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MODELING OF FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER BASED

STATOM FOR VOLTAGE CONTROL OF WIND DRIVEN
INDUCTION GENERATOR SYSTEMS

ABSTRACT
This paper presents a systematic approach based on eigen structure assignment to
determine the mode shape and transient response of a STATCOM utilized as an exciter for
induction generators (IG! A physical control scheme" including four control
loops# ac $oltage" dc $oltage" ac acti$e current and ac reacti$e current controllers" is pre%
specified for the STATCOM! A synthetic algorithm is proposed to embed these physical control
loops in the output feedbac& path! 'ith appropriate oscillation mode design (eigen structure in
each state $ariable" the STATCOM acti$e current and reacti$e current (ill no longer be
go$erned by the same mode but dri$en by ne( respecti$e modes! The simulation and
experimental results demonstrated that under $arious system disturbances" the proposed mode
decoupling STATCOM is effecti$e in regulating IG terminal $oltage!
The impact of e$er%changing (ind speed on po(er )uality coupled (ith the need for an
excitation current ma&e the $oltage regulation difficult" especially (hen the IG is connected to a
(ea& ac system! An alternati$e approach using a linearzed state%space model in the STATCOM
control design (as proposed! A STATCOM composed of a three phase IG*T%based +SI" a
coupling transformer" a filter and a dc capacitor" is employed! The basic STATCOM acti$e and
reacti$e current control can be deri$ed from the STATCOM model! the STATCOM%
compensated IG system! The experimental IG is dri$en by a tor)ue%controlled ser$omotor (hich
emulates a (ind turbine! The tor)ue command of the ser$omotor dri$er is calculated based on
the rotor speed and the mechanical po(er that emulates the (ind po(er at $arious (ind speed!
To a$oid ac harmonic current distortion and high%fre)uency noise interference stemmed from
+SI $oltage modulation" care must be ta&en (hen designing the lo(%pass filter prior to the
collection of the analog signals! To further reduce the effect of harmonic distortion on the digital
control system" a harmonic elimination pulse%(idth%modulation (,-.'M techni)ue can be
used! The ma/or feature of the proposed controller is that for a gi$en feedbac& frame(or&" the
control gains can be systematically synthesized through then pre%specified shape of the closed%
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loop response! In this (or&" the mode shape (as determined using eigen structure assignment
(hich suppresses the STATCOM ac current mode acti$ities in the reacti$e current and acti$e
current0 thereby reinforcing the reacti$e current acti$ities on the load bus $oltage regulation!
1ote that the electromechanical mode damping can also be impro$ed (hile determining the
mode shape of the closed%loop responses!
The simulation and experimental results demonstrated excellent performance (ith the
proposed mode decoupling STATCOM" (hich is suitable to compensate for $arious disturbances
occurring in the (ind%dri$en IG systems!
I. INTRODUCTION
WI12 -1-3G4 is a climate%friendly form of sustainable resource due to the absence of
emissions detrimental to the en$ironment! The most common type of Mega(att%class (ind
energy con$ersion system employs induction generators because they are relati$ely inexpensi$e"
rigid and re)uire lo( maintenance! ,o(e$er" the impact of e$er%changing (ind speed on po(er
)uality coupled (ith the need for an excitation current ma&e the $oltage regulation difficult"
especially (hen the IG is connected to a (ea& ac system 5678597! The con$entional reacti$e
po(er compensation approach employing static +ar compensator (S+C" a combination of the
thyristor%controlled reactors and the fixed shunt capacitors" has made it possible to pro$ide
dynamic reacti$e po(er regulation for po(er systems! ,o(e$er" because the effecti$e reacti$e
po(er generated by the S+C depends on its terminal $oltage" the maximum reacti$e po(er
output is thus depressed as the terminal bus is sub/ected to se$ere $oltage drop! *ecause of the
derated capacity" the controller is li&ely to be saturated and conse)uently prolongs the response
time! 3ecent ad$ances in reacti$e po(er compensation ha$e used the static synchronous
compensator (STATCOM 5:7856:7" (hich pro$ides shunt compensation in a similar (ay to the
S+C but utilizes a $oltage%sourced in$erter (+SI rather than capacitors and reactors! *y
properly modulating the +SI output $oltage" the +SI output current (ill be changed
simultaneously! This means that the dynamic acti$e and reacti$e po(er exchanges bet(een the
STATCOM and po(er system is attainable" irrespecti$e of the terminal $oltage! ,o(e$er" e$en
though sur$eys ha$e sho(n that the STATCOM is superior to the S+C" disappointing
performance may ta&e place (ith inaccurate STATCOM current control! STATCOM current
decoupling control based on the d%) reference frame recei$ed considerable attention in 56;7" 5667!
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The authors presented a remar&able ad$ance by letting the %axis al(ays be coincident (ith the
supply $oltage0 the first prototypal control (here acti$e and reacti$e po(er are decoupled (as
realized! ,o(e$er" since the dc%lin& $oltage is not al(ays maintained at constant" the idea that
the di$isible control of the reacti$e and acti$e current (as found to be unattainable! To alle$iate
the interaction bet(een the acti$e and reacti$e currents" a feedfor(ard control loop (ith reacti$e
current de$iations as the input (as introduced to compensate for the dc%lin& $oltage drop 56<7!
An alternati$e approach using a linearized state%space model in the STATCOM control design
(as proposed in 56=7856:7! In the state>output feedbac& control sense" all feedbac& $ariables
(ere (eighted in the +SI output $oltage command and cross coupling bet(een the state
$ariables is therefore una$oidable! To approach the assigned eigen$alues" high feedbac& gains
are needed to counteract the unnecessary acti$ities of some state> output $ariables but at the
expense of a decrease in the stability margin! -igenstructure assignment is an excellent method
for incorporating classical specifications on the response speed and mode decoupling into a
modern multi$ariable control frame(or& 56?785697! *y assigning appropriate oscillation mode
acti$ities in each state $ariable" undesired perturbation bet(een the state $ariables can be
eliminated! This rest of this paper is organized as follo(s! 2ynamic IG and STATCOM models
(ith the basic control scheme appear in Section II! Section III presents a mode decoupling
controller for the STATCOM to impro$e electromechanical mode damping and realize a
di$isible control of the acti$e and reacti$e po(er! The proposed controller is $alidated using the
simulation and experimental set up! The experimental results are discussed in Sections I+ and +!
Section +I summarizes the concluding remar&s!
Eigen Structure Assignent
-igenstructure of a system determines its dynamic properties" since the speed of response is
go$erned by the eigen$alues and the shape of the system response by its eigen$ectors56="6@7!
Therefore" linear state feedbac& design $ia the desired eigenstructure assignment (ould result in
the desired system response! Also" in general" gi$ing the desired closed%loop eigen$elues does
not uni)uely define the closed%loop configuration56;7! The non%uni)ueness transient response s
is attributable to the freedom offered by state feedbac& beyond eigen$alue assignment in
selecting the associated eigen$ectors!
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MATERIALS AND MET!ODS
The mathematical analysis for eigen$ector assignment " po(er flo( transmission line and for the
static compensator based on the transformation of the three%phase into d%) frame (as performed
as follo(s#
Consider a linear time%in$ariant" completely controllable system#
'hen a linear constant gain state feedbac& control la( is implemented" a closed%loop system is
constructed
as#
The eigenstructure assignment problem under consideration is as follo(s# Gi$en the open%loop
system in -)! 6" de$elop a parametric form for the real m A n gain matrix B of the state feedbac&
control in -)! <" such that the closed%loop system in -)! = is assigned an arbitrary pre%specified
set of eigen$alues i l C DDl DD! The solution of the problem is obtained under the condition that
the set of closed%loop eigen$alues E and the set of open%loop eigen$alues (of the matrix A ha$e
no elements in common! 1o( begins the assignment of the m%eigen$alues" the closed%loop
characteristic polynomial is expressed in $ie( of -)! = as the nth order determined#
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(hich can be re(ritten in terms of the open%loop characteristic polynomial#
'here
is the resol$ent of the open%loop system matrix A! To assign i to the closed%loop -)! =" it must
be satisfied" for i C 6"<"F"m" that#
If and only if" the columns of the matrix m I B(* are linearly dependent (the determinant in
-)! G $anishes" that is" for some (non%null mdimensional $ectors Hi" then#
This implies that#
'here#
Hn C An m n parameter matrix (hose columns are
the right parameter $ectors Hi/(&
+n C An n n matrix (hose columns are functions ofHi/(&
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The gain matrix B is immediately obtained as#
In"ucti#n Gener$t#r
The technology of induction generator is based on the relati$ely mature electric motor
technology! Induction motors are perhaps the most common types of electric motors used
throughout the industry! -arly de$elopments in induction generators (ere made using fixed
capacitors for excitation" since suitable acti$e po(er de$ices (ere not a$ailable! This resulted in
unstable po(er output since the excitation could not be ad/usted as the load or speed de$iated
from the nominal $alues! This approach became possible only (here a large po(er system (ith
infinite bus (as a$ailable" such as in a utility po(er system! In this case the excitation (as
pro$ided from the infinite bus! 'ith the a$ailability of high po(er s(itching de$ices" induction
generator can be pro$ided (ith ad/ustable excitation and operate in isolation in a stable manner
(ith appropriate controls!
Induction generator also has t(o electromagnetic components# the rotating magnetic field
constructed using high conducti$ity" high strength bars located in a slotted iron core to form a
s)uirrel cage0 and the stationary armature similar to the one described in the pre$ious paragraph
for .M technology! Higure = sho(s the construction of a typical induction generator in a cross
sectional $ie(!
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The $oltage output from the generator is regulated" multiple phase ac! The control of the $oltage
is accomplished in a closed loop operation (here the excitation current is ad/usted to generate
constant output $oltage regardless of the $ariations of speed and load current! The excitation
current" its magnitude and fre)uency is determined by the control system! The excitation current
is supplied to the stationary armature (inding from (hich it is induced into the short circuited
s)uirrel cage secondary (inding in the rotor!
INDUCTION GENERATOR O%ERATION
Higure : sho(s the speed tor)ue characteristics of an induction motor operating from a constant
fre)uency po(er source! Most readers are familiar (ith this characteristic of the induction motor
operation! The operation of the induction motor occurs in a stable manner in the region of the
speed tor)ue cur$e indicated in Higure :! The tor)ue output as (ell as the po(er deli$ered by the
motor $aries as the motor speed changes! At synchronous speed no po(er is deli$ered at all! The
difference bet(een the synchronous speed and the operating speed is called the slip! The output
tor)ue and po(er $ary linearly (ith the slip!
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If the induction motor is dri$en to a speed higher than the synchronous speed" the speed
tor)ue cur$e re$erses as sho(n in Higure ?! In the stable region of this cur$e" electric po(er is
generated utilizing the mechanical input po(er from the prime mo$er! Once again the generated
po(er is a function of the slip" and $aries (ith the slip itself!
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In the generator mode" if the slip is controlled in accordance (ith the load re)uirements" the
induction generator (ill deli$er the necessary po(er! It must be remembered that the
synchronous speed is a function of the electrical fre)uency applied to the generator terminals! On
the other hand" the operating shaft speed is determined by the prime mo$er! Therefore to
generate po(er" the electrical fre)uency must be ad/usted as the changes in the load and the
prime mo$er speed occur! In addition to the re)uirement stated abo$e" the excitation current must
be pro$ided to the generator stator (indings for induction into the rotor! The magnitude of the
excitation current (ill determine the $oltage at the bus! Thus the excitation current must be
regulated at specific le$els to obtain a constant bus $oltage! The controller for the induction
generator has the dual function as follo(s#
i Ad/ust the electrical fre)uency to produce the slip corresponding to the load re)uirement!
ii Ad/ust the magnitude of the excitation current to pro$ide the desirable bus $oltage! Higure G
depicts the region of generator mode operation for a typical induction generator! A number of
tor)ue speed characteristic cur$es in the stable region of operation are sho(n to explain the
operation! As an example" consider the situation (hen the prime mo$er is at the
nominal or 6;;I speed! The electrical fre)uency must be ad/usted to cater for load changes from
; to 6;;I of the load! If a $ertical line is dra(n along the speed of 6;;I" it can be obser$ed that
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the electrical fre)uency must be changed from 6;;I at no load to about 9:I at full load if the
prime mo$er speed is held at 6;;I!
BENEFITS OF INDUCTION GENERATOR TEC!NOLOGY
Induction generator has se$eral benefits to offer for the micro" mini po(er systems under
consideration! These benefits relate to the generator design as follo(s#
i Cost of Materials# Jse of electromagnets rather than permanent magnets means lo(er cost of
materials for the induction generator! 3are earth permanent magnets are substantially more
expensi$e than the electrical steel used in electromagnets! They also must be contained using
additional supporting rings!
ii Cost of Kabor# .MLs re)uire special machining operations and must be retained on the rotor
structure by installation of the containment structure! ,andling of permanent magnets that are
pre%charged is generally difficult in production shops! These re)uirements increase the cost of
labor for the .M generator!
iii Generator .o(er Muality# The .M generator produces ra( ac po(er (ith unregulated
$oltage! 2epending upon the changes in load and speed" the $oltage $ariation can be (ide! This
is all the more true for generators exceeding about G: &' po(er rating! On the other hand (ith
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S3 generator" the output (a$eforms are non%sinusoidal and pea&y as sho(n in Higure N! These
(a$eforms must be filtered in order to get reasonably constant $oltage output!
The induction generator produces ac $oltage that is reasonably sinusoidal as sho(n in the
example from an actual test in Higure 9! This $oltage can be rectified easily to produce a constant
dc $oltage! Additionally" the ac $oltage can be stepped up or do(n using a transformer to
pro$ide multiple le$els of $oltages if re)uired!
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Hault Conditions# 'hen an internal failure occurs in a .M generator" the failed (inding (ill
continue to dra( energy until the generator is stopped! Hor high%speed generators" this may mean
a long enough duration during (hich further damage to electrical and mechanical components
(ould occur! It could also mean a safety hazard for the indi$iduals (or&ing in the $icinity! The
induction generator on the other hand is safely shut do(n by de%excitation (ithin a fe(
milliseconds" pre$enting the hazardous situations!
INDUCTION GENERATOR CONTROLLER TEC!NOLOGY
The controller may be broadly di$ided into three sections" namely" the
po(er section" sensing circuits" and the control section! .o(er transistors using IG*TLs or
MOSH-TLs are used in the po(er section of the generator controller in a con$entional multi%
phase configuration" the number of phases being the same as the number of phases in the
generator (inding! Antiparallel diodes are connected across each of the transistor! The 2C rail is
connected to a po(er capacitor!
An additional po(er in$erter is used (hen an AC output at a constant
fre)uency such as ?; or :; ,z! is re)uired! Sensing of currents and $oltages is pro$ided at the
load as (ell as in the po(er section of the controller! In addition" the speed of the shaft is
measured! All the parameters sensed by the sensing circuits are conditioned by filtering and
digitizing as re)uired! The control section recei$es the information pro$ided by the sensors!
The parametric model of the generator is incorporated in the control
section! In con/unction (ith a .I2 control algorithm" appropriate s(itching commands for the
po(er transistors are generated in the control section! This creates the necessary fre)uency and
amplitude of the excitation currents that flo( in the induction generator (indings and are
induced into the s)uirrel cage rotor! The control section also includes protecti$e functions such
as o$er%current" o$er%$oltage" and o$er%temperature protection circuitry! Higure 6; sho(s the
controller in a bloc& diagram!
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INDUCTION GENERATOR CONTROLLER BENEFITS
'hen compared to .M and S3 generator controllers" induction generator controller offers the
follo(ing benefits#
i Sensing# The control of induction generator slip re)uires precise measurement of speed! On the
other hand" the control of S3 generator re)uires precise measurement of the rotor position! This
is a much more difficult tas& to accomplish than the measurement of speed!
ii S(itching and control speed# Hor the S3 generator" the operating fre)uency is extremely high"
in the range of ? &,z! at ?;;;; 3.M! This re)uires high speed s(itching of po(er transistors!
The s(itching commands also must be pro$ided at a high rate! Hor the induction generator" the
operating fre)uency is in the 6 &,z! to < &,z! range at ?;;;; 3.M depending upon (hether <
pole or @ pole generator design is selected! The s(itching rate for the po(er transistors can be
lo(ered in a reasonable range!
iii .o(er Section Sizing# In the case of .M generators" due to the (ide $ariation in the $oltage
output" complexities are introduced in the controller re)uiring $oltage boost
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mechanisms! The po(er electronic components must function at high stress le$els! In the S3
generator controller" high rates of change of currents and $oltages result in high stress le$els for
the po(er electronic de$ices! The induction generator has a (ellregulated sinusoidal output that
can be conditioned (ithout using highly stressed electronic components! O$erall it is belie$ed
that the controller for the induction generator is more robust" smaller in size" and cost less than
the controller for .M or S3 generators in the po(er range under consideration!
STATCOM
=!6 STATIC S41C,3O1OJS COM.-1SATO3 (STATCOM
Intr#"ucti#n
The STATCOM is a solid%state%based po(er con$erter $ersion of the S+C!
Operating as a shunt%connected S+C" its capaciti$e or inducti$e output currents can be controlled
independently from its terminal AC bus $oltage! *ecause of the fast%s(itching characteristic of
po(er con$erters" STATCOM pro$ides much faster response as compared to the S+C! In
addition" in the e$ent of a rapid change in system $oltage" the capacitor $oltage does not change
instantaneously0 therefore" STATCOM effecti$ely reacts for the desired responses! Hor example"
if the system $oltage drops for any reason" there is a tendency for STATCOM to in/ect capaciti$e
po(er to support the dipped $oltages!
STATCOM is capable of high dynamic performance and its compensation does
not depend on the common coupling $oltage! Therefore" STATCOM is $ery effecti$e during the
po(er system disturbances!
Moreo$er" much research confirms se$eral ad$antages of STATCOM! These
ad$antages compared to other shunt compensators include#
O Size" (eight" and cost reduction
O -)uality of lagging and leading output
O .recise and continuous reacti$e po(er control (ith fast response
O .ossible acti$e harmonic filter capability
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This chapter describes the structure" basic operating principle and characteristics
of STATCOM! In addition" the concept of $oltage source con$erters and the corresponding
control techni)ues are illustrated!
&.' STRUCTURE OF STATCOM
*asically" STATCOM is comprised of three main parts (as seen from Higure
belo(# a $oltage source con$erter (+SC" a step%up coupling transformer" and a controller! In a
$ery%high%$oltage system" the lea&age inductances of the step%up po(er transformers can
function as coupling reactors! The main purpose of the coupling inductors is to filter out the
current harmonic components that are generated mainly by the pulsating output $oltage of the
po(er con$erters!
3eacti$e po(er generation by a STATCOM
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&.& CONTROL OF STATCOM
Intr#"ucti#n
The controller of a STATCOM operates the con$erter in a particular (ay that the
phase angle bet(een the con$erter $oltage and the transmission line $oltage is dynamically
ad/usted and synchronized so that the STATCOM generates or absorbs desired +A3 at the point
of coupling connection! Higure =!@ sho(s a simplified diagram of the STATCOM (ith a
con$erter $oltage source PP6E and a tie reactance" connected to a system (ith a $oltage source"
and a The$enin reactance" QTIEX_THV
T,
!
T(# M#"es #) O*er$ti#n
There are t(o modes of operation for a STATCOM" inducti$e mode and the
capaciti$e mode! The STATCOM regards an inducti$e reactance connected at its terminal (hen
the con$erter $oltage is higher than the transmission line $oltage! ,ence" from the systemLs point
of $ie(" it regards the STATCOM as a capaciti$e reactance and the STATCOM is considered to
be operating in a capaciti$e mode! Similarly" (hen the system $oltage is higher than the
con$erter $oltage" the system regards an inducti$e reactance connected at its terminal! ,ence" the
STATCOM regards the system as a capaciti$e reactance and the STATCOM is considered to be
operating in an inducti$e mode
!
STATCOM operating in inducti$e or capaciti$e modes
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In other (ords" loo&ing at the phasor diagrams on the right of Higure =!@" (hen6I" the reacti$e
current component of the STATCOM" leads (THVER6 by 9;S" it is in inducti$e mode and (hen
it lags by 9;S" it is in capaciti$e mode!
This dual mode capability enables the STATCOM to pro$ide inducti$e
compensation as (ell as capaciti$e compensation to a system! Inducti$e compensation of the
STATCOM ma&es it uni)ue! This inducti$e compensation is to pro$ide inducti$e reactance
(hen o$ercompensation due to capacitors ban&s occurs! This happens during the night" (hen a
typical inducti$e load is about <;I of the full load" and the capacitor ban&s along the
transmission line pro$ide (ith excessi$e capaciti$e reactance due to the lo(er load! *asically the
control system for a STATCOM consists of a current control and a $oltage control!
Current C#ntr#++e" STATCOM


Current controlled bloc& diagram of STATCOM
Higure abo$e sho(s the reacti$e current control bloc& diagram of the STATCOM!
An instantaneous three%phase set of line $oltages" $
l
" at *JS 6 is used to calculate the reference
angle" T" (hich is phase%loc&ed to the phase a of the line $oltage" $
la
! An instantaneous three%
phase set of measured con$erter currents" i
l
" is decomposed into its real or direct component" I
6d
"
and reacti$e or )uadrature component" I
6)
" respecti$ely!The )uadrature component is compared
(ith the desired reference $alue" I
6)
U
and the error is passed through an error amplifier (hich
produces a relati$e angle" V" of the con$erter $oltage (ith respect to the transmission line
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$oltage! The phase angle" T
6
" of the con$erter $oltage is calculated by adding the relati$e angle"
V" of the con$erter $oltage and the phase 8 loc&%loop angle" T! The reference )uadrature
component" I
6)
U
" of the con$erter current is defined to be either positive if the STATCOM is
emulating an inducti$e reactance or negative if it is emulating a capaciti$e reactance! The 2C
capacitor $oltage" $
2C
" is dynamically ad/usted in relation (ith the con$erter $oltage! The control
scheme described abo$e sho(s the implementation of the inner current control loop (hich
regulates the reacti$e current flo( through the STATCOM regardless of the line $oltage!
V#+t$ge C#ntr#++e" STATCOM
In regulating the line $oltage" an outer $oltage control loop must be
implemented! The outer $oltage control loop (ould automatically determine the reference
reacti$e current for the inner current control loop (hich" in turn" (ill regulate the line $oltage!

+oltage controlled bloc& diagram of STATCOM
Higure =!? sho(s a $oltage control bloc& diagram of the STATCOM! An instantaneous three%
phase set of measured line $oltages" $
6
" at *JS 6 is decomposed into its real or direct
component" +
6d
" and reacti$e or )uadrature component" +
6)
" is compared (ith the desired
reference $alue" +
6
U
" (ad/usted by the droop factor" B
droop
and the error is passed through an error
amplifier (hich produces the reference current" I
6)
U
" for the inner current control loop! The droop
factor" B
droop
" is defined as the allo(able $oltage error at the rated reacti$e current flo( through
the STATCOM!
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&., BASIC O%ERATING %RINCI%LES OF STATCOM
The STATCOM is connected to the po(er system at a .CC (point of common
coupling" through a step%up coupling transformer" (here the $oltage%)uality problem is a
concern! The .CC is also &no(n as the terminal for (hich the terminal $oltage is J
T
! All
re)uired $oltages and currents are measured and are fed into the controller to be compared (ith
the commands! The controller then performs feedbac& control and outputs a set of s(itching
signals (firing angle to dri$e the main semiconductor s(itches of the po(er con$erter
accordingly to either increase the $oltage or to decrease it accordingly! A STATCOM is a
controlled reacti$e%po(er source! It pro$ides $oltage support by generating or absorbing reacti$e
po(er at the point of common coupling (ithout the need of large external reactors or capacitor
ban&s! Jsing the controller" the +SC and the coupling transformer" the STATCOM operation is
illustrated in Higure belo(!

STATCOM operation in a po(er system
The charged capacitor C
dc
pro$ides a 2C $oltage" J
dc
to the con$erter" (hich
produces a set of controllable three%phase output $oltages" J in synchronism (ith the AC
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system! The synchronism of the three%phase output $oltage (ith the transmission line $oltage has
to be performed by an external controller! The amount of desired $oltage across STATCOM"
(hich is the $oltage reference" Jref" is set manually to the controller! The $oltage control is
thereby to match J
T
(ith Jref (hich has been elaborated! This matching of $oltages is done by
$arying the amplitude of the output $oltage J" (hich is done by the firing angle set by the
controller! The controller thus sets J
T
e)ui$alent to the Jref! The reacti$e po(er exchange
bet(een the con$erter and the AC system can also be controlled! This reacti$e po(er exchange
is the reacti$e current in/ected by the STATCOM" (hich is the current from the capacitor
produced by absorbing real po(er from the AC system!

(here I
)
is the reacti$e current in/ected by the STATCOM
J
T
is the STATCOM terminal $oltage
J
e)
is the e)ui$alent The$enin $oltage seen by the STATCOM
Q
e)
is the e)ui$alent The$enin reactance of the po(er system seen by the STATCOM
If the amplitude of the output $oltage J is increased abo$e that of the AC system
$oltage" J
T
" a leading current is produced" i!e! the STATCOM is seen as a conductor by the AC
system and reacti$e po(er is generated! 2ecreasing the amplitude of the output $oltage belo(
that of the AC system" a lagging current results and the STATCOM is seen as an inductor! In this
case reacti$e po(er is absorbed! If the amplitudes are e)ual no po(er exchange ta&es place!
A practical con$erter is not lossless! In the case of the 2C capacitor" the energy
stored in this capacitor (ould be consumed by the internal losses of the con$erter! *y ma&ing the
output $oltages of the con$erter lag the AC system $oltages by a small angle" W" the con$erter
absorbs a small amount of acti$e po(er from the AC system to balance the losses in the
con$erter! The diagram in Higure belo( illustrates the phasor diagrams of the $oltage at the
terminal" the con$erter output current and $oltage in all four )uadrants of the .M plane!
7 2

.hasor diagrams for STATCOM applications
The mechanism of phase angle ad/ustment" angle W" can also be used to control
the reacti$e po(er generation or absorption by increasing or decreasing the capacitor $oltage J
dc
"
(ith reference (ith the output $oltage J!
Instead of a capacitor a battery can also be used as 2C energy! In this case the
con$erter can control both reacti$e and acti$e po(er exchange (ith the AC system! The
capability of controlling acti$e as (ell as reacti$e po(er exchange is a significant feature (hich
can be used effecti$ely in applications re)uiring po(er oscillation damping" to le$el pea& po(er
demand" and to pro$ide uninterrupted po(er for critical load!
&.- C!ARACTERISTICS OF STATCOM
The deri$ation of the formula for the transmitted acti$e po(er employs
considerable calculations! Jsing the $ariables defined in Higure belo( and applying Birchoffs
la(s the follo(ing e)uations can be (ritten0
7 2
T(o machine system (ith STATCOM
*y e)ualing right%hand terms of the abo$e formulas" a formula for the current I
6
is obtained as

'here J
3
is the STATCOM terminal $oltage if the STATCOM is out of operation" i!e! (hen I
)
C
;! The fact that I
)
is shifted by 9;X (ith regard to J
3
can be used to express I
)
as

7 2

Applying the sine la( to the diagram in Higure belo( the follo(ing t(o e)uations result

from (hich the formula for sin V is deri$ed as

The formula for the transmitted acti$e po(er can be gi$en as

To dispose of the term J
3
the cosine la( is applied to the diagram in Higure abo$e Therefore"

7 2


Transmitted po(er $ersus transmission angle characteristic of a STATCOM
'ith these concepts of STATCOM" it is thus important to utilize these principles
in accommodating shunt compensation to any system! Since this thesis only reflects on the
$oltage control and po(er increase" the re)uirements of the STATCOM (ould be further
elaborated!
=!? HJ1CTIO1AK 3-MJI3-M-1TS OH STATCOM
The main functional re)uirements of the STATCOM in this thesis are to pro$ide
shunt compensation" operating in capaciti$e mode only" in terms of the follo(ing0
O +oltage stability control in a po(er system" as to compensate the loss $oltage along
transmission! This compensation of $oltage has to be in synchronism (ith the AC system
regardless of disturbances or change of load!
O Transient stability during disturbances in a system or a change of load!
7 2
O 2irect $oltage support to maintain sufficient line $oltage for facilitating increased reacti$e
po(er flo( under hea$y loads and for pre$enting $oltage instability
O 3eacti$e po(er in/ection by STATCOM into the system
The design phase and implementation phase (as presented in the next chapter (ould refer to the
theoretical bac&ground of STATCOM in pro$iding the re)uirements
V#+t$ge s#urce in.erter
INVERTER/
An in.erter is an electrical de$ice that con$erts direct current (2C to alternating current
(AC the con$erted AC can be at any re)uired $oltage and fre)uency (ith the use of
appropriatetransformers" s(itching" and control circuits!
Static in$erters ha$e no mo$ing parts and are used in a (ide range of applications" from
small s(itching po(er supplies in computers" to large electric utility high%$oltage direct current
applications that transport bul& po(er! In$erters are commonly used to supply AC po(er from
2C sources such as solar panels or batteries!
B$sic *rinci*$+/
In many applications" it is re)uired to ta&e energy from the ac side of the in$erter and
send it bac& into the dc side! Hor instance" (hene$er AS2s need to either bra&e or slo( do(n the
motor speed" the &inetic energy is sent into the $oltage dc lin& (Hig! 6a! This is &no(n as the
regenerati$e operating mode and" in contrast to the motoring mode" the dc lin& current direction
is re$ersed due to the fact that the dc lin& $oltage is fixed! If a capacitor is used to maintain the
dc lin& $oltage (as in standard AS2s the energy must either be dissipated or fed bac& into the
distribution system" other(ise" the dc lin& $oltage gradually increases!
7 2
6(a the electrical po(er con$ersion
(b The ideal input (ac mains and output (load (a$eforms
(c The actual input (ac mains and output (load (a$eforms!
The first approach re)uires the dc lin& capacitor be connected in parallel (ith a resistor"
(hich must be properly s(itched only (hen the energy flo(s from the motor into the dc lin&! A
better alternati$e is to feed bac& such energy into the distribution system! ,o(e$er" this
alternati$e re)uires a re$ersible%current topology connected bet(een the distribution system and
the dc lin& capacitor! A modern approach to such a re)uirement is to use the acti$e front%end
rectifier technologies" (here the regeneration mode is a natural operating mode of the system!
T0*es #) in.erters/
There are = ma/or types of in$erters % sine (a$e (or YtrueY sine (a$e" modified sine
(a$e (actually a modified s)uare (a$e" and s)uare (a$e!
7 2
SineW$.e
A sine (a$e is (hat you get from your local utility company and (usually from a
generator! This is because it is generated by rotating AC machinery and sine (a$es are a natural
product of rotating AC machinery!
o The ma/or ad$antage of a sine (a$e in$erter is that all of the e)uipment (hich is
sold on the mar&et is designed for a sine (a$e! This guarantees that the e)uipment (ill
(or& to its full specifications!
o Some appliances" such as motors and micro(a$e o$ens (ill only produce full
output (ith sine (a$e po(er!
o A fe( appliances" such as bread ma&ers" light dimmers" and some battery
chargers re)uire a sine (a$e to (or& at all!
o Sine (a$e in$erters are al(ays more expensi$e % from < to = times as much!
M#"i)ie"SineW$.e()uasi%sine
A modified sine (a$e in$erter actually has a (a$eform more li&e a s)uare (a$e" but (ith an
extra step or so! A modified sine (a$e in$erter (ill (or& fine (ith most e)uipment" although the
efficiency or po(er (ill be reduced (ith some!
o Motors" such as refrigerator motor" pumps" fans etc (ill use more po(er from the
in$erter due to lo(er efficiency! Most motors (ill use about <;I more po(er! This is
7 2
because a fair percentage of a modified sine (a$e is higher fre)uencies % that is" not ?; ,z
% so the motors cannot use it!
o Some fluorescent lights (ill not operate )uite as bright" and some may buzz or
ma&e annoying humming noises!
o Appliances (ith electronic timers and>or digital cloc&s (ill often not operate
correctly! Many appliances get their timing from the line po(er % basically" they ta&e the
?; ,z (cycles per second and di$ide it do(n to 6 per second or (hate$er is needed!
*ecause the modified sine (a$e is noisier and rougher than a pure sine (a$e" cloc&s and
timers may run faster or not (or& at all! They also ha$e some parts of the (a$e that are
not ?; ,z" (hich can ma&e cloc&s run fast!
o Items such as bread ma&ers and light dimmers may not (or& at all % in many cases
appliances that use electronic temperature controls (ill not control!
o The most common is on such things as $ariable speed drills (ill only ha$e t(o
speeds % on and off!
S1u$reW$.e
+ery fe( but the $ery cheapest in$erters any more are s)uare (a$e! A s)uare (a$e
in$erter (ill run simple things li&e tools (ith uni$ersal motors (ith no problem % but not much
else! These are seldom seen any more except in the $ery cheap or $ery old ones!
7 2
V#+t$ge S#urce In.erters/
!$+)23ri"ge VSI/
Higure <sho(s the po(er topology of a half%bridge +SI" (here t(o large capacitors are
re)uired to pro$ide a neutral point N" such that each capacitor maintains a constant $oltage vi ><!
*ecause the current harmonics in/ected by the operation of the in$erter are lo(%order harmonics"
a set of large capacitors (CZ and CR is re)uired! It is clear that both s(itches SZ and SR cannot
be on simultaneously because a short circuit across the dc lin& $oltage source vi (ould be
produced! There are t(o defined (states 6 and < and one undefined (state = s(itch state as
sho(n in Table <(a! In order to a$oid the short circuit across the dc bus and the undefined ac
output%$oltage condition" the modulating techni)ue should al(ays ensure that at any instant
either the top or the bottom s(itch of the in$erter leg is on
Hig<! Single%phase half%bridge +SI!
7 2
<(a!S(itch states for a half%bridge single%phase +SI
Higure = sho(s the ideal (a$eforms associated (ith the half%bridge in$erter sho(n in
Hig!<! The states for the s(itches SZ and SR are defined by the modulating techni)ue" (hich in
this case is a carrier%based .'M
A. T4e C$rrier23$se" %u+se Wi"t4 M#"u+$ti#n 5%WM6 Tec4ni1ue
As mentioned earlier" it is desired that the ac output $oltage" vo C vaN " follo( a gi$en
(a$eform (e!g! sinusoidal on a continuous basis by properly s(itching the po(er $al$es! The
carrier%based .'M techni)ue fulfills such a re)uirement as it defines the on% and off%states of
the s(itches of one leg of a +SI by comparing a modulating signal vc (desired ac output $oltage
and a triangular (a$eform v_ (carrier signal! In practice" (hen vc > v_ the s(itch SZ is on and
the s(itch SR is off0 similarly" (hen vc < v_ the s(itch SZ is off and the s(itch SR is on!
A special case is (hen the modulating signal vc is a sinusoidal at fre)uency fc and amplitude [vc
" and the triangular signal v_ is at fre)uency f_ and amplitude [v_! This is the sinusoidal .'M
(S.'M scheme! In this case" the modulation index ma (also &no(n as the amplitude%
modulation ratio is defined as

And the normalized carrier fre)uency mf (also &no(n as the fre)uency%modulation ratio is
7 2
Higure =e clearly sho(s that the ac output $oltage vo C vaN is basically a sinusoidal (a$eform
plus harmonics" (hich features#
(a the amplitude of the fundamental component of the ac output $oltage [vo6 satisfying the
follo(ing expression#
for ma 6" (hich is called the linear region of the modulating techni)ue (higher $alues of ma
leads to o$er modulation that (ill be discussed later0
7 2
FIGURE & The half%bridge +SI! Ideal (a$eforms for the S.'M (ma C ;!N" mf C 9#
(a carrier and modulating signals0 (b s(itch SZ state0 (c s(itch S state0 (d ac output $oltage0
(e ac output $oltage spectrum0 (f ac output current0 (g dc current0
(h dc current spectrum0 (i S(itch SZ current0 and (/ diode DZ current!
(b for odd $alues of the normalized carrier fre)uency mf the harmonics in the ac output $oltage
appear at normalized fre)uencies fh centered around mf and its multiples" specifically"
'here k C <" @" ?" . . . for l C 6" =" :" . . .0 and k C 6" =" :" . . . for l C <" @" ?"F0
(c the amplitude of the ac output $oltage harmonics is a function of the modulation index ma
and is independent of the normalized carrier fre)uency mf for
mf > 90
(d the harmonics in the dc lin& current (due to the modulation appear at normalized fre)uencies
fp centered around the normalized carrier fre)uency mf and its multiples" specifically"
'here k C <" @" ?" . . . for l C 6" =" :" . . .0 and k C 6" =" :" . . . for l C <" @" ?" . . .! Additional
important issues are#
(a for small $alues of mf (mf < <6" the carrier signal v_ and the signal vc should be
synchronized to each other (mf integer" (hich is re)uired to hold the pre$ious features0 if this is
not the case" sub harmonics (ill be present in the ac output $oltage0
(b for large $alues of mf (mf > <6" the sub harmonics are negligible if an asynchronous .'M
techni)ue is used" ho(e$er" due to potential $ery lo(%order sub harmonics" its use should be
a$oided0 finally
(c in the o$er modulation region (ma > 6 some intersections bet(een the carrier and the
modulating signal are missed" (hich leads to the generation of lo(%order harmonics but a higher
7 2
fundamental ac output $oltage is obtained0 unfortunately" the linearity bet(een ma and [vo6
achie$ed in the linear region does not hold in the o$er modulation region" moreo$er" a saturation
effect can be obser$ed (Hig! @!
The .'M techni)ue allo(s an ac output $oltage to be generated that trac&s a gi$en
modulating signal! A special case is the S.'M techni)ue (the modulating signal is a sinusoidal
that pro$ides" in the linear region" an ac output $oltage that $aries linearly as a function of the
modulation index" and the harmonics are at (ell%defined fre)uencies and amplitudes! These
features simplify the design of filtering components!
Jnfortunately" the maximum amplitude of the fundamental ac $oltage is vi>< in this
operating mode! ,igher $oltages are obtained by using the o$er modulation region (ma > 60
ho(e$er" lo(%order harmonics appear in the ac output $oltage! +ery large $alues of the
modulation index (ma > =!<@ lead to a totally s)uare ac output $oltage that is considered as the
s)uare%(a$e modulating techni)ue!
C. Se+ecti.e !$r#nic E+iin$ti#n
The main ob/ecti$e is to obtain a sinusoidal ac output $oltage (a$eform (here the
fundamental component can be ad/usted arbitrarily (ithin a range and the intrinsic harmonics
selecti$ely eliminated! This is achie$ed by mathematically generating the exact instant of the
turn%on and turn%off of the po(er $al$es! The ac output $oltage features odd half and )uarter%
(a$e symmetry0 therefore" e$en harmonics are not present (voh C ;" h C <" @" ?" . . .! Moreo$er"
the phase $oltage (a$eform (vo C vaN in Hig! <" should be chopped N times per half%cycle in
order to ad/ust the fundamental and eliminate N 8 6 harmonics in the ac output $oltage
(a$eform! Hor instance" to eliminate the third and fifth harmonics
7 2
FIGURE 7 The half%bridge +SI! Ideal (a$eforms for the S,- techni)ue#
(a ac output $oltage for third and fifth harmonic elimination0
(b Spectrum of (a0
(c Ac output $oltage for third" fifth" and se$enth harmonic elimination0 and
(d Spectrum of (c!
To perform fundamental magnitude control (N C =" the e)uations to be sol$ed are the follo(ing#
'here the angles 6" < and = are defined as sho(n in Hig! ?a! The angles are found by
means of iterati$e algorithms as no analytical solutions can be deri$ed! The angles 6" <" and =
are plotted for different $alues of [vo6>vi in Hig! Ga! The general expressions to eliminate an e$en
N 6" (N 6 C <" @" ?" . . . number of harmonics are
'here 6" <"F" N should satisfy 6<<< <N <!><! Similarly" to eliminate an odd
number of harmonics" for instance the third" fifth" and se$enth" and to perform the Hundamental
magnitude control (N R 6 C =" the e)uations to be sol$ed are#
7 2
'here the angles 6" <" =" and @ are defined as sho(n in Hig! ?b! The angles 6" <"
and = are plotted for different $alues of [vo6>vi in Hig! Gb! The general expressions to eliminate
an odd N 6 (N 6 C =" :" G" . . . number of harmonics are gi$en by
'here 6" <" . . ." N should satisfy 6<<< <N <!><! To implement the S,-
modulating techni)ue" the modulator should generate the gating pattern according to the angles
as sho(n in Hig! G! This tas& is usually performed by digital systems that normally store the
angles in loo&%up tables!
D. DC Lin8 Current
The split capacitors are considered a part of the in$erter and therefore an instantaneous
po(er balance cannot be considered due to the storage energy components (CZ and C!
,o(e$er" if a lossless in$erter is assumed" the a$erage po(er absorbed in one period by the load
must be e)ual to the a$erage po(er supplied by the dc source! Thus" (e can (rite
'here T is the period of the ac output $oltage! Hor an inducti$e load and a relati$ely high
s(itching fre)uency" the load current io is nearly sinusoidal and therefore" only the fundamental
component of the ac output $oltage pro$ides po(er to the load! On the other hand" if the dc lin&
$oltage remains constant vi (t C Vi " -)! (6< can be simplified to
7 2
'here Vo6 is the fundamental rms ac output $oltage" Io is the rms load current" " is an
arbitrary inducti$e load po(er factor" and Ii is the dc lin& current that can be further simplified to
II! S4ST-M MO2-KS A12 *ASIC STATCOM CO1T3OKSC,-M-
Hig! 6 depicts a single%line diagram of an induction generator system dri$en by a $ariable%speed
(ind turbine connected
to a grid bus through a transmission line! The reacti$e po(er re)uired by the IG and the local
load in steady%state operating condition is supplied by a fixed shunt capacitor ban&! To maintain
constant load bus $oltage under $arious disturbance conditions" a STATCOM composed of
a three phase IG*T%based +SI" a coupling transformer" a filter and a dc capacitor" is employed!
Since the dc capacitor is lossless in theory" only a small amount of acti$e po(er is needed for
the STATCOM to ma&e up the in$erter s(itching loss and maintain constant dc capacitor
$oltage! The dc capacitor $oltage can be modulated to a set of controllable three%phase output
$oltages (ith the fre)uency of the ac po(er system! *y ad/usting the magnitude " the reacti$e
po(er exchange bet(een the +SI and the po(er system can be attained! The dc capacitor" once it
has been discharged" (ill permit replenishment by ad/usting the phase angle in the +SI output
7 2
$oltage! The basic STATCOMacti$e and reacti$e current control can be deri$ed from the
STATCOM model! described belo(!
A. Induction Generator Model
The per unit flux%lin&ages for the stator and rotor circuits of the induction generator described in
% and %axes are as follo(s 567" 5:7#
(here a synchronous reference frame" rotating at an electrical angular speed " is adopted!
The electromechanical tor)ue in per unit can be (ritten in terms of stator flux lin&ages and
currents as
The corresponding tor)ue balance e)uation is gi$en by
'here is the per unit mechanical tor)ue" and and are the e)ui$alent inertia
constant and the e)ui$alent damping constant of the isolated induction generator system"
respecti$ely!
B. STATCOM Model
The three%phase STATCOM model can be described in per unit state%space form as follo(s#
The per unit dc%side circuit e)uation is
7 2
'here is used to represent the in$erter s(itching loss! The instantaneous po(ers at the ac
and dc sides of the +SI are e)ual" gi$ing the follo(ing po(er balance e)uation#
#$ De%ivations of &ctive 'o(e% an) *eactive 'o(e%+ The instantaneous acti$e and reacti$e
po(er" through a coupling path to the STATCOM" at the load bus can be represented as follo(s#
Consider a synchronous reference frame (here the %axis is chosen to coincide (ith the load bus
$oltage $ector ! Hrom (66 and (6<" (e then ha$e
As (6= and (6@ sho(" the %axis current component " accounts for the instantaneous acti$e
po(er and the %axis current component" " is the instantaneous reacti$e current! Thus"
STATCOM control design is simplified to a great extent (ith this reference frame because the
reacti$e po(er control is only related to the ) %axis current !
2) Active and Reactive Current Control+
-)uation (G clearly sho(s that the STATCOM input current is induced by its output
$oltage modulation! Thus" e$en (6@ concludes that the reacti$e po(er can be directly
controlled using the reacti$e current the control coupling (ith the acti$e current still persists in
reality! To obtain a decouple%li&e control for the reacti$e and acti$e current" (G and (N can be
modified as
7 2
(here the cross coupling terms and in (G and (N are collected by the
control actions " respecti$ely
-)uation (6: sho(s that an increased acti$e current is induced follo(ing the transient increase
in ! This is also true for the reacti$e current in (6?! *ased on these principles" the control
actions and can be expressed as
(here the proportional%plus%integral (.I regulators are used to control the STATCOM currents
in the present (or&! Once the control actions and are determined" the STATCOM
output $oltage commands and in (6G and (6N can be rearranged as
7 2
The basic control structure for the STATCOM is detailed in Hig! <! Since STATCOMcontrol is
based on the +SI scheme" the STATCOM output $oltage commands can be rebuilt by $irtue of
(<6 and (<<! In addition" from the fact that (6= and (6@ tell the STATCOM acti$e and reacti$e
po(er control apart from the STATCOM currents " the acti$e current command
" accounting for the dc $oltage regulation" can be generated directly using a .I controller
(ith the dc%lin& $oltage de$iation as the input!
III. DESIGN OF T!E MODE DECOU%LING CONTROLLER
A. Controller Synthesis From a res!eci"ied Feed#ac$ Frame%or$
The dynamic IG system model in Section II can be linearized around an operating point to gi$e
the follo(ing state space model#
(here" see the e)uation at the bottom of the page! To synthesize a mode decoupling STATCOM
controllerbased on the physical control structure as sho(n in Hig! <"six additional state $ariables#
" and " herein denoted as " (ere created and merged into (<= as a ne( state $ector
'e then ha$e the augmented state space model as follo(s#
7 2
The STATCOMoutput $oltage of the augmented state space model in (<@ can
be deri$ed from the physical control structure (Hig! < in the form as
(here the output feedbac& gains (as gi$en by (<:a at the bottom of the page! 1ote that the
cross coupling gains in Hig! < (ere replaced by " respecti$ely! *ased on the
control gain location described in (<:a" a constrained outputfeedbac& control (as gi$en by
(<:b! It is apparent that the controller gains in (<:b can be deri$ed as compared to (<:a
7 2
except for the mismatch at the entries ! To o$ercome this problem" t(o additional
control loops" " (corresponding to states (ere included into the
output%feedbac& control by letting and "
respecti$ely! See e)uation (<:a and (<:b!Asynthetic control structure based on (<:a and (<:b
is illustrated in Hig! =! It is clear that this control structure differs from that in Hig! < are the
feedfor(ard gains ! *ecause the physical current control loops are reser$ed for the
ne(control scheme" zero steady%state errors for load bus $oltage " dc%lin& $oltage "
STATCOM currents ( are achie$able! The deri$ations of the controller gains in
Hig! = are gi$en in the Appendix ! ,. -ee).ack /ain 0at%i1 Comp2tation Th%o2gh
Eigenst%2ct2%e &ssignment -igenstructure assignment 56?785697 incorporating the eigen$alue
and eigen$ector assignments can be described using a linear time in$ariant differential e)uation
The solution for (<? is gi$en by
7 2
'here A is the spectrum (the collections of eigen$alues 0 " composed by right
eigen$ectors" is the right modal matrix and is the left modal matrix! To in$estigate the
acti$ities of each oscillation mode in eachstate $ariable" (<G can be expanded as
'here is the right eigen$ector corresponding to the ith oscillation Mode " and
&th is the entry of the left eigen$ector ! It can be seen from (<N that the transient response
of the system is characterized by eigen$alues together (ith the right and left eigen$ectors! The
speed of the response is determined by the assigned eigen$alues (hereas the shape of the
response is fixed by the right eigen$ectors! The coefficient " related to the left eigen$ector"
determines the amount of the excitation of each mode resulting from the initial conditions! The
expansion of the state $ariable in (<N is gi$en by
It is clear that once &th the oscillation mode (as excited " in (<9 can be
considered as the extent of the acti$ities of the &th oscillation mode in the state $ariable ! In
other (ords" if null (as chosen" state $ariable (ould not perturb other state $ariables by
(ay of the &th oscillation mode! This process is termed mode decoupling! The closed%loop
system (ith state%feedbac& control (<@ is
To determine the state%feedbac& gain matrix for the linear system in (=;" ((hich is e)ual
to the dimension of sets of eigen$alues>eigen$ectors must be first chosen! The
7 2
characteristic e)uation corresponding to the set of desired eigen$alue and eigen$ector
is gi$en by
-)uation (=6 can be also expressed in the matrix form as
form a basis for the nullspace of in (<Ga! *y
comparing (=< (ith (== yields
If all for are determined by (=@" the control gain matrix can be obtained as
follo(s# all for are determined by (=@" the control gain matrix can be obtained as follo(s#
The e)uation described abo$e clearly addressed that desired eigen$alues> eigen$ectors are
needed to compute a constant gain matrix! ,o(e$er" since only certain eigen$alues> eigen$ectors
are considered in many practical situations" complete specification of eigen$alues> eigen$ectors
is not necessary! In the case of partial eigenstructure assignment" (=6 can be re(ritten as
7 2
It is clear that an eigen$ector cannot be arbitrarily assigned if the desired eigen$ector does not
reside in the subspace spanned by columns of (=N! An achie$able eigen$ector must reside
in the re)uired subspace and hence
7 2
The optimal achie$able eigen$ector is the pro/ection of onto the subspace spanned by the
columns of in the linear least s)uares sense
Sets of open%loop and closed%loop eigenstructures for the STATCOM are summarized in Table I!
The open%loop eigenstructure in Table I sho(s that the mode%II dominate the transient beha$ior
of d%axis current and ) %axis current! In addition" it is clear that the mode%II also affects dc%
lin& $oltage (ith a nonzero eigen$ector" (hich is also the main reason (hy the detuning dc%lin&
$oltage (ill affect STATCOM currents!
7 2

To achie$e mode decoupling control for the STATCOM" t(o rules for eigenstructure assignment
are summarized as follo(s!
O The reacti$e po(er control is to command reacti$e current (ithout a change in the dc%lin&
$oltage (or e)ui$alently acti$e current0
O The acti$e po(er control is to command the acti$e current (hile maintaining zero perturbation
in the reacti$e current! To alle$iate the mode%II acti$ities in the reacti$e current and acti$e
current " t(o ne( modes (mode%+ and mode%+I (ere created for the reacti$e current and
acti$e current " respecti$ely! *ased on the mode decoupling rules" The desired eigen$ector
for mode%+ corresponding to reacti$e current and load bus $oltage should be maintained at
zero! Con$ersely" the desired eigen$ector for mode%+I corresponding to the acti$e current
and dc%lin& $oltage (ere chosen as zero!
Hrom the eigen$alue assignment $ie(point" the mode decoupling
rules can be also interpreted that if the response speed in dc%lin& $oltage regulation is better than
that of the load bus $oltage" the interaction bet(een acti$e current and reacti$e current can be
reduced!
To ma&e the acti$e current react rapidly to dc%lin& $oltage changes" a con/ugate
oscillation mode 529-.:;<9-.:6 (as assigned to mode%+!The mode 5==.:;<==.:6corresponding to
reacti$e current and load bus $oltage (as selected near to the origin as compared (ith mode%+!
The achie$able eigenstructures compared (ith the desired eigenstructures sho( that a
satisfactory mode decoupling control bet(een the
7 2
acti$e and reacti$e currents can be reached! In addition" since the rotor speed is not designated as
a feedbac& signal" direct assigning the eigenstructure of is usually unattainable! In this (or&"
a desired mode (as assigned in the neighborhood of the open%loop mode (ith the
eigen$ector related to the controllable states such as load bus $oltage and reacti$e current! It is
noted that the elements in the desired eigen$ectors represent elements that are not specified!
*y changing the real part of the desired mode%I+" the root loci of the achie$able
electromechanical mode and corresponding damping ratio (ere depicted in Higs! @ and :"
respecti$ely! Compared (ith open%loop modes" the achie$able modes" including ac $oltage
mode" electromechanical mode and STATCOM current mode can be shifted to the left by the
proposed controller!
7 2
To further reduce the effect of harmonic distortion on the digital control system" a harmonic
elimination pulse%(idth%modulation (,-.'M techni)ue 5<67" 5<<7 (as designed to eliminate
the lo( order harmonics such as the order 7*;>5*?>@'@&@,@-6 of the fundamental fre)uency! The
hard(are parameters are pro$ided in Appendix!
PI CONTROLLER INTRODUCTION
A proportionalintegral controller (PI controller) is a generic control loop
feedback mechanism (controller) widely sed in indstrial control systems a PI is the
most commonly sed feedback controller! A PI controller calclates an "error" #ale as
the difference between a measred process #ariable and a desired set point! $he
controller attempts to minimi%e the error by ad&sting the process control inpts!
Fig 2.5 Block diagram of PI controller
7 2
$he PI controller calclation in#ol#es two separate constant parameters'
and is accordingly sometimes called two term control( the proportional' the integral
#ales' denoted P' I! )eristically' these #ales can be interpreted in terms of time( P
depends on the present error' I on the accmlation of past errors' based on crrent
rate of change! $he weighted sm of these two actions is sed to ad&st the process #ia
a control element sch as the position of a control #al#e' or the power spplied to a
heating element!
In the absence of knowledge of the nderlying process' a PI controller has
historically been considered to be the best controller! *y tning the two parameters in
the PI controller algorithm' the controller can pro#ide control action designed for specific
process re+irements! $he response of the controller can be described in terms of the
responsi#eness of the controller to an error' the degree to which the controller
o#ershoots the setpoint and the degree of system oscillation! ,ote that the se of the PI
algorithm for control does not garantee optimal control of the system or system
stability!
2..! CONTROL LOOP B"#IC#
A familiar e-ample of a control loop is the action taken when ad&sting hot and
cold facets (#al#es) to maintain the water at a desired temperatre! $his typically
in#ol#es the mi-ing of two process streams' the hot and cold water! $he person toches
the water to sense or measre its temperatre! *ased on this feedback they perform a
control action to ad&st the hot and cold water #al#es ntil the process temperatre
stabili%es at the desired #ale!
$he sensed water temperatre is the process #ariable or process #ale (P.)!
$he desired temperatre is called the setpoint (/P)! $he inpt to the process i!e! the
water #al#e position is called the maniplated #ariable (0.)! $he difference between the
temperatre measrement and the setpoint is the error (e) and +antifies whether the
water is too hot or too cold and by how mch!
After measring the temperatre (P.)' and then calclating the error' the
controller decides when to change the tap position (0.) and by how mch! 1hen the
controller first trns the #al#e on' it may trn the hot #al#e only slightly if warm water is
7 2
desired' or it may open the #al#e all the way if #ery hot water is desired! $his is an
e-ample of a simple proportional control! In the e#ent that hot water does not arri#e
+ickly' the controller may try to speed2p the process by opening p the hot water
#al#e more2and2more as time goes by! $his is an e-ample of an integral control!
0aking a change that is too large when the error is small is e+i#alent to a high
gain controller and will lead to o#ershoot! If the controller were to repeatedly make
changes that were too large and repeatedly o#ershoot the target' the otpt wold
oscillate arond the setpoint in either a constant' growing' or decaying sinsoid! If the
oscillations increase with time then the system is nstable' whereas if they decrease the
system is stable! If the oscillations remain at a constant magnitde the system is
marginally stable!
If a controller starts from a stable state at %ero error i!e! P. 3 /P' then frther
changes by the controller will be in response to changes in other measred or
nmeasred inpts to the process that impact on the process' and hence on the P.!
.ariables that impact on the process other than the 0. are known as distrbances!
4enerally controllers are sed to re&ect distrbances and5or implement setpoint
changes! 6hanges in feedwater temperatre constitte a distrbance to the facet
temperatre control process!
In theory' a controller can be sed to control any process which has a
measrable otpt (P.)' a known ideal #ale for that otpt (/P) and an inpt to the
process (0.) that will affect the rele#ant P.! 6ontrollers are sed in indstry to reglate
temperatre' pressre' flow rate' chemical composition' speed and practically e#ery
other #ariable for which a measrement e-ists!
2..2 PI CONTROLLER T$EOR%
$he PI control scheme is named after its two correcting terms' whose sm
constittes the maniplated #ariable (0.)! $he proportional' integral deri#ati#e terms
are smmed to calclate the otpt of the PI controller! 7efining 8 (t) as the controller
otpt' the final form of the PI algorithm is
7 2
8 (t) 3 0!.(t) 3 9
p
e(t) : 9
i
;

e(t) dt
1here
9p 3 Proportional gain
9i 3 Integral gain
< 3 <rror #ale 3 /P 2 P.
$ 3 Instantaneos time
2..& PROPORTION"L TER'
$he proportional term prodces an otpt #ale that is proportional to the crrent
error #ale! $he proportional response can be ad&sted by mltiplying the error by a
constant 9p' called the proportional gain!
$he proportional term prodces an otpt #ale that is proportional to the crrent error
#ale! $he proportional response can be ad&sted by mltiplying the error by a constant
9p' called the proportional gain!
$he proportional term is gi#en by(
P
ot
3 9
p
e(t)
1here 9p 3 Proportional gain
e 3 error
7 2
=ig 2!> 0odel wa#eform for different 9p #ales
A high proportional gain reslts in a large change in the otpt for a gi#en
change in the error! If the proportional gain is too high' the system can become
nstable! In contrast' a small gain reslts in a small otpt response to a large inpt
error' and a less responsi#e or less sensiti#e controller! If the proportional gain is too
low' the control action may be too small when responding to system distrbances!
$ning theory and indstrial practice indicate that the proportional term shold
contribte the blk of the otpt change!
2..&.! DROOP
*ecase a non2%ero error is re+ired to dri#e the controller' a pre proportional
controller generally operates with a steady2state error' referred to as droop! 7roop is
proportional to the process gain and in#ersely proportional to proportional gain! 7roop
may be mitigated by adding a compensating bias term to the setpoint or otpt' or
corrected by adding an integral term!
7 2
2..( INTE)R"L TER'
$he contribtion from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitde of
the error and the dration of the error! $he integral in a PI controller is the sm of the
instantaneos error o#er time and gi#es the accmlated offset that shold ha#e been
corrected pre#iosly! $he accmlated error is then mltiplied by the integral gain ( )
and added to the controller otpt!
$he integral term is gi#en by(
I
o*t
+ ,
i
-e.t/ dt
1here 9i 3 Integral gain
e3error
=ig 2!7 0odel wa#eform for different 9i #ales
$he integral term accelerates the mo#ement of the process towards setpoint and
eliminates the residal steady2state error that occrs with a pre proportional controller!
)owe#er' since the integral term responds to accmlated errors from the past' it can
case the present #ale to o#ershoot the setpoint #ale
7 2
$able 2!? .arios $ning 0ethod
'et0od1 "d2antage1 Di1ad2antage1
'an*al
T*ning
,o math re+ired! @nline
method!
Ae+ires e-perienced
personnel!
3iegler4
Nic0ol1
Pro#en 0ethod! @nline
method!
Process pset' some
trial2and2error' #ery
aggressi#e tning!
#oft5are
Tool1
6onsistent tning! @nline or
offline method! 0ay inclde
#al#e and sensor analysis!
Allow simlation before
downloading! 6an spport
,on2/teady /tate (,//)
$ning!
/ome cost and training
in#ol#ed!
Co0en6
Coon
4ood process models!
/ome math! @ffline
method! @nly good for
first2order processes!
2.7 INTRODUCTION TO FU33% LO)IC
$he switched relctance motor (/A0) has becoming an attracti#e alternati#e in
#ariable speed dri#es' de to its ad#antages sch as strctral simplicity' high reliability
and low cost! An important characteristic of the /A0 is that the indctance of the
magnetic circit is a nonlinear fnction of the phase crrent and rotor position! /o' for
the control and optimi%ation of this dri#e' a precise magnetic model is necessary! $o
obtain this model is not an easy task' becase the magnetic circit operates at #arying
le#els of satration nder operating conditions! =rther' the nonlinear characteristic of
this plant represents a challenge to classical control! $o o#ercome this drawback' some
7 2
alternati#es ha#e been sggested sing f%%y and neronal systems! /A dri#es sing
f%%y logic control (=B6)' which is mainly applied to comple- plants' where it is difficlt
to obtain accrate mathematical model or when the model is se#erely nonlinear! =B6
has the ability to handle nmeric and lingistic knowledge simltaneosly!
In recent years' the nmber and #ariety of applications of =%%y Bogic (=B) ha#e
increased significantly! $he applications range from consmer prodcts sch as
cameras' camcorders' washing machines' and microwa#e o#ens to indstrial process
control' medical instrmentation' decision2spport systems' and portfolio selection!
$o nderstand why se of =%%y Bogic has grown' it mst be first nderstood as
what is meant by =%%y Bogic!
=%%y Bogic has two different meanings! In a narrow sense' =%%y Bogic is a
logical system' which is an e-tension of mlti#al#e logic! )owe#er' in a wider sense
=%%y Bogic is almost synonymos with the theory of =%%y sets' a theory which relates
to classes of ob&ects with n sharp bondaries in which membership is a matter of
degree! In this perspecti#e' =%%y logic in its narrow sense is a branch of =%%y Bogic!
<#en in its more narrow definition' =%%y logic differs both in concept and sbstance
from traditional mlti#al#e logical systems!
2.8 I'PORT"NCE OF FU33% LO)IC
=%%y logic is all abot the relati#e importance of precision( se as =%%y Bogic
$oolbo- software with 0A$BA* technical compting software as a tool for sol#ing
problems with f%%y logic! =%%y logic is a fascinating area of research becase it does
a good &ob of trading off between significance and precision something that hmans
ha#e been managing for a #ery long time!
In this sense' f%%y logic is both old and new becase' althogh the modern and
methodical science of f%%y logic is still yong' the concept of f%%y logic relies on age2
old skills of hman reasoning!
7 2
Fig 2.8 F*99: De1cri;tion
2.< U#")E OF FU33% LO)IC
=%%y logic is a con#enient way to map an inpt space to an otpt space! 0apping
inpt to otpt is the starting point for e#erything! 6onsider the following e-amples(
1ith information abot how good yor ser#ice was at a restarant' a f%%y logic
system can tell yo what the tip shold be!
1ith yor specification of how hot yo want the water' a f%%y logic system can
ad&st the facet #al#e to the right setting!
1ith information abot how far away the sb&ect of yor photograph is' a f%%y
logic system can focs the lens for yo!
1ith information abot how fast the car is going and how hard the motor is
working' a f%%y logic system can shift gears for yo!
$o determine the appropriate amont of tip re+ires mapping inpts to the
appropriate otpts! *etween the inpt and the otpt' the preceding figre shows a
black bo- that can contain any nmber of things( f%%y systems' linear systems' e-pert
systems' neral networks' differential e+ations' interpolated mlti dimensional lookp
7 2
tables' or e#en a spirital ad#isor' &st to name a few of the possible options! 6learly the
list cold go on and on! @f the do%ens of ways to make the black bo- work' it trns ot
that f%%y is often the #ery best way! As Botfi Cadeh' who is considered to be the father
of f%%y logic' once remarked( "In almost e#ery case yo can bild the same prodct
withot f%%y logic' bt f%%y is faster and cheaper"!
2.!= CON>ENIENCE OF FU33% LO)IC
=%%y logic is not a cre2all! 1hen shold yo not se f%%y logicD $he safest
statement is the first one made in this introdction( f%%y logic is a con#enient way to
map an inpt space to an otpt space! =%%y logic is the codification of common sense
E se common sense when yo implement it and which will probably make the right
decision! 0any controllers' for e-ample' do a fine &ob withot sing f%%y logic!
)owe#er' it take the time to become familiar with f%%y logic' it can be a #ery powerfl
tool for dealing +ickly and efficiently with imprecision and nonlinearity!
2.!! FU33% LO)IC TOOLBO? #OFT@"RE
$o create and edit f%%y inference systems with =%%y Bogic $oolbo- software!
As to create these systems sing graphical tools or command2line fnctions' or can
generate them atomatically sing either 6lstering or Adapti#e ,ero2=%%y
techni+es! As to access this /imlink software' which can easily test or f%%y system
in a block diagram simlation en#ironment! $he toolbo- also rns own stand2alone 6
programs directly! $his is made possible by a stand2alone =%%y Inference <ngine that
reads the f%%y systems sa#ed from a 0atlab session! It has to be cstomi%ed then
stand2alone engine to bilds f%%y inference into itFs own code! All pro#ided code is
A,/I compliant! *ecase of the integrated natre of the 0atlab en#ironment' it can
create itFs own tools to cstomi%e the toolbo- or harness it with another toolbo-' sch as
the 6ontrol /ystem $oolbo-' ,eral ,etwork $oolbo-' or @ptimi%ation $oolbo-
software!
2.!2 FU33% LO)IC TOOL BO?
7 2
$he =%%y Bogic $oolbo- e-tends the 0A$BA* technical compting en#ironment
with tools for designing systems based on f%%y logic! 4raphical 8ser Interfaces (48Is)
gides throgh the steps of f%%y inference system design! =nctions are pro#ided for
many common f%%y logic methods' inclding =%%y 6lstering and Adapti#e ,ero
=%%y learning!
$he toolbo- allows to model comple- system beha#iors sing simple logic rles
and then implements these rles in a f%%y inference system! It can be sed as a
standalone f%%y inference engine! Alternati#ely' f%%y inference blocks in simlink can
be sed and simlate the f%%y systems within a comprehensi#e model of the entire
dynamic system!
2.!2 .! @OR,IN) @IT$ T$E FU33% LO)IC TOOLBO?A
$he =%%y Bogic $oolbo- pro#ides 48Is to perform classical f%%y system
de#elopment and pattern recognition! $oolbo- sed to de#elop and analy%e f%%y
inference systems' de#elop adapti#e nero f%%y inference systems' and perform f%%y
clstering! In addition' the toolbo- pro#ides a f%%y controller block that which ses in
/imlink to model and simlate a f%%y logic control system! *y sing /imlink' 6 code
can be generated which is sed in embedded applications that inclde f%%y logic!
2.!2.2 BUILDIN) " FU33% INFERENCE #%#TE'
=%%y inference is a method that interprets the #ales in the inpt #ector and'
based on ser defined rles' assigns #ales to the otpt #ector! 8sing the 48I editors
and #iewers in the =%%y Bogic $oolbo-' bilding the rles set' define the membership
fnctions' and analy%e the beha#ior of a =%%y Inference /ystem (=I/)!
2.!& ,E% FE"TURE#
/peciali%ed 48Is for bilding f%%y inference systems and #iewing and analy%ing
reslts
0embership fnctions for creating f%%y inference systems
/pport for A,7' @A' and ,@$ logic in ser2defined rles
7 2
/tandard 0amdani and /geno2type f%%y inference systems
Atomated membership fnction shaping throgh ,ero2Adapti#e and =%%y
6lstering learning techni+es
Ability to embed a f%%y inference system in a /imlink model
Ability to generate embeddable 6 code or stand2alone e-ectable f%%y
inference engines!
=ig 2!G =%%y Interference /ystem
In this section weHll be bilding a simple tipping e-ample sing the graphical ser
interface (48I) tools pro#ided by the =%%y Bogic $oolbo-! Althogh itHs possible to se
the =%%y Bogic $oolbo- by working strictly from the command line' in general itHs mch
easier to bild a system graphically! $here are fi#e primary 48I tools for bilding'
editing' and obser#ing f%%y inference systems in the =%%y Bogic $oolbo-! $hese 48Is
are dynamically linked' in that changes yo make to the =I/ sing one of them' can
affect what yo see on any of the other open 48Is! Io can ha#e any or all of them
open for any gi#en system!
7 2
$he =I/ <ditor handles the high le#el isses for the system( as how many inpt
and otpt #ariables sed' J their names! $he =%%y Bogic $oolbo- doesnHt limit the
nmber of inpts! )owe#er' the nmber of inpts may be limited by the a#ailable
memory of yor machine! If the nmber of inpts is too large' or the nmber of
membership fnctions is too big' then it may also be difficlt to analy%e the =I/ sing
the other 48I tools! $he 0embership =nction <ditor is sed to define the shapes of all
the membership fnctions associated with each #ariable! $he Ale <ditor is for editing
the list of rles that defines the beha#ior of the system!
=ig!2!?K $he Primary 48I $ools of the =%%y Bogic $oolbo-
$he Ale .iewer and the /rface .iewer are sed for looking at' as opposed to
editing' the =I/! $hey are strictly read2only tools! $he Ale .iewer is a 0atlab2based
display of the f%%y inference diagram shown in fig L!2! 8sed as a diagnostic' it can
show which rles are acti#e' or how indi#idal membership fnction shapes are
7 2
inflencing the reslts! $he /rface .iewer is sed to display the dependency of one of
the otpts on any one or two of the inpts that is' it generates and plots an otpt
srface map for the system!
$he fi#e primary 48Is can all interact and e-change information! Any one of
them can read and write both to the workspace and to the disk! $he read2only #iewers
can still e-change plots with the workspace and5or the disk! =or any f%%y inference
system' any or all of these fi#e 48Is may be open! If more than one of these editors is
open for a single system' the #arios 48I windows are aware of the e-istence of the
others' and will' if necessary' pdate related windows! $hs if the names of the
membership fnctions are changed sing the 0embership =nction <ditor' those
changes are reflected in the rles shown in the Ale <ditor! $he editors for any nmber
of different =I/ systems may be open simltaneosly! $he =I/ <ditor' the 0embership
=nction <ditor' and the Ale <ditor can all read and modify the =I/ data' bt the Ale
.iewer and the /rface .iewer do not modify the =I/ data in any way!
1eHll start with a basic description of a two2inpt' one2otpt tipping problem! $he
basic tipping problem as 4i#en a nmber between K and ?K that represents the +ality
of ser#ice at a restarant (where ?K is e-cellent)' and another nmber between K and
?K that represents the +ality of the food at that restarant (again' ?K is e-cellent)' what
shold the tip beD
$he starting point is to write down the three golden rles of tipping' based on years of
personal e-perience in restarants!
?! If the ser#ice is poor or the food is rancid' then tip is cheap!
2! If the ser#ice is good' then tip is a#erage!
M! If the ser#ice is e-cellent or the food is delicios' then tip is generos!
*y assming that an a#erage tip is ?NO' a generos tip is 2NO' and a cheap tip
is NO! ItHs also sefl to ha#e a #age idea of what the tipping fnction shold look like!
A simple tipping fnction is shown as in =ig!2!??! @b#iosly the nmbers and the shape
of the cr#e are sb&ect to local traditions' cltral bias' and so on' bt the three rles
7 2
are pretty ni#ersal! ,ow we know the rles' and we ha#e an idea of what the otpt
shold look like! BetHs begin working with the 48I tools to constrct a f%%y inference
system for this decision process!
=ig 2!?? $he $ipping =nction
2!?L T$E 'E'BER#$IP FUNCTION EDITOR
$he 0embership =nction <ditor shares some featres with the =I/ <ditor! In
fact' all of the fi#e basic 48I tools ha#e similar men options' stats lines' and )elp and
6lose bttons! $he 0embership =nction <ditor is the tool that displays and edits all of
the membership fnctions associated with all of the inpt and otpt #ariables for the
entire f%%y inference system!
1hen open the 0embership =nction <ditor to work on a f%%y inference system
that does not already e-ist in the workspace' there is not yet any membership fnctions
associated with the #ariables that ha#e to &st defined with the =I/ <ditor
@n the pper left side of the graph area in the 0embership =nction <ditor is a
".ariable Palette" that lets yo set the membership fnctions for a gi#en #ariable! $o set
7 2
p yor membership fnctions associated with an inpt or an otpt #ariable for the =I/'
select an =I/ #ariable in this region by clicking on it!
,e-t select the <dit pll2down men' and choose Add 0=s new window will
appear' which allows selecting both the membership fnction type and the nmber of
membership fnctions associated with the selected #ariable! In the lower right corner of
the window are the controls that change the name' type' and parameters (shape)' of the
membership fnction' once it has been selected!
$he membership fnctions from the crrent #ariable are displayed in the main
graph! $hese membership fnctions can be maniplated in two ways! $he first thing
se the mose to select a particlar membership fnction associated with a gi#en
#ariable +ality' (sch as poor' for the #ariable' ser#ice)' and then drag the membership
fnction from side to side! $his will affect the mathematical description of the +ality
associated with that membership fnction for a gi#en #ariable! $he selected
membership fnction can also be tagged for dilation or contraction by clicking on the
small s+are drag points on the membership fnction' and then dragging the fnction
with the mose toward the otside' for dilation' or toward the inside' for contraction! $his
will change the parameters associated with that membership fnction!
*elow the .ariable Palette is some information abot the type and name of the
crrent #ariable! $here is a te-t field in this region that changes the limits of the crrent
#ariables range (ni#erse of discorse) and another that sets the limits of the crrent
plot (which has no real effect on the system)!
$he process of specifying the inpt membership fnctions for this two inpt tipper
problem is as follows(
/elect the inpt #ariable' ser#ice' by doble2clicking on it! /et both the Aange
and the 7isplay Aange to the #ector P2? ?Q!
/elect Add 0=s from the <dit men! A window pops open as shown in
=ig!2!?2!
7 2
=ig 2!?2! Add 0embership fnction 1indow
8se the pll2down tab to choose trimf for 0= $ype and N for ,mber of 0=s!
$his adds three $rianglar cr#es to the inpt #ariable ser#ice!
6lick once on the cr#e with the leftmost hmp! 6hange the name of the cr#e
to ,*! $o ad&st the shape of the membership fnction' either se the mose'
as described abo#e' or type in a desired parameter change' and then click on
the membership fnction! $he defalt parameter listing for this cr#e is P2?!N 2?
2K!LQ!
,ame the cr#e with the middle hmp as ,/' and the cr#e with center hmp
as C@ ' the cr#e with the rightmost hmp as P/ and P*! Aeset the associated
parameters if desired!
/elect the inpt #ariable as <rror' by clicking on it! /et both the Aange and the
7isplay Aange to the #ector P2? ?Q!
/elect Add 0=s! from the <dit men and add fi#e trimf cr#es to the inpt
#ariable <rror!
6lick once directly on the cr#e with the leftmost triangle' 6hange the name of
the cr#e to ,*! $o ad&st the shape of the membership fnction' either se
the mose' as described abo#e' or type in a desired parameter change' and
then click on the membership fnction! $he defalt parameter listing for this
cr#e is P2?!N 2? 2K!LQ!
,ame the cr#e with the rightmost triangle is P*' and reset the associated
parameters if desired!
,e-t there is a need to create the membership fnctions for the otpt #ariable
dty ratio! $o create the otpt #ariable membership fnctions' se the .ariable Palette
7 2
on the left' selecting the otpt #ariable' tip! $he inpts ranged from 2? to ?' bt the
otpt scale is going to be a tip between N and 2N percent! 8se trianglar membership
fnction types for the otpt! =irst' set the Aange (and the 7isplay Aange) to P2? ?Q' to
co#er the otpt range! Initially' the ,* membership fnction will ha#e the parameters P2
?!N 2? 2K!LQ' the C< membership fnction will be P2K!L K K!LQ' and the P* membership
fnction will be PK!L ? ?!NQ!
=ig! 2!?M $he 0embership =nction <ditor
,ow that the #ariables ha#e been named' and the membership fnctions ha#e
appropriate shapes and names' it is ready to write down the rles! $o call p the Ale
<ditor' go to the .iew men and select <dit rles or type rle edit at the command line!
2.!5 T$E RULE EDITOR
6onstrcting rles sing the graphical Ale <ditor interface is fairly self2e#ident!
*ased on the descriptions of the inpt and otpt #ariables defined with the =I/ <ditor'
the Ale <ditor allows to constrct the rle statements atomatically' by clicking on and
selecting one item in each inpt #ariable bo-' one item in each otpt bo-' and one
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connection item! 6hoosing none as one of the #ariable +alities will e-clde that
#ariable from a gi#en rle! 6hoosing not nder any #ariable name will negate the
associated +ality! Ales may be changed' deleted' or added' by clicking on the
appropriate btton!
$he Ale <ditor also has some familiar landmarks' similar to those in the =I/
<ditor and the 0embership =nction <ditor' inclding the men bar and the stats line!
$he =ormat pop2p men is a#ailable from the @ptions pll2down men from the top
men bar 22 this is sed to set the format for the display! /imilarly' Bangage can be set
from nder @ptions as well! $he )elp btton will bring p a 0A$BA* )elp window!
If change of error is ,* and error is ,* then dty ratio is ,* (?)$he nmbers in
the parentheses represent weights that can be applied to each rle if desired! It can
specify the weights by typing in a desired nmber between %ero and one nder the
1eight setting! <#en If do not specify them' the weights are assmed to be nity (?)!
=ollow a similar procedre to insert the second and third rles in the Ale <ditor to get
? If change of error is ,* and error is ,* then dty ratio is ,* (?)
2! If change of error is ,* and error is ,/ then dty ratio is ,* (?)
M! If change of error is ,* and error is C< then dty ratio is ,* (?)
$o change a rle' first click on the rle to be changed! ,e-t make the desired changes
to that rle' and then click on 6hange rle! =or e-ample' to change the first rle to
?! If (ser#ice not poor) or (food not rancid) then (tip is not cheap) (?)
click not nder each #ariable' and then click 6hange rle!
$here is not mch difference in the display really' bt itHs slightly more
langage netral' since it doesnHt depend on terms like "if" and "then!" If change the
format to inde-' it will be seen as e-tremely compressed #ersion of the rles that has
s+ee%ed all the langage ot!
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$his is the #ersion that the machine deals with! $he first colmn in this strctre
corresponds to the inpt #ariable' the second colmn corresponds to the otpt
#ariable' the third colmn displays the weight applied to each rle' and the forth
colmn is shorthand that indicates whether this is an @A (2) rle or an A,7 (?) rle!
$he nmbers in the first two colmns refer to the inde- nmber of the membership
fnction! A literal interpretation of rle ? is( "if inpt ? is 0=? (the first membership
fnction associated with inpt ?) then otpt ? shold be 0=? (the first membership
fnction associated with otpt ?) with the weight ?!" /ince there is only one inpt for
this system' the A,7 connecti#e implied by the ? in the last colmn is of no
conse+ence!
$he symbolic format doesnHt bother with the terms if' then' and so on! $he
inde-ed format doesnHt e#en bother with the names of gi#en #ariables! @b#iosly the
fnctionality of the system doesnHt depend on how well gi#en #ariables are named and
membership fnctions! $he whole point of naming #ariables descripti#ely is' as always'
making the system easier to interpret! $hs' nless some special prpose in mind is fed
it will probably be easier to stick with the #erbose format!
At this point' the =%%y Inference /ystem has been completely defined' in that
the #ariables' membership fnctions' and the rles necessary to calclate tips are in
place! It wold be nice' at this point' to look at a f%%y inference diagram like the one
presented at the end of the pre#ios section and #erify that e#erything is beha#ing the
way we think it shold! $his is e-actly the prpose of the Ale .iewer' the ne-t of the
48I tools weHll look at! =rom the .iew men' select .iew rles!
2.! T$E RULE >IE@ER
$he Ale .iewer displays a roadmap of the whole f%%y inference process! ItHs
based on the f%%y inference diagram described in the pre#ios section! /ee a single
figre window as shown in =ig L!?K with ?K small plots nested in it! $he three small plots
across the top of the figre represent the antecedent and conse+ent of the first rle!
<ach rle is a row of plots' and each colmn is a #ariable!
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=ig 2!?L $he Ale #iewer
$he first two colmns of plots (the si- yellow plots) show the membership
fnctions referenced by the antecedent' or the if2part of each rle! $he third colmn of
plots (the three ble plots) shows the membership fnctions referenced by the
conse+ent' or the then2part of each rle! ,ow click once on a rle nmber' the
corresponding rle will be displayed at the bottom of the figre! ,otice that nder food'
there is a plot which is blank! $his corresponds to the characteri%ation of none for the
#ariable food in the second rle! $he forth plot in the third colmn of plots represents
the aggregate weighted decision for the gi#en inference system! $his decision will
depend on the inpt #ales for the system!
$here are also the now familiar items like the stats line and the men bar! In the
lower right there is a te-t field into which yo can enter specific inpt #ales! $his will
mo#e the red inde- line hori%ontally' to the point where yo ha#e clicked! It can also &st
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click and drag this line in order to change the inpt #ales! 1hen yo release the line'
(or after manally specifying the inpt)' a new calclation is performed' and which can
see the whole f%%y inference process take place! 1here the inde- line representing
ser#ice crosses the membership fnction line "ser#ice is poor" in the pper left plot will
determine the degree to which rle one is acti#ated! A yellow patch of color nder the
actal membership fnction cr#e is sed to make the f%%y membership #ale #isally
apparent! <ach of the characteri%ations of each of the #ariables is specified with respect
to the inpt inde- line in this manner! If we follow rle ? across the top of the diagram'
we can see the conse+ent "tip is cheap" has been trncated to e-actly the same
degree as the (composite) antecedent22this is the implication process in action!
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=ig 2!?N $he Ale <ditor
$he aggregation occrs down the third colmn' and the resltant aggregate plot
is shown in the single plot to be fond in the lower right corner of the plot field! $he de2
f%%y field otpt #ale is shown by the thick line passing throgh the aggregate f%%y
set!
$he Ale .iewer allows interpreting the entire f%%y inference process at once!
$he Ale .iewer also shows how the shape of certain membership fnctions inflences
the o#erall reslt! /ince it plots e#ery part of e#ery rle' it can become nwieldy for
particlarly large systems' bt' for a relati#ely small nmber of inpts and otpts' it
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performs well (depending on how mch screen space yo de#ote to it) with p to MK
rles and as many as > or 7 #ariables!
$he Ale .iewer shows one calclation at a time and in great detail! In this sense' it
presents a sort of micro #iew of the f%%y inference system! As to see the entire otpt
srface of system' that is' the entire span of the otpt set based on the entire span of
the inpt set' yo need to open p the /rface .iewer! $hese is the last of fi#e basic
48I tools in the =%%y Bogic $oolbo-' and open it by selecting .iew srface from the
.iew men
2.!7 ";;lication1 for F*99: Logic
Atomatic control of dam gates for hydro electric2power plants!
/implified control of robots!
6amera aiming for the telecast of sporting e#ents!
/bstittion of an e-pert for the assessment of stock e-change acti#es!
Pre#enting nwanted temperatre flctations in air2conditioning systems!
<fficient and stable control of car2engines!
6rise control for atomobiles!
Impro#ed efficiency and optimi%ed fnction of indstrial control applications!
Positioning of water2steppers in prodction of semicondctors!
@ptimi%ed planning of bs timetables!
Archi#ing system for docments!
Prediction system for early recognition of earth +akes
0edicine technology cancer diagnosis!
6ombination of f%%y logic and neral nets!
Aecognition of handwritten symbols with pocket compters!
Aecognition of moti#es in pictres with #ideo cameras!
Atomatic motor2control for #acm cleaners with recognition of srface
condition and
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degree of soiling
*ack light control for camcorders!
6ompensation against #ibrations in camcorders!
/ingle btton control for washing machines!
Aecognition of handwriting' ob&ects' #oice!
=light aid for helicopters!
/imlation for legal proceedings!
/oftware2design for indstrial processes!
6ontrolling of machinery speed and temperatre for steel works!
6ontrolling of sbway systems in order to impro#e dri#ing comfort' precision of
halting and power economy!
Impro#ed fel2consmption for atomobiles!
Impro#ed sensiti#eness and efficiency foe ele#ator control!
Impro#ed safety for nclear reactors!
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