Wireless and Mobile 

Networking
Dr. Faramarz Hendessi
I f h U i fT h
Isfahan Univ. of Tech.
Spring 2009

Lecture 15:
Lecture 15:
Basic Principles
Fading Distribution and 
Models

١
 Types of Small‐scale Fading
Small-scale Fading
(Based on Multipath Tİme Delay Spread)

Flat Fading Frequency Selective Fading

1. BW Signal < BW of Channel 1. BW Signal > Bw of Channel

2. Delay Spread < Symbol Period 2. Delay Spread > Symbol Period

Small-scale Fading
(Based on Doppler Spread)

Fast Fading Slow Fading

1. Low Doppler Spread

1. High Doppler Spread
2. Coherence Time < Symbol Period
3. Channel variations faster than baseband
signal variations
2. Coherence Time > Symbol Period
3. Channel variations smaller than baseband
signal variations

Fading  Distributions
• Describes how the received signal amplitude changes with time. 
– Remember that the received signal is combination of multiple 
signals arriving from different directions, phases and amplitudes. 
– With the received signal we mean the baseband signal, namely the 
With the received signal we mean the baseband signal namely the
envelope of the received signal (i.e. r(t)). 
• It is a statistical characterization of the multipath fading. 
• Two distributions
– Rayleigh Fading
– Ricean Fading

٢
 Rayleigh Distributions
• Describes the received signal envelope distribution for channels, 
where all the components are non‐LOS: 
– i.e. there is no line‐of–sight (LOS) component.

Ricean Distributions
• Describes the received signal envelope distribution for channels where 
one of the multipath components is LOS component. 
– i.e. there is one LOS component.

٣
 Rayleigh Fading

Rayleigh Fading

۴
 Rayleigh Fading Distribution
• The Rayleigh distribution is commonly used to 
describe the statistical time varying nature of 
the received envelope of a flat fading signal, or 
the envelope of an individual multipath
the envelope of an individual multipath 
component.
• The envelope of the sum of two quadrature 
Gaussian noise signals obeys a Rayleigh 
distribution. ⎧ r r 2
⎪ exp(− 2 ) 0≤ r ≤ ∞
p(r ) = ⎨σ 2 2σ
⎪0 r <0
⎩

• σ is the rms value of the received voltage 
before envelope detection, and σ2 is the time‐
average power of the received signal before 
envelope detection.

Rayleigh Fading Distribution
• The probability that the envelope of the  
received signal does not exceed a specified 
value of R is given by the CDF: 
R R2
−
P(R) = Pr (r ≤ R) = ∫ p(r)dr =1− e 2σ 2

∞
π
0

rmean = E[ r ] = ∫ rp ( r ) dr = σ = 1.2533σ
0
2
rmedian
1
rmedian = 1.177σ found by solving =
2 ∫ p (r )dr
0

rrms = 2σ
∞ σ 2π
σ r2 = E [ r 2 ]− E 2 [ r ] = ∫
0
r 2 p ( r ) dr −
2
= 0. 4292σ 2

• rpeak=σ and p(σ)=0.6065/σ

۵
 Rayleigh PDF
0.7

0.6065/σ
0.6 mean = 1.2533σ
median = 1.177σ
0.5
variance = 0.4292σ2
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 σ
1 22 33 4σ
4 5σ
5
σ σ

A typical Rayleigh fading envelope 
at 900MHz.

۶
 Ricean Distribution
• When there is a stationary (non‐fading)  LOS signal present, then the 
envelope distribution is Ricean.  
• The Ricean distribution degenerates to Rayleigh when the dominant 
component fades away.
p y

Ricean Fading Distribution
• When there is a dominant stationary signal component present, the 
small‐scale fading envelope distribution is Ricean.  The effect of a 
dominant signal arriving with many weaker multipath signals gives rise 
to the Ricean distribution.
• The Ricean distribution degenerates to a Rayleigh distribution when 
th d i
the dominant component fades away.
t tf d
⎧ r ( r 2 + A2 ) Ar
⎪ exp[ − ]I 0 ( 2 ) 0 ≤ r ≤ ∞, A≥0
p ( r ) = ⎨σ 2 2σ 2 σ
⎪0 r <0
⎩
• The Ricean distribution is often described in terms of a parameter K
which is defined as the ratio between the deterministic signal power
and the variance of the multipath.

• K is known as the Ricean factor

• A→0 K → ‐∞ dB,
As A→0, dB Ricean distribution degenerates to Rayleigh
distribution. 2
A
K =
2σ 2

٧
 CDF 
• Cumulative distribution for three small‐scale fading measurements 
and their fit to Rayleigh, Ricean, and log‐normal distributions.

PDF
• Probability density function of Ricean
distributions: K=‐∞dB (Rayleigh) and K=6dB. For 
K>>1, the Ricean pdf is approximately Gaussian 
about the mean.

٨
 Rice time series

Nakagami Model
• Nakagami Model
m 2
2m m r 2 m−1 exp(
p(− r )
p(r ) = Ω
Γ(m)Ω m

• r: envelope amplitude
• Ω=<r2>: time‐averaged power of received signal
• m: the inverse of normalized variance of r2
– Get Rayleigh when m=1
G tR l i h h 1

٩
 Small‐scale fading mechanism
• Assume signals arrive 
from all angles in the 
horizontal plane 
0<α<360
• Signal amplitudes are 
equal, independent of 
α
• Assume further that 
there is no multipath 
delay: (flat fading 
assumption)
• Doppler shifts
v
fn = cos a n
λ

Small‐scale fading: effect of Doppler 
in a multipath environment
• fm, the largest Doppler shift

2
1 ⎛ f ⎞
S bbEz ( f ) = k 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
8πf m ⎝ 2 fm ⎠

١٠
 Carrier Doppler spectrum
• Spectrum Empirical investigations show 
results that deviate from this model Power
Model Power goes to infinity at fc+/‐fm

Baseband Spectrum Doppler Faded Signal
• Cause baseband spectrum has a maximum 
frequency of 2fm

١١
 Simulating Doppler/Small‐scale fading

Simulating Doppler fading
• Procedure in page 222

١٢
 Level Crossing Rate (LCR)
Threshold (R)

LCR is defined as the expected rate at which the Rayleigh fading

envelope, normalized to the local rms signal level, crosses a specified
threshold level R in a positive going direction. It is given by:

NR = 2π fmρe−ρ
2

where

ρ = R / rrms (specfied
envelopevaluenormalized
torms)

NR : crossingspersecond

Average Fade Duration
Defined as the average period of time for which the received signal is
below a specified level R.

For Rayleigh distributed fading signal, it is given by:

τ=
1
NR
Pr[r ≤ R] =
1
NR
1− e−ρ
2
( )
eρ −1
2
R
τ= , ρ=
ρfm 2π rrms

Example 5.7, 5.8, 5.9

١٣
 Fading Model: Gilbert‐Elliot Model

Fade Period
Signal
Amplitude

Threshold

Time t

Good Bad
(Non-fade) (Fade)

Gilbert‐Elliot Model
1/AFD

Good Bad
(Non-fade)
(Non fade) ((Fade))
1/ANFD

The channel is modeled as a Two-State Markov Chain.

Each state duration is memory-less and exponentially distributed.

The rate going from Good to Bad state is: 1/AFD (AFD: Avg Fade Duration
The rate going from Bad to Good state is: 1/ANFD (ANFD: Avg Non-Fade
Duration)

١۴
 Simulating 2‐ray multipath
• a1 and a2 are independent Rayleigh fading
• φ1 and φ2 are uniformly distributed over 
[0 2π)
[0,2π)

Simulating multipath with Doppler‐induced Rayleigh fading

EE 542/452 Spring 2008

١۵
 Saleh and Valenzuela Indoor Model
• Measured same‐floor indoor characteristics
– Found that, with a fixed receiver, indoor channel is very slowly 
time‐varying
– RMS delay spread: mean 25ns, max 50ns
– Maximal delay spread 100ns‐200ns
– With no LOS, path loss varied over 60dB range and obeyed log 
distance power law, 3 > n > 4
• Model assumes a structure and models correlated multipath 
components.
• Multipath model
– Multipath components arrive in clusters, follow Poisson 
distribution. Clusters relate to building structures.  
g
– Within cluster, individual components also follow Poisson 
distribution.  Cluster components relate to reflecting objects near 
the TX or RX.
– Amplitudes of components are independent Rayleigh variables, 
decay exponentially with cluster delay and with intra‐cluster delay

SIRCIM and SMRCIM 
indoor/outdoor Models
• These models were developed by Rappaport and seidel SIRCIM is a 
computer program , that generates small scale indoor channel 
response measurements.
• The most salient feature of the model is that it produces multipath channel 
conditions that are very realistic since they are based on real world 
measurements and may thus be used for meaningful system design in 
factories and office buildings
• These programs are very useful and poplar and are used in over 100 
institutions.
• Model can measure individual multipath fading and small scale 
receiver spacing.
• Multipath delay inside the building was found to be 40ns to 800ns.
• Mean multipath delay ranged from 30‐300 ns.
• Arriving multipath component has a Gaussian distribution.
• Average number of multipath components range from 9 to 36

١۶
 SIRCIM and SMRCIM 
indoor/outdoor Models
• SIRCIM Model
– Based on measurements at 1300MHz in 5 
factory and other buildings
factory and other buildings
– Model power‐delay profile as a piecewise 
function ⎧ TK
⎪ 1− 367 TK < 110ns
⎪⎪ T −110
PR (TK , S1 ) = ⎨0.65− K 110ns < TK < 200ns
⎪ 360
⎪0.22- TK − 200 200ns < T < 500ns
⎪⎩ 1360
K

⎧ T
⎪ 0.55 + K TK < 100ns
PR (TK , S2 ) = ⎨ 667
T −100
⎪0.08+ 0.62exp( K ) 100ns < TK < 500ns
⎩ 75

١٧