Mechanics

Physics 151
Lecture 14
Special Relativity
(Chapter 7)
Special Relativity
You know it quite well already
Learned in Physics 15a/16
We skip all the historical discussions
E.g. about non-existence of absolute time
Start from two principlesand build a clean formalism
Laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames
Speed of light in vacuum is the same in all inertial frames
Maxwells equations are always correct
Frames and Events
Consider two inertial frames S and S
An event is specified by thepositionand thetime
Consider the distance between two events 1 and 2
We can always move the origins so that event 1 is
Physics does not depend on absolute position or time
We denote event 2 with and
( , , , ) t x y z ( , , , ) t x y z

in S in S
( , , , ) ( , , , ) (0,0,0,0) t x y z t x y z

= =
( , , , ) t x y z ( , , , ) t x y z

Spacetime Distance
Light is emitted at event 1 and detected at event 2
Speed of light, measured in S and S, must be the same
Define distance in spacetime
2 2 2 2 2 2
x y z x y z
c
t t

+ + + +
= =

2 2 2 2 2
( ) 0 c t x y z + + =
2 2 2 2 2
( ) 0 c t x y z

+ + =
2 2 2 2 2 2
( ) ( ) s c t x y z = + +
We assume that the spacetime distance s between any
two events is the same in all inertial frames
Light Cone
represents light
If an object slower than light travels from event 1 to 2,
t must be larger (s)
2
> 0
If (s)
2
< 0, there isnt enough time for even light to reach
Interval between two events can fall into 3 regions

2 2 2 2 2 2
( ) ( ) 0 s c t x y z = + + =
2
( ) 0 s >
timelike
2
( ) 0 s <
spacelike
2
( ) 0 s =
lightlike
Reachable by ordinary objects
Reachable only by tachyons (v >c)
Reachable by light
elsewhere
2
( ) 0 s <
Light Cone
(s)
2
= 0draws a cone in the
4-dimensional space
Light conedivides spacetime
into past, future and elsewhere
Division is frame-independent
Protects causality
Past is past, future is future,
no matter which frame you are in
x
t
future
past
2
( ) 0 s >
Time Dilation
Consider an object moving at a velocity v in S
Define S so that this object is constantly at its origin
Consider small movement from event 1 to event 2
Make it infinitesimal
( , , ) ( , , )
x y z
dx dy dz v v v dt =
2 2
2 2 2 2
( ) ( ) in
( ) ( ) in
s c t S
c t x y z S

=
= + +
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) cdt cdt dx dy dz c v dt

= + + =
2
2
2
1 1
v
c
dt d dt dt dt

= = <
Proper time
Moving clock
appears to run
slower
4-Vectors
Express an event (t, x, y, z) as a
4-dimensional vector
c is there to fix the unit
Length of this vector in ordinary
4-d space would be
Its more useful to define length as
ct
ct
x
y
z




= =





x
r
2
2 2 2 2 2
c t x y z = = + + + x xx

Totally useless for us

2
2 2 2 2 2
(
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
) c t x y z

= = =

+ + x x x x x

Metric tensor g
Minkowski Space
4-d space in which the length is defined as above is
called the Minkowski space
Metric tensor g expresses how length is defined
Metric tensor for ordinary space = unit matrix 1
We now say
2
2 2 2 2 2
( ) c t x y z = = = + + x x x xgx

Length of any 4-vector in Minkowski space is the same

in all inertial frames
Lorentz Transformation
So far we have not specified how S and S are related
The Question Of The Day is
We know the name: Lorentz transformation
Lets figure out its characteristics
What is the general form of the transformation
that keeps the spacetime distance s
2
invariant?
( , , , ) ( , , , )
L
ct x y z ct x y z

What is the general form of the transformation

that conserves the length in the Minkowski space?
Linearity
Physics does not depend on absolute position or time
Shifting the origin of S must simply shift the origin of S
Try x = 0
If we define
L(x) must be a linear function of x + fixed offset
x x +a
x x +a ( ) ( ) L L

= + x +a x a
i.e.
( ) (0) L L

= + a a
( ) ( ) ( ) (0) L L L L = + x +a x a
True for any x and a
( ) ( ) (0) L L L

x x
( ) ( ) ( ) L L L

+ = + x a x a
L is linear
Poincar Transformation
Knowing that the transformation is linear
This is called Poincartransformation
a moves the origin No physical consequences
We ignore the translation and consider L only
This is called homogeneous Lorentz transformation
ct
x
y
z

x
Any linear
transformation
is written as

= + x Lx a
4x4 matrix
Translation
of origin
Let me write this as HLT
ct
x
y
z



=



x
Lorentz Transformation
Now we have
What are the constraints on L?
L must conserve the length of any 4-vector
In terms of components
g is symmetric Equation is symmetric
6 of 16 equations are duplicates
There are 10 constraints

= x Lx L is a 4x4 real matrix

2
= x xgx
= LgL g

2

= = x x gx xLgLx

=
ji jk kl il
L g L g =
16 real equations
L has 6 degrees of freedom
Rotation
Remember how rotation matrices were defined?
Conserve the length of any 3-vector in Cartesian space
In fact any rotation A in 3-space satisfies the condition
3-d rotation is a subset of HLT
Not the most exciting part of it
Rotation has 3 degrees of freedom (Euler angles)
There must be 3 more in HLT
2
2 2 2 2 2
( ) const c t x y z = + + = x
Unaffected Conserved
Lorentz Boost
Consider two inertial frames S and S
Origin of S must be moving at a constant velocity inS
Rotate S and S so that x and x are parallel to v
Plus, y and y, z and z are parallel to each other
OK to do this because rotation is a subset of HLT
x
x v t =
y
y v t =
z
z v t = ( , , ) 0 x y z

=
00 01
10 11
0 0
0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
ct L L ct
x L L x
y y
z z

y and z
are out of
the game
Lorentz Boost
L must satisfy
Origin of S is
This must satisfy
Looks familiar except
= LgL g

00 01
10 11
0 0
0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
L L
L L



=



L
2 2
00 10
1 L L =
2 2
01 11
1 L L =
00 01 10 11
0 L L L L =
0 x

=
10 11
0 L ct L x = +
x vt =
10
11
L v
c L
=
Solve!
00 01
10 11
L L
L L

2
1
1

What are these

signs?
Sign Ambiguities
There are 4-fold sign ambiguities
Only 1 represents Lorentz transformation
Think about the low-velocity limit
0
1
1 0
0 1

This must be unit matrix

00 01
10 11
L L
L L



=

Sign of ct is arbitrary
Sign of x is arbitrary
2
1
1

00 01
10 11
L L
L L

Space-Time Reversal
What are the other solutions?
flips x axis: Space inversion
flips t : Time reversal
They reverse the orientation of time and/or space
Laws of physics are happy with such transformation
Not continuous part of the Lorentz transformation
We arent interested for the moment
00 01
10 11
L L
L L

00 01
10 11
L L
L L

General Boost
Weve got L for boost in x
We can rotate S and S to get L for boost in any direction
We can also use a bit of vector algebra
Split 3-vector r into two parts
Parallel component transforms like x above
0 0
0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

=



L
2
( )

=
r
r

= r r r

Parallel
to v
Perpendicular
to v
( ) ct ct ct

= = r r

2
( ) ( 1)
ct ct

= + + = + +
r
r r r r

Proper Lorentz Transformation

Writing down explicitly for general
2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
2
1 ( 1) ( 1) ( 1)
( 1) 1 ( 1) ( 1)
( 1) ( 1) 1 ( 1)
( 1)
x y
x x z
y x y y z
z y
z x z
x y z
x
y
z

+


=

+


+

=

+


L

3 degrees of freedom (
x
,
y
,
z
)
General form of Lorentz
transformation without rotation
Proper Lorentz
transformation
Lorentz T at a Glance
Proper Lorentz Transformation
3 degrees of freedomin
Orientation of the axes are unchanged
Homogeneous Lorentz Transformation
A is rotation. 3 + 3 = 6 degrees of freedom
Origin is unchanged
Poincartransformation
a shifts the origin. 6 + 4 = 10 degrees of freedom
Completely general formof transformation between inertial
systems that satisfy special relativity
2
( 1)

=

+

L

1

LA

= + x LAx a
PLT
Properties of L
L 1 when 0
L
-1
is given by
Diagonally symmetric
Remember: rotation matrix A is anti-symmetric
LA (for HLT) is neither symmetric nor anti-symmetric
2 2
( 1) ( 1)

=

+ +



1

1 1


Check
this!
2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
1 ( 1) ( 1) ( 1)
( 1) 1 ( 1) ( 1)
( 1) ( 1) 1 ( 1)
x y
x x z
y x y y z
z y
z x z
x y z
x
y
z















+


=

+


+


L
Addition of Velocities
Make two PLTs L and L in series
If and are parallel, we can define x as their direction
Same as one PLT with
|| < 1 for any and as expected
(1 ) ( )
( ) (1 )

=





+ +

=


+ +

L L
Only ct and x
components
shown
1

+
Addition of
velocities
Addition of Velocities
What if we add two velocities that are not parallel?
For example, is in x, is in y
Obviously
0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
0

L L
Only ct, x, y
components
shown
Ugly
asymmetric
matrix

L L LL PLTs are not commutative
Addition of Velocities
In general, LL is asymmetric
Two PLTsdo not add up to a PLT
On the other hand, two HLTsdoadd up to a HLT
HLTs are defined as linear transformations that conserve
length of 4-vectors and do not move the origin
Two successive HLTs automatically satisfy this
Therefore two PLTs must make a HLT
i.e., LL must be written as LA
i.e., PLT + PLT = PLT + a rotation
Goldstein section 7.3 makes a big fuss about this
Lorentz Group
Homogeneous Lorentz transformations make a closed
group (Lorentz group)
Product of two members is always a member
Rotations make a group
Which is a subgroup of the Lorentz group
Proof Eulers theorem
Proper Lorentz transformations do not make a group
Summary
Discussed Lorentz transformation
Linear transformation of 4-vectors that conserve the length
in Minkowski space
Derived general form of homogeneous Lorentz
transformation
Product of rotationand proper Lorentz transformation
Found explicit matrix expression of PLT
HLTs form a group, PLTs dont
Now we know how the spacetime transforms
Next: physical quantitiesin the spacetime