Social Conditioning and Critical Development Stages of the Brain 1

Social Conditioning and Critical Development Stages of the Brain:

How the Environment Influences Cognitive Development and Ability
Joe Martin
PSY 241-IN1
4 May 2014
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The Forbidden Experiment has been recognized and discussed for a few centuries now
(perhaps even longer) and across a few different cultures. The idea is acknowledged to have
developed in France in the early 1800s, as a way to effectively study what makes us human.
Doctors and philosophers discussed the possibility of isolating a human child early on to watch
their development and make sense of the unknown, but decided such an experiment would be too
cruel (hence, Forbidden Experiment) (Everywhere Psychology). However, doctors and
psychologists have been given the opportunity to examine the problem through case studies of
feral children children who have been subjected to severe abuse, neglect, and abandonment.
Perhaps the most notable case was that of Genie. On November 4, 1970, authorities in
Los Angeles discovered that an elderly couple in the suburb of Arcadia had locked away their
daughter. During the day she was bound to a potty-chair and at night she was caged inside of a
crib. Genie was thirteen years old at the time of her discovery, was still wearing diapers, and
could not speak. This case became significant for several reasons, but is probably most well-
known for testing Eric Lenneburgs critical age hypothesis (everyone has the ability to learn
language, but it has to be done before a certain age). Unfortunately, the studies conducted on
Genie were inconclusive, funding was taken away, and her rehabilitation ended as she was
progressing. This left psychologists, especially those studying her, with many important
questions, perhaps the most pervasive being whether or not Genie had been born with a mental
condition or brain damage that inhibited her learning abilities (the reason her father provided for
locking her away) or if her abuse and lack of environmental stimulus had caused her physical
and mental development to be retarded (Everywhere Psychology). Through Genies case, we are
able to see the misconception that exists in our society that people are predestined to various
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disorders based upon heredity, when, in reality, it takes significant amounts of negative stimulus
or a complete lack of stimulus for a disorder to become present.
In studying psychology, the first thing we seem to be subjected to is the dichotomy of
nature and nurture. Through this, we are forced to pick a side. This seems to allow people to
claim that either genetics or environment play a role in ones psyche. The middle-ground
theories are not necessarily introduced or discussed with equal vigor. For example, in the very
middle of the spectrum between Behaviorism and the Biological Approach, one would discover
Cognitive Psychology, which claims that, Innate mental structures such as schemas, perception,
and memory [are] constantly changed by the environment (McLeod). This theory more clearly
describes how the environment effects the expression of genes, allowing us to realize the true
plasticity within our minds.
When examining Genies history of abuse, it is important to realize that her abuse began
in early childhood, continued to her early teens, and then, unfortunately, she was subsequently
abused in foster care after her discovery. For all we know, perhaps there was even prenatal abuse
that occurred that we are unaware of. This is something that makes Genie somewhat unique. It
provides us with an idea of how her condition may have developed as a result of her environment
rather than a disorder. Human brain development is a continuous process and neurological
connections are generally incomplete until the early 20s. Through these two decades of life,
however, there are a couple of critical periods (not necessarily the one Eric Lenneburg
describes). The two most prevalent are the infant years, from ages one to three, and late
adolescence to adulthood, from about the onset of puberty until the early 20s. Genie experienced
a severe lack of environmental stimulus and a great amount of physical abuse throughout both of
these critical periods.
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When undergoing cognitive development, the process of pruning occurs. This is the
elimination of unnecessary neural connections. This process most notably occurs throughout
early childhood and adolescence, as stated before. This is why a stimulating environment is
crucial in early childhood, as the law of use it or lose it applies. For example, if a child has no
visual input during infancy, they will not develop normal vision. The same goes for language and
social skills. If a child, like Genie, is not spoken to and isolated, language skills do not develop.
Additionally, it is said that the onset of puberty determines the end of the critical period for
language to be acquired (Zero to Three). Much of the funding researchers received for studying
Genie and trying to rehabilitate her came through the premise that they were trying to disprove
the critical period hypothesis.
In tracking Genies development, the next most important item to discuss would be the
abuse she experienced as an adolescent. One of the language specialists that helped her in her
rehabilitation was Susan Curtiss, who said that teaching Genie language was an especially
difficult task because there were indications that she was beaten when she made noise.
Additionally, a few years after she was placed into the foster care system, Genie was again
beaten, this time for vomiting. Shortly after this instance, researchers had to give up because
Genie wasnt making enough progress to keep funding because she refused to open her mouth
(Everywhere Psychology).
This situation brings up the importance of emotional stimulation during adolescence. As
stated before, late adolescence to early adulthood is another critical period for brain
development. Some of the final connections to be made during this period are in the prefrontal
cortex (PFC) and the limbic system (the amygdala is of special importance). These areas of the
brain aid in problem-solving and emotional learning, respectively (Harvard Medical School).
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Through this simple explanation, it becomes clear why Genies learning process was so
difficult and eventually abandoned. External, negative environmental stimulus and a lack of
educative material most likely caused severe underdevelopment to occur. Additionally, her
limbic system was most likely conditioned in a way to remind her to keep quiet when being
beaten. Again, this reveals that critical connections were most likely lost through the process of
pruning. This explanation would also clarify the issues Genie had in expressing her emotions
throughout her rehabilitation. She had to be taught how to express anger, frustration, and sadness
because she would often scratch at her face and tear out her hair. Eventually, when she was upset
she would wag her index finger (Everywhere Psychology).
Taking a look outside of Genies case, it is easy to see how external, environmental
stimulus affects cognitive development in other people who have more common, less severe
disorders. First and foremost, it is important to study the amygdala. Although this is a single,
simple structure and only one part of the limbic system, it seems to hold special significance. The
amygdala itself is responsible for conveying emotions based on input mainly aggression and
fear. In fact, it has been found that in severe cases, lesions within the brain may stimulate the
amygdala and cause panic attacks (Wright). New research also shows that a decreased volume of
the left hemisphere of the amygdala is linked with spider phobias, although, this may extend to
other phobias as well (Fisler). Through this, we may realize the importance of proper brain
stimulation in the second critical period for brain development.
Mentioned earlier, the PFC is also an important structure in brain development. It is
responsible for problem solving. It can also be linked to emotional regulation, and planning. In
the context of a normal teenager (one that hasnt been abused), there are other ways this part of
the brain can be damaged or underdeveloped. One of the most popular ways is through underage
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alcohol abuse. Studies indicate that the volume of the prefrontal cortex in teenagers who
described themselves as heavy drinkers was significantly lower (Squeglia 4).
To make another case for the importance of proper childhood development and a need to
look beyond the Biological Approach to psychology, it is important to study Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder (PTSD) a disorder commonly linked to childhood abuse and underdevelopment
of the limbic system and the PFC (Child Welfare Information Gateway). Studies do indicate that
genetics plays a role in PTSD; specifically in the production of stathmin, a protein needed to
store fear memories and gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), a chemical in the brain that controls
fear response (a lack of which causes greater fear). However, there are other things we have to
keep in mind. First, without being exposed to something worth fearing, the brain will not develop
PTSD. Second, decreased volume of the amygdala can cause emotional issues (aggression and
fear). Research shows that the medial PFC is responsible for suppressing an amygdala response
(PTSD). This means if both of these areas are underdeveloped as a result of childhood abuse or
neglect, PTSD is very likely to develop. In this sense, PTSD clearly demonstrates how disorders
are caused by negative environmental stimulus or the lack of any emotional stimulus.
Returning to Genies situation, we must also begin to ask if her learning difficulties were
the result of mental retardation at birth or because of her neglect. Although some researchers in
her case determined that she may have had abnormal brain function to begin with, others like
Susan Curtiss found that, although her improvement was clearly slower than normal, she was
still progressing in mental age, which does not occur in patients with mental retardation. A study
conducted by Dr. Nicholas Walsh of the University of East Anglia may hold an answer to this
dilemma. In his study about family problems, Walsh took brain scans of teenagers between the
ages of 17 and 19. He found that those who had experienced mild to moderate family
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difficulties between birth and 11 years of age developed a smaller cerebellum. The cerebellum
is responsible for stress regulation, sensory-motor control, and skill learning.
When discussing Genies learning disabilities, it is also possible to link her recovery
process with the learning process of a child with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD). This disability takes hold in the frontal cortex, which is responsible for attention,
reasoning, planning, and memory. It has been noted in studies of patients with ADHD that the
frontal cortex generally has a lower-than-average volume. It should also be noted that children
with ADHD generally have below average brain volume, meaning they also lack proper volume
in the emotional supports areas of the brain (like the limbic system), meaning they are more
likely to be impulsive (Kinman). This disorder is also linked with heredity, shown by studies
about twins with the disorder. It has recently become important in the medical community to find
genes that cause the disorder so it can be prevented. However, some believe that it is also very
likely that variations of the disorder exist which are influenced by the environment (Attention
Defecit).
Through Dr. Walshs study of the effects familial stress has on the cerebellum, another
aspect of Genies development is explained her physical weakness and awkwardness. Being
unable to move for ten years would, obviously, indicate that she would have difficulty moving
(use it or lose it). However, even in later videos, shown in her NOVA documentary, it is
evident that Genie has a general awkwardness about her, uninfluenced by her physical build. To
further explain this, Curtiss also described in the documentary that Genie needed to feel objects
tactilely, like an infant, by touching them with her lips (Everywhere Psychology). This would be
an example of the development or stimulation of her sensory-motor control.
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To complete the analysis of Genies developmental retardation, it is now important to
understand whether or not Eric Lenneburgs critical age hypothesis can be proven or disproven.
In the documentary, Curtiss expressed that she believed Genie had the potential to prove it
wrong, but towards the end of her sessions with Curtiss, Genie could not form full sentences (and
then went silent). She could use nouns, verbs, and some adjectives correctly, but was unable to
form grammatically correct sentences. This is a characteristic that was also demonstrated by
Victor, another feral child who was in Genies situation almost two centuries earlier (Everywhere
Psychology). Through this evidence, we may be able to say that Genies overall low brain
volume affected Brocas area, the left frontal lobe that is responsible for language skills. This
would have caused an entirely different disorder known as Brocas aphasia, in which speech is
extremely labored and repetitive and grammar is difficult to use (UCSF). Knowing this, we have
to admit the unfortunate truth that Genie would not be able to prove or disprove Lenneburgs
hypothesis, simply based on the fact that her brain was too underdeveloped to mimic that of a
healthy child that didnt face neglect.
Although we could easily say that Genies entire, overall brain volume is well below
average from being neglected for a decade, there are certain areas of her brain which hold high
levels of significance, especially when studying how the environment affects cognitive
development. In analyzing her reported behavior and learning skill development during her years
of rehabilitation, we are able to see how certain aspects of her life specifically changed her brain.
If Genie were given a brain scan, we most likely would be able to see abnormalities expressed in
the PFC and frontal cortex, being much smaller and flatter than a normal persons. We would
also be able to view the decreased volume of her amygdala, contributing to her emotional
sensitivity and eventual silence. Underneath the brain, near the brainstem, her cerebellum would
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be seen, also underdeveloped and somewhat useless, especially without proper function of the
PFC and limbic system, which ultimately kept her from learning. Finally, we would see the left
frontal lobe, responsible for her inability to properly use language.
Today, Genies exact whereabouts are unknown, but a private investigator claims that she
is currently in a home for adults with mental disabilities (Sterbenz). She would now be
somewhere around 56 years old and has spent time in at least six different foster care facilities
(James). Unfortunately, no more tests can be conducted and no more rehabilitation can take
place. This means we will never be quite sure of her mental condition or how and when it was
produced. However, her case brings importance to the Cognitive Psychology approach and
clearly shows the interconnectedness of the brain and environment through social and physical
interactions.

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Resources
Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2009). Understanding the Effects of Maltreatment on
Brain Development. Retrieved from:
https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/issue_briefs/brain_development/effects.cfm
Everywhere Psychology. (2012). Genie: Secret of the Wild Child. March 23, 2013. Retrieved
from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmdycJQi4QA
Fisler, M. S., Federspiel, A., Horn, H., Dierks, T., Schmitt, W., Wiest, R., & ... Soravia, L. M.
(2013). Spider phobia is associated with decreased left amygdala volume: a cross-
sectional study. BMC Psychiatry, 13(1), 1-7. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-13-70
Harvard Medical School. (2005). "The adolescent brain: Beyond raging hormones," Retrieved
from: http://www.health.harvard.edu/blog-extra/the-adolescent-brain-beyond-raging-
hormones
James, S. (2008). Wild Child Speechless After Tortured Life. Retrieved from:
http://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=4804490
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disorder/index.shtml?utm_source=REFERENCES_R7
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National Health Institution. (2012). What is Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)? Retrieved
from: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-
ptsd/index.shtml
Sterbenz, C. (2013). The Heartbreaking Story Of Genie, A Feral Child Who Will Never Learn
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language-acquisition-2013-10?op=1#!IwG29
Squeglia LM, Jacobus J, Tapert SF. (2009). The Influence of Substance Use on Adolescent Brain
Development. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2827693/
UCSF. (2014). Disorders of Speech and Language. Retrieved from:
http://memory.ucsf.edu/brain/language/disorders
Wright, A. (1997). Limbic System: Amygdala. Retrieved from:
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Zero to Three. (2012). FAQs on the Brain. Retrieved from: http://www.zerotothree.org/child-
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