrete. ACI Materials Journal, 90 (5): 399-405. The water content w can be expressed as the sum Balaguru, P. & Foden, A. 1996. Properties of Fiber Reinforced Lightweight Concrete. ACI Structural , water,Journal water of Structural the evaporable water we (capillary 93 (1): 62-78. vapor, and adsorbed water) and the non-evaporable Balaguru, P. & Ramakrishman, V. 1987. Fiber Reinforced (Mills 1966, (chemically bound) water wn Fiber Concrete Properties and Applications. Reinforced Pantazopoulo & Mills 1995). It is reasonable to Concrete Properties and Applications, SP-105, American assume that the evaporable water is a function of Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, USA: 305-322. Choi, K.-K., Park, H.-G. Wight, J.K. Shear Strength of relative humidity, h& , degree of 2007. hydration, c, and Steel Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Beams with Web Reindegree of silica fume reaction, s, i.e. we=we(h,c,s) forcement. ACI Structural Journal, 104 (1): 12-22. = age-dependent sorption/desorption isotherm Gao, J., Sun, W. & Morino, K. 1997. Mechanical Properties of (Norling Mjonell 1997). Under this assumption and Steel Fiber-Reinforced, High-Strength, Lightweight Conby crete. substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2 one Cement and Concrete Composites , 19: 307-313. obtains H. & Banthia, N. 2008. Correlating Flexural and Higashiyama, Shear Toughness of Lightweight Fiber-Reinforced Concrete. ACI Materials Journal, 105 (3): 251-257. w w w h Imam, M., Vandewalle, L., Mortelmans, F. & Van Gemert, D. e e e wn + ( D h ) = (3) s High-Strength 1997. of Fibrec Reinforced h h t Shear Domain c s Concrete Beams. Engineering Structures, 19 (9): 738-747. Kang, T.H.-K., Kim, W., Lam, K.M., Van Zandt, M., Patel, S. & Badasci, J.P. Reliefof of the Reinforcing Congestion in is 2009. the slope sorption/desorption where we/h Highway Bridges Using Steel Fibers, Headed Bars The and isotherm (also called moisture capacity). Self-Consolidating Concrete. 2009 OTC-ODOT Research governing equation (Equation 3) must be completed Day, Oklahoma City, OK, USA. by appropriate boundary andLightweight initial conditions. Kang, T.H.-K. & Kim, W. 2009. Concrete Beams The Steel relation between the amount of evaporable with Fiber Shear Reinforcement. Research in Progress Session, ACI humidity Fall Convention, New adsorption Orleans, LA, water and 2009 relative is called USA. isotherm if measured with increasing relativity Kayali, O., Haque, M.N. & Zhu, isotherm B. 1999. Drying Shrinkage of humidity and desorption in the opposite Fibre-Reinforced Lightweight Aggregate Concrete Containcase. their difference (Xi et al. ,1994), in ing Neglecting Fly Ash. Cement and Concrete Research 29 (11): the1835-1840. following, sorption isotherm will be used with reference to Stojadinovic, both sorption desorption Khuntia, M., B. and & Goel, S. C. conditions. 1999. Shear of Normal andhysteresis High-Strength ByStrength the way, if the of Fiber the Reinforced moisture Concrete Beams without Stirrups. ACI Structural Journal, isotherm would be taken into account, two different 96 (2): 282-289. relation, evaporable water vs relative humidity, must Kwak, Y.-K., Eberhard, M.O., Kim, W.-S. & Kim, J. 2002. be Shear used Strength according to the sign of the variation the of Steel Fiber-Reinforced Concrete of Beams relativity humidity. The shape of the sorption without stirrups. ACI Structural Journal, 99 (4): 530-538. Li, V., Ward, & Hamza, A.M. 1992. Synthetic Fibers isotherm forR. HPC is influenced bySteel many parameters, as Shear Reinforcement. ACI Materials Journal , 89 especially those that influence extent and rate of (5): the 499-508. reactions and, in turn, determine pore chemical Narayanan, R. & Darwish, I.Y.S. 1987. Use of Steel Fibers as structure and pore size distribution (water-to-cement Shear Reinforcement. ACI Structural Journal , 84(3): 216ratio, 227. cement chemical composition, SF content, curing time and method, temperature, mix additives, Sharma, A.K. 1986. Shear Strength of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete Beams. ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings, can 83 (4): etc.). In the literature various formulations be 624-628. found to describe the sorption isotherm of normal Shin, S.-W., Oh, J.-K. & Ghosh, S.K. 1994. Shear Behavior of concrete (Xi et al. 1994). However, in the present Laboratory-Sized High-Strength Concrete Beams Reinpaper the semi-empirical expression proposedConby forced with Bars and Steel Fibers. Fiber Reinforced

crete Developments and the Innovations , SP-142, American explicitly accounts for evolution of hydration Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, USA: 181-200. reaction and SF content. This sorption isotherm Swamy, R.N. & Jojagha, A.H. 1982a. Workability of Steel Fireads bre Reinforced Lightweight Aggregate Concrete. International Journal of Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete, 4 (2): 103-109. Swamy, R.N. & Jojagha, A.H. Resistance of 1 1982b. Impact (h, Fibre weSteel = G1 ( c , Lightweight + International c , s )Reinforced s )1 10(g Concrete. )h Journal of Cement Composites ,4 c Concrete 1 c eand Lightweight (4) (4): 209-220. Swamy, R. N., Jones, R. & Chiam, 1993. Influence of 10(g A.T.P. )h ConSteel Fibers on the Shear Resistance c 1 1 c of Lightweight K1 (Structural crete I-Beams. ACI c , s )e Journal, 90 (1): 103-114. Theodorakopoulos, D.D. & Swamy, R.N. 1993. Contribution of Steel Fibers to the Strength Characteristics of Lightweight Slab-Column Connections Failing the in where theConcrete first term (gel isotherm) represents Punching Shear. ACI Structural Journal, 90 (4): 342-355.

physically bound (adsorbed) water and the second term (capillary isotherm) represents the capillary water. This expression is valid only for low content of SF. The coefficient G1 represents the amount of water per unit volume held in the gel pores at 100% relative humidity, and it can be expressed (Norling Mjornell 1997) as
c c+ ks s G ( c s ) = k vg c vg s
, 1

(5)

&+

&+ &

where kcvg and ksvg are material parameters. From the maximum amount of water per unit volume that can fill all pores (both capillary pores and gel pores), one can calculate K1 as one obtains
w K ( c s ) =
, 1 0

0.188

s + 0.22 s G

1 1

10

h g c c
1

(6)

10

g c c h

The material parameters kcvg and ksvg and g1 can be calibrated by fitting experimental data relevant to free (evaporable) water content in concrete at various ages (Di Luzio & Cusatis 2009b). 2.2 Temperature evolution Note that, at early age, since the chemical reactions associated with cement hydration and SF reaction are exothermic, the temperature field is not uniform for non-adiabatic systems even if the environmental temperature is constant. Heat conduction can be described in concrete, at least for temperature not exceeding 100C (Baant & Kaplan 1996), by Fouriers law, which reads
q

= T

(7)

Norling Mjornell (1997) is adopted because it

Proceedings of FraMCoS-7, May 23-28, 2010

where q is the heat flux, T is the absolute temperature, and is the heat conductivity; in this