C h a p t e r 1 0

Ionizing Radiation
radioactivity measurements
In general, radiation refers to travel of photons
in space, but the term is also used to mean
subatomic particles emitted by radioactive
nuclides or generated by machines. These
particles and photons usually ionize the
molecules or atoms along their tracks, and they
are called ionizing radiation. Radiation such
as infrared, microwave, long radio wave, and
visible light that do not ionize atoms or
molecules on its path are called non-ionizing
radiation.
Ionizing radiation includes , , protons, Xrays, cosmic rays, and gamma rays. In this
!hapter, we shall discuss their interactions with materials. Their interactions allow us to
built detectors and counters for their measurements. "etails of interaction at the atomic or
subatomic level are particularly interesting.
#trictly speaking, neutrons do not cause ionization. $owever, they induce radioactivity, and
eventually lead to ionization. %evertheless, they deserve particular attention.
$eisenberg pointed out that observations disturb the system being observed, during the
pronouncement of his uncertainty principle. &roperties not being observed are affected
during a measurement. 'ctually, interactions link the observer to the observed.
Ionizing radiation is everywhere. (e encounter it in our daily lives. Ionizing radiation has
been blamed for aging, illness, environmental damage, skin cancer, and the destruction of
immune responses. %o doubt, ionizing radiation causes special chemical phenomena, one
of which is the generation of radicals. Initiatiating polymerization reactions are one of the
important industrial applications.
Radiation effects in biology are studied due to health and safety concerns. )rom a medical
point of view, radiation may induce certain type of disease such as cancer. *n the other
hand, they may have special effect on diseased cells. Radiation induces chromosome and
"%' se+uence changes that affect future generations.
The perturbation of a system to be observed
caused by the observation is also an
important factor in determining the limits
within which a visual description of atomic
phenomena is possible.
(erner $eisenberg
,an opening statement of the uncertainty
principle
$igh-nergy Radiation
Ionizing radiation consists of highenergy particles and highenergy photons. $ighenergy
radiation may be emitted by atoms .Xrays/, nuclei .protons, , , and rays/, or
accelerators .atomic nuclei and others/.
$ighenergy particles are moving at very high speed. (hen passing by atoms or molecules,
they knock out one or more electrons from them, producing positive ions and electrons. '
positive ion and an electron make an ion pair, for e0ample, *
1
and e

or *
1
2
and e

.
In addition to ionization, there are other mechanisms by which energetic particles loose
energy. )or the consideration of interactions between ionizing radiation and material, the
particles are divided in the following categories.
heavy charged particles such as protons, particles, energetic nuclei, mesons, and
hadrons.
light charged particles such as electrons, positrons and other leptons.
electromagnetic radiation in the forms of Xrays and rays, and
neutral particles such as neutrons.
Discovery of Ionization by Radiation
Xrays and radioactivity discharged a charged electroscope, observed !urie, Rutherford
and others when they worked with radioactivity.
(hat causes the discharge of electroscope3
$ow does Xrays and radioactivity discharge a charged electroscope3
!an electroscopes be used as ionizing radiation detectors3
'n electroscope consists of two gold leaves
suspended from a metallic conductor in a
glass 4ar. 5lass and air are insulators.
Touching the conductor with electric charges
makes the leaves stay apart in a charged state
because like charges repel each other.
!onducting the charges away or neutralizing
them with opposite charges causes the leaves
to collapse into a discharged state.
(hen a charge electroscope is e0posed to Xrays or radioactivity, the electroscope
becomes discharged. -arly researchers such as !urie and Rutherford interpreted the
discharge as due to the ionization of radiation. Ion pairs produced by radiation make air a
conductor. *pposite charges attract to the leaves neutralized the charge.
Electroscopes
!harged "ischarged
-nergies associated with molecules can be divided into kinetic energies of translation,
vibration and rotation and energies associated with electronic energy states. #mall amounts
of energies excite molecules by changing their electronic states, or kinetic energies of
rotation, vibration, and translation .temperature change/. 6arge amounts of energies break
up chemical bonds and electrons. (hen one or more electrons break away, molecules or
atoms are ionized. The ions so formed carry a single or multiple units .charge of electron/
of positive charges.
The minimum energy re+uired to remove an
outer electron from atoms or molecules is called
ionization energy. Ionization energies of some
common substances and the ionization processes
are shown in a bo0 here. The e+uations in the
bo0 indicate the amounts of energy re+uired for
the ionization process. )or e0ample, 78 e9 will
strip an electron off the o0ygen diatomic
molecule. -lectrons stripped off an atom or
molecule with minimum energy have no kinetic
energy. If more energy is transferred to the
electron, it will leave an atom or a molecule
with a kinetic energy. Ionizing radiation removes electrons and usually leaves them with
some kinetic energy. Recombination of electron with its ion does not occur, unless the
kinetic energy of the electron is dissipated. !ollisions cause the kinetic energy of electrons
to be dissipated to other molecules. 6owenergy electrons are picked up by atoms and ions.
:ore energy is re+uired to remove an innershell electron or from an ion. Ionization by
radiation removes electrons of inner and outer shells, and sometimes bonding electrons.
The average energy re+uired to generate an ion pair by radiation is higher than the first
ionization energy. )or e0ample, some average energies for ion pair production in some
familiar media are listed;
Average Ionization Energy (IE e! per "air of #ome $ommon
#ubstances
%aterial 'ir Xe $e %$
<
5ecrystal
Average IE <= 22 8< <> 2.>
In the table above, all substances are gases e0cept for 5e crystals. Thus, for the same
ionizing radiation, the number of ion pairs generated depends on the material. %ote that
very low energy is re+uired to produce an ion pair in a 5e crystal, which is a
semiconductor. 5ermanium .5e/ and other semiconductor crystals are very sensitive
ionizing radiation detectors because they give large signals due to the low ionization
energy.
Ionization Energy and Ionization
*
2
1 78 e9 *
2
1
1 e

$
2
1 7= e9 $
2
1
1 e

$e 1 2= e9 $e
1
1 e

$e
1
1 =8 e9 $e
21
1 e

$
2
* 1 7< e9 $
2
*
1
1 e

!*
2
1 78 e9 !*
2
1
1 e

%
2
17? e9 %
2
1
1 e

The production of ion pairs by a high

energy particle on its path is depicted in a
diagram here. -lectrons removed from
atoms and molecules by radiation are called
primary electrons. #ome of these electrons
carry a very high kinetic energy, and they,
like the rays, cause further ionization.
-lectrons knocked out by primary electrons
are secondary electrons.
Ionizing radiation interacts with many atoms per unit length on its path. ' gas at 2@< A and
7.B atm has 2.@7B
22
molecules per liter, or 2.@7B
7>
molecules per ml .Ccm
<
/. 5as
molecules on average travel a short distance .27B
@
m or B.2 micrometer/ between
collisions. This distance is called mean free path. ' liter of water contains <.< 0 7B
2=

molecules, 7,2BB times denser than that of a gas. 'tomic densities in solids are similar.
"ensities affect the movements of electrons, ions, and molecules. "ue to the e0cess energy,
however, recombination of ion pairs reaches an e+uilibrium and the net number of ion pairs
remain constant for a period.
Review Questions
1. On the path of an alpha particle, nearly all molecules are ionied. !f the average
energy re"uired to produce an ion pair is #$ e%, how many pairs of ions are produced
by a 1.0&'e% alpha particles(
)hat is the total amount of charge *both positive and negative+ produced(
,. -t standard temperature and pressure *.T/+, 1 mole of gas occupies ,,.0 1 of volume.
Calculate the molecular density per cm
#
of gas at .T/.
&eavy $harged "articles
'lpha . / particles, protons, atomic nuclei from particle accelerators, and baryons are
heavy charged particles. They lose energy in the medium mostly by ionization
D
.
$ow fast do highenergy heavy particles move3
(hat are the factors affecting the energy loss of particles in a medium3
$ow far do heavy particles travel in a medium3
D
#ee also properties of mesons and baryons .collectively called hadrons/. They decay into other high energy particles.
Ion "airs on a Radiation "ath
EoooooooooooooooooE
EooooooooooooooooE
Eoooooooo1oooooooE
Foooooo1oooooooooE
Eoooo1oooooooooooE
Eoo1oooooooooooooE
E1oooooooooooooooE
FoooooooooooooooooE
G EoooooooooooooooooE
o 'toms and molecules in a medium.
'lpha . / particles and heavy ions interact with electrons via !oulomb force of attraction.
$owever, these particles are moving at high speed through their media. ' classical
approach to calculate the velocity shown below gives the appro0imate speed. )or e0ample,
if the kinetic energy of an particle is 7 :e9, its velocity can be calculated, by using a
mass of 87.??7B
2@
kg,
7 :e9 C 7.?B 0 7B
7<
H
C .I/ .87.??7B
2@
kg/ v
2
v
2
C 8.J27B
7<
.mKs/
2
v C ?.>7B
?
mKs
#ince this speed is only a fraction of the speed of light .<7B
J
mKs/, the result is reasonably
correct.
-lectrons are pulled away by positive particles despite their high speed of motion. Lecause
the radius of an atom is 7BBBBB times larger than that of a nucleus, the heavy particles
only occasionally colliding with a nucleus and they travel in almost straight lines,
interacting with mostly electrons. *n their path, particles and ions knock electrons out of
their atomic or molecular orbitals, often leading to multiple ionization. The ionization
process generates free electrons and positive ions or ion pairs on their path. The ionization
process can be represented by
' '
n1
1 n e

,
where n is an integer indicating the number of ion pairs. 'gain, energetic primary electrons
cause further ionization in a cascade to produce secondary ion pairs.
#ketch of Alpha "article "aths in a %edium
source
#hield
There may be cases in which the electrons are not removed from the atoms, but the
electrons ac+uire some energy from the particle. #uch a process excites a molecule.
Ionization and e0citation of the electrons rupture chemical bonds and generate free radicals.
)ree radicals are reactive species and they cause further chemical reactions.
The stopping po'er of a medium is the rate of energy loss per unit distance along the path.
Lorn and Lethe have shown that the stopping power of a medium is proportional to the
mass ', and to the s+uare of atomic number, 2
2
, of the atoms in the medium. Thus, a
medium consisting of heavy atoms have high stopping power. $owever, the stopping
power is inversely proportional to the energy of the particle. ' fast moving particle deposit
less energy per unit length on its track. $igh stopping power results in generating high ion
pair density.
The stopping power of the medium is relatively
small at the time when an particle enters the
medium because its energy is high. 's it travels
through the medium, it loses energy and the
stopping power increases. Thus, the ion pairs
density generated along the paths of a particle
is low at the time when it enters the medium,
and increases to a ma0imum called (ragg peak
4ust before it stops. ' plot of ion density as a
function of the distance in the medium is called
a (ragg curve. #uch a curve has a general
shape as shown here.
$eavy particles lose energy in a medium at a faster rate than light particles. Thus, they
generate higher ionpair densities on their tracks. 'lpha particles generate denser ionpair
densities than protons of the same kinetic energy in the same type of media.
)he (orn-(ethe *ormula for Energy
+oss of $harged "articles,
&
d3
d4
5
6'
3
,
-nergy loss per distance .d37d4/ is
proportional to the mass, ', and s+uare of
charge,
2
, but inversely proportional to its
energy 3. The distance of the track is
represented by 4, and 6 is a constant.
Ion "air Density Along the "ath of &eavy
$harged "articles in a %edium
"istance along the path
Ion pairs
density
particle
proton
$eavy particles such as protons and
particles of certain energy will
lose all their energy in a definite
distance in a medium, and this
distance is called the range, which
depends on charge, mass, and the
kinetic energy of the incident
particles. *ne:e9 particles have
a shorter range than =:e9 ones,
and protons have longer range than
particles if they have the same
kinetic energy. The range also
depends on the nature of the medium. )ive:e9 particles have a range of several
centimeters in air, but less than a millimeter in water or a solid material. The range is
determined by measuring the intensity with an absorber between the detector and the
source. The thickness at which the intensity drops to half is the range. The e0periment and
graphic determination of range measurement is depicted here.
The stopping power of the medium depends on the atomic weights and densities. '
medium consisting of heavy elements such as lead have a larger stopping power than one
consisting of light elements. ' gas has low stopping power due to low density. #ince the
interaction of heavy particles with the atoms in the medium is a matter of chance, there is a
scattering of ranges for particles of the same energy. This scattering is referred to as the
range straggling.
Ranges in pure aluminum as functions of
energies have been carefully measured for
alpha particles and protons. The low atomic
number .2 C 7</ of aluminum makes ranges
in it long. :easuring long ranges is easier and
more precise. Thus, ranges in aluminum have
been the standards and ranges are usually
e0pressed in mass per unit area, .mg cm
2
,
converted by using lengthdensity/. Ly
measuring the range of a particle source, its
energy can be determined by comparing with
a known standard. "ecay energies of many
emitters have been tabulated, and range
measurements can be used to identify
sources. Anowing the range, a shield thicker
than the range of the particles offers radiation
protection, because it will stop all the
radiation from passing through.
ariation of Intensity as a *unction of )hickness
"etector
'bsorber
Intensity
thickness
source straggling
Range
Ranges as *unctions of Energy
B.7 7 7BK :e9
B.7
7
7B
7BB
Range
of
Range
of
protons
mgK cm
2
$eavy charged particles usually have short ranges. The range of alpha particles from
radium in air at 2>J A and 7 atm is @.7 cm, and the Lragg peak appears ?.< cm from the
source. There are about 78<,BBB ion pairs on its track, giving an average 2B,BBB ion pair per
cm along the track. These alpha particles cannot penetrate a sheet of paper, and they may
not be able to penetrate the membrane that separates the gas in the detector from the
environment. Thus, commercial radioactivity detectors may not be able to detect the alpha
particles.
5enerally, when the velocities of protons and alpha particles are high, they do not pick up
electrons in the medium. They begin to pick up electrons only when their kinetic energies
are comparable to those of ions or atoms in the medium. 'fter they pick up re+uired
electrons, they become part of the medium. -lastic and inelastic collisions become the
dominant interactions thereafter.
Review Questions
1. 3stimate the velocities of protons whose 8inetic energies are 1.0 and 0.1 'e%
respectively using the method of 9ewtonian physics. :iscuss the result.
,. ;ow is the range of particles measured( )hat purposes do the range measurement
serve(
#. ;ow many ion pairs are formed in the path of a 1.0 'e% proton, if the average energy
re"uired to produce an ion pair is #$ e%( !f the range of the proton is 10 cm, calculate
the number of ion pairs per cm on its path. <or a $.0&'e% particle, the range is to
=., cm. 3valuate the number of ions and ion pair density per cm on its path.
+ight $harged "articles
&articles with mass comparable to those of electrons are light charged particles.
-ssentially, they are highspeed positron and electrons. Their rest mass is only
7
K
7J=B
amu.,
much lighter than those of protons. They interact with electrons of the media.
$ow do light charged particles lose energy in a medium3
(hy and how they are different from the heavy charged particles3
6et us use the %ewtonian physics to estimate of the speed of a particle whose kinetic
energy is 7.B :e9. 'ssume the velocity to be v, then the kinetic energy is .
7
K
2
/ m v
2
. Thus,
7 :e9 C 7.?7B
7<
H
C .
7
K
2
/ m v
2
C .
7
K
2
/ .>.77B
<7
kg v
2
#olving for v,
v
2
C <.<B7B
7@
or
v C =.@7B
J
mKsec.
This speed e0ceeds the speed of light, .<.B7B
J
mKsec/, and it violates principle of limiting
speed. The theory of relativity must be considered for a proper calculation of the velocity or
speed of a highenergy electron. The mass, m, of a 7:e9 beta particle is actually 7.=7
:e9, rather than B.=7 :e9. In general, for a particle of kinetic energy 3
k
, its mass in
amu is,
3
k
:e9 1 B.=7 :e9 .rest mass of electron/
m C ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, amu
><7.= :e9
The velocity, v, is then calculated by the e+uation
mKs 7B J . 2 7B <
2
=7 . 7
=7 . B
7
2
7
J J
/
.
/
.
= = = c
m
m
v
e
where c is the velocity of light, and m
o
is the rest mass of the electron. The velocity is J7M
the speed of light, still a very high value.
The interactions of beta particles with matter is similar to those of other charged particles
such as protons and alpha particles, but a high speed electron may lose half of its kinetic
energy in a single encounter with an electron in the stopping medium. Thus, it may suffer a
considerable deflection causing it to travel in a zigzag path. 'n imaginary path is depicted
here to show the scattering of electron. -lectrons with energy less than 7.B2 :e9 lose
energy by elastic and inelastic scattering. #cattering causes ionization and e0citation of
electrons in the medium. *f course, the electron leaving a medium may not be the same
electron that enters the medium. -lectrons have no individual identity.
An Imaginary "ath of a particle in
a %edium
The range of monoenergetic electrons
.all have the same kinetic energy/ is not
a well defined +uantity compared to
those of heavy charged particles. There
is more range straggling. In spite of
the severe range straggling, kinetic
energies of electrons can be estimated
appro0imately by means of
e0trapolation. The e0trapolation and the
range straggling as seen from the plot
of their intensity .I/ after they pass an
absorber of thickness x is shown in a
sketch here. The measurement of
intensity is done in a similar way as that
used for heavy charged particles discussed in the previous section. -lectrons have a greater
range than protons if they all have the same kinetic energy, but the intensity drops
gradually as the thickness increases. In contrast, the intensity of heavy particles remains
essentially constant as the thickness increases until the thickness is appro0imately e+ual to
the range.
!ollision between beta particles and electrons
causes ionization and e0citation of the
electrons in the medium. In addition, high
speed electrons passing by atomic nuclei
e0perience attraction and repulsion. They are
accelerated or decelerated in a medium.
'cceleration and deceleration of charges cause
them to emit photons at the e0pense of their
kinetic energy. &hotons so emitted are known
as bremsstrahlung radiation .braking
radiation/. Their properties are similar to those
of Xrays. Leta particles and positrons of very
high energy .7BB :e9/ lose their energy
almost e0clusively by bremsstrahlung radiation from their interaction with fields of nuclei
in the medium.
&ositrons,
1
, combine with electrons to form shortlived systems called positroniums-
which decay with a half life of B.7 microseconds into two photons each. #uch a process is
called annihilation, in which both particles disappear and their masses convert to the
energy of two photons .gamma rays/. 'nnihilation is the main mode of interaction between
the shortlived positron and mater. Recall that positrons from cosmic rays were discovered
not from annihilation with electron, but from their ionization track showing them being
deflected in the opposite direction from that of electrons. Thus, positrons also produce ion
pairs before they were annihilated by electrons.
Intensity (I ! of Electrons 'ith the #ame .inetic Energy
as a *unction of )hickness (x! of Absorber,
I
x
-0trapolated
range
Range
straggling
absorber
I
B
I
detector
I
B
x
(remsstrahlung Radiation and its
*eynmann Diagram
- C h v
e

.h v
)eynmann
diagram
Lremsstrahlung radiations, annihilation and
ionization are the ma4or modes of
interactions of highspeed electrons with the
medium. ' diagram indicating the three
interaction modes by which the particles
lose energy in a matter is given here.
Review Questions
1. 3stimate the velocities of electrons
whose 8inetic energies are 10.0 and
0.01 'e% respectively. :iscuss the
results.
,. )hat are the three ma>or mechanisms by which electrons lose their energies in a
medium.
#. :raw a <eynman diagram for the annihilation of positrons and electrons.
Electromagnetic Radiation
The energies of a photon in the deepred region and in the blue region of the visible light
are 7.= and <.B e9 respectively. The N9 radiation covers a wide energy range from a few
e9 to hundreds e9. Xray photons have energies in the order of ke9 The boundary
between Xrays and rays is a blur one, and but in general ray photons have energies
in the order of :e9s. &hotons have a very wide range of energies and they interact with
matter in many different ways. &hotons with energies higher than a few ke9 are ionizing
radiation.
(hat are the properties of highenergy electromagnetic radiation3
$ow do they lose energy in a medium3
(hat are the processes by which Xrays and ray loose energy3
The Xray and ray photons lose their energy in a stopping medium mainly by these
ma4or processes; photoelectric effect- $ompton effect, and pair production.
&hotoelectric and !ompton effects produce ion pairs, and pair production produces a pair
of electron and positron from a photon.
(hen all the energy .3 C h / of a Xray and ray photon is used to release the electron
from an atom or molecule, the process is called photoelectric effect. )rom the principle of
conservation of energy, the kinetic energy of the electron so released is e+ual to the energy
of the photon .h / minus the binding energy of the electron to the atom. Linding
energies of electrons in various shells are different and Xray photons can ionize innershell
electrons. 'bsorption of photons by photoelectric effect is the most important mode for low
energy .long wavelength/ photons, especially when the energy is 4ust sufficient to e4ect an
Ionizationiza
tion
Lraking radiation
'nnihilation
electron from a particular shell of the atoms in the medium. This mode of interaction is
shared by photons of low energy, including those in the N9 region.
Regarding the $ompton effect, we need to go back a few decade to review the study of
light scattering. "rude, 6ord Rayleigh, Raman, Thomson, "ebye, and others, have studied
the light scattering. They found that
7. the scattered radiation had the same
wavelength as the primary rays,
7. >Bdegree scattered rays were polarized.
$owever, when '.$. !ompton .7>2?/ and his collaborators studied Xrays scattering, they
found the wavelength for the scattered rays a little longer than the original Xrays. The
amount of lengthening depended on the wavelength and the angle of scattering. They did
not find any polarization. (hen a photon transfer part of its energy to an electron, it is
scattered off from a different direction. Its wavelength becomes longer. The process is
e+uivalent to inelastic collision between photons and electrons. !ompton concluded that
inelastic scattering begin to appear for photons with energy greater than B.=7 :e9. This
process is now known as the $ompton effect, by which a photon transfers part of its
energy to an electron, and the photon becomes less energetic, resulting in a longer
wavelength or lower fre+uency.
#uppose the spectrum of a Xray beam
consists of a single peak. The spectrum of
the scattered Xrays at a particular angle
consists of two peaks, one with fre+uencies
of the scattered original photons, and one
with longer wavelengths. The relative
intensities of the two peaks depend on
energies of the photon, and the material
used. (hen photons are scattered through
an angle , the wavelength increased by an
amount , which depends on O
C
o
.7 cos /
*eynman Diagram for
the $ompton Effect
#pectra of an /riginal and #cattered 0-rays
at a "articular *ixed Angle,
Intensity
arbitrary
scale
*riginal
spectrum
scattered
spectrum

where
o
is the original wavelength. The amount is now called the $ompton
1avelength.
"irac postulated the e0istence of antiparticles, and sort after 'nderson .7><2/ discovered
the antiparticle of electron called it positron. ' positron and an electron annihilate each
other converting to two photons. %ot e0actly the reverse of annihilation, but at the vicinity
of an atom, a photon creates a positron and an electron at the same time from a common
center. This production of a particleantiparticle pair is known as pair production. &air
productions happen for photons with energies greater than .2 0 B.=7 :e9 C/ 7.B2 :e9. '
single photon disappears, converting to a pair of particle and antiparticle. "ue to the law of
conservation of momentum, a third body must be present for the pair production. The
threshold energy .7.B2 :e9/ corresponds to the rest mass of an electronpositron pair. The
residual energy .h 2 m
e
c
2
/ is distributed between the kinetic energies of the pair with
only a small fraction going to the nuclear recoil.
The pair production can also occur in the field of
an atomic electron, to which considerable recoil
energy is thereby imparted. 'pplying the LornPs
first appro0imation, it has been shown that
photons with 2.B8 :e9 or more will undergo
such a transformation. In the pair production
process a pair of particles are produced from a
bundle of light energy .one photon/. This is not
the reverse of the annihilation mechanism
between a positron and a beta particle, in which
t'o photons are produced.
&hotons with less than 7 :e9 energies lose
their energy mostly by photoelectric process.
&hotons with energies between 7 and = :e9
lose their energies mainly by !ompton
scattering. &hotons with energies higher than
= :e9 lose their energy by pair production.
*f course, the three processes compete with
one another. &hotons with energy with 7
:e9 have higher probability of losing energy
due to inelastic scattering than photoelectric
effect, and the photoelectric probability
increases as their energies decrease. The
domains of the ma4or processes are displayed in the diagram here. 's the photon energy
increases, the dominant process shift from photoelectric, to !ompton, and to pair
productions. The photoelectric effect never competes with pair production.
&air production is now routinely used to produce positrons and electrons for synchrotrons.
Nsing the same process, protons and antiprotons are also produced.
*eynman Diagram for "air "roduction
' negative charge in reverse is
e+uivalent to a plus charge.
' nucleus or field.
Interaction of "hotons 'ith %atter
7 =K :e9
&air
production
&hoto
electric
!ompton scattering
' beam of rays passing a medium loses
energy by all three mechanisms;
photoelectric, !ompton and pair productions.
Regardless of the mode of interaction, the
absorption of rays is by chance. The rate
of absorption per unit length, .d!7dt/ is
proportional to the intensity, !, itself. The
reduction of ray intensity follows the
e+uation
where a is the absorption coefficient.
-0pressed in another form, the intensity !
is reduced e0ponentially as a function of
the thickness 4 of the medium;
! C !
B
e
a 4
where !
B
is the initial incident intensity. The variations of monoenergetic gamma ray .all
photons have the same energy/ intensity as a function of the thickness 4 is shown here. The
larger the a, the faster the decline of the intensity. #ubstances containing heavy elements
such as lead and lead glass having high absorption coefficient a are e0cellent absorbers of
Xrays and gamma rays.
Review Questions
1. 3valuate the wavelengths of photons whose energies are 1 me%, 1 e%, 1 8e%, 1 'e%,
and 10.0 'e% respectively. )hat regions do these photons belong in the
electromagnetic radiation spectrum(
,. :escribe the photoelectric effect.
#. :escribe the pair production process.
0. :escribe the Compton scattering of rays.
$. )hy lead sheets and lead glass are used as shield for gamma ray radiation(
Intensity of "arallel 2amma Rays as a
*unction of Absorber )hickness,
Thickness 4
Intensity, !
a! 5
d4
d!
&
Interaction of 3eutrons 'ith %atter
%eutrons are heavy, uncharged particles, and they interact with electrons weakly due to the
magnetic moment present in both electrons and neutrons. !ollisions between neutrons and
atomic nuclei are rare events, because both are tiny compared to the atoms. In elastic
collisions, the neutrons do not lose any energy. In inelastic collisions, kinetic energy is
transferred between neutrons and the atomic nuclei. %eutrons lose their energies in
inelastic collisions with the atomic nuclei, not with the electrons. In cases where the
neutrons transfer energy to the atomic nuclei, one or more of the nucleons are e0cited to a
higher level. The e0citation energy may be emitted as gamma rays.
(hat interactions will neutron have with material3
(hat type of material is effective to slow neutrons3
$ow can neutrons be detected3
%eutrons cannot be detected directly from their interactions with matter. $owever,
neutrons are detected due to nuclear reactions induced by neutrons. )or e0ample, a nuclear
reaction induced by neutron first observed is the reaction with nitrogen;

78
% 1 n Q
77
L 1 ,
in which case, the tracks due to the particles were observable .!hadwick, 7><=/. #ince
boron nuclei absorb neutrons readily, a common neutron detector makes use of the
reaction,
7B
L 1 n R
@
6i 1 .
' detection chamber is usually filled with gaseous boron trifluoride, L)
<
, with enriched
7B
L. The detector gives out signals due to particles.
'fter having received the kinetic energy from a fast neutron in an inelastic collision, the
nuclei have the ability to cause ionizing of other atoms, causing further e0citation and
ionization in the media. #ince such collision is rare, the density of ion pair is very small.
Thermal neutrons have energy levels similar to the kinetic energy of atoms in the medium,
and they cause much less ionization, if any.
%eutrons lose very little energy per collision when they collide with heavy nuclei. %uclei
of hydrogen and neutrons have appro0imately the same mass. In collisions with hydrogen
nuclei, neutrons can transfer almost all their kinetic energy to the hydrogen nuclei. Thus,
hydrogencontaining compounds such as $
2
*, paraffin wa0, and hydrocarbons .oil and
grease/ slow down neutrons rapidly.
Liological systems contain a high percentage of water, and water is an effective neutron
moderator. )ast neutrons +uickly become thermal neutrons in a biological system. Thermal
neutron capturing reactions take place even when biological materials are e0posed to fast
neutrons.
(e have e0tensively discussed nuclear reactions induced by neutrons in the chapters on
%uclear Reactions and on )ission Reactions. ' summary is given below. The first two
reactions take place in nuclear reactors, whereas the .n, p/ and .n, / reactions produce
radioactive isotopes. Loron, L, absorbs neutrons readily, and its reaction is often used for
the detection of neutrons.
7
$ 1 n Q
2
" 1 .capture or n, /
2<J
N 1 n Q
2<>
N 1 .n, /
78
% 1 n Q
78
! 1 p .n, p/
<=
!l 1 n Q
<=
# 1 p .n, p/
<=
!l 1 n Q
<2
& 1 .n, /
2BB
$g 1 n .7B :e9/ Q
7>@
&t 1
7>@
&t Q
7>@
'u 1
2BB
$g 1 n .7B :e9/ Q
7>J
'u 1 p
7>J
'u Q
7>J
$g 1
1eb #ites About 3eutron Detector
Nltra $igh #ensitivity )ission !ounter .N$#)!/;
http;KKwww.ic.ornl.govK$T:6Kic>87<B.html
R*:'#$A' multipurpose instrument for measuring neutron cross sections, neutron
resonance parameters and gammamultiplicities in interactions of neutrons with nuclei
.with nice diagrams/; http;KKnfdfn.4inr.dubna.suKflnphKusersguiKromash.htm
Review Questions
1. -side from neutron induced reactions, how do neutrons interact with atoms and
molecules in a medium(
,. )hat neutron reaction is commonly used for detecting neutrons(
Radiation "etectors
Radioactivity was discovered from images left on silver bromide photographic plates. %ew
particles were discovered from the study of their tracks in hydrogen bubble chambers and
cloud chambers. Ionization of radiation was inferred from their discharging of
electroscopes. &hotographic plates, bubble chambers, cloud chambers, and electroscopes
are radiation detectors. In this section, we shall discuss the principles of these and some
other detectors. :ost detection methods are based on the ionization in the medium.
Ionization $hamber
Ionizing radiation produces ion pairs in a gas, and the ion pairs do not recombine until the
energies of the electrons have dissipated. Thus, there are positive ions and negative
electrons in a gas medium when e0posed to radiation.
$ow can ionizing radiation be detected3
$ow do ionizing radiation detectors work3
In a gas, ions and electrons move freely as do the gas molecules. If we place two electrodes
connected to a battery in the medium, the electrodes afford an electric field, which causes
the electrons to drift towards positive electrode, and the positive ions towards the negative
electrode. #uch an arrangement is ionization chamber for the detection of radioactivity
(hen the ionization chamber is e0posed
to a source of ionization radiation as
shown here, the drifting of electrons and
ions will make the detector chamber a
conductor. Thus, a current is registered
on the amperemeter. The ionization
chamber is a simple detector for
radioactivity.
'n ionization chamber is a little more sophisticated than an electroscope for the detection
of radioactivity. Rutherford placed a thorium o0ide .Th*
2
/ sample directly in the detector
chamber. $e noticed that the radioactivity increased with time after a sample was 4ust put
in. 'fter removing the sample carefully without changing the air in the chamber, he found
the air remained radioactive. The radioactive air decayed with a specific half life. *ther
radioactive samples did not give the same observation. $is e0periment suggested the
e0istence of a radioactive gaseous element. The e0periment was later interpreted as due to
the decay of Th ., / Ra ., / Rn. #everal isotopes of Th produce radon isotopes in their
decays.
.ey $omponents in a #imple Ionization $hamber
11
111
1

'mpere
meter
"etector
chamber
Ionizing
radiation
Lattery
6oad
resister
*f course, one uses the most sensitive amperemeter in setting up the ionization chamber.
The current registered in the ionization chamber is proportional to the number of ion pairs
generated by radioactivity. Thus, the higher the radioactivity, the higher the current.
Ionization chambers +uantitatively measure radioactivity. The voltage supply enables the
electrodes to collect electrons and ions, but the current is mainly determined by the number
of free electrons in the chamber, not on the voltage. $owever, depends on the electrode
arrangements and chamber geometry, the voltage must be sufficiently high for effective
collection of electrons.
Review Questions
1. ;ow does an ioniation chamber wor8(
)hat are the 8ey components in the ioniation chamber(
2. )hat are the isotopes of Rn from decays of
22@
Th,
22J
Th,
2<B
Th3
)hich isotopes of Rn has the shortest half life(
.The merit of this e0ercise is to know how to find information in problem solving./
"roportional $ounter
"iscovery is an important goal of scientific research, and methodologies for doing research
are constantly under development. #oon after getting ionization chambers to work,
improvements are made. The improvement in the instrumentation leads to new phenomena,
making research and development an interesting adventure.
$ow can the sensitivities of ionization chambers be improved3
(hat happens when the voltage is increased3
't some hundreds volts, the improvement in sensitivity is more than collecting all the
(hen voltages applied to electrodes of ionization chambers increase, the sensitivities
increase. electrons and ions on the electrode. The currents corresponding to multiples of
ions and electrons produced by radioactivity. To distinct them from simple ionization
chambers, these detectors are called proportional counters.
2as %ultiplication
1

111

111111111

1111111111
11111111111
11111111111
1111
In proportional counters, the high voltage applied to the electrodes created a strong electric
field, which not only collect but also accelerate electrons. The energies ac+uired from the
electric field by electrons accumulate and they are used to ionize other molecules,
producing secondary ion pairs, initiating an avalanche of ionization by every a single
electron generated by radiation. #uch a process is called gas multiplication.
It should be noted, however, that the small mass and high energy of electrons make them
drift 7BB,BBB times faster than ions. Thus, the current is mainly due to the drifting electrons
with only a small fraction due to the drift of ions.
"espite the multiplication due to secondary ion pairs, the amperemeters register currents
proportional to the numbers of primary electrons caused by radiation entering the detectors.
Thus, currents of proportional chambers correspond to amounts of ionization radiation
entering the proportional chamber.
(hen voltages applied to proportional counters get still higher, sparks 4ump .arcs/ between
the two electrodes along the tracks of ionizing particles. These detectors are called spark
chambers, which give internal amplification factors up to 7,BBB,BBB times while still
giving an initial signal proportional to the number of primary ion pairs.
Review Questions
1. ;ow does an ioniation chamber wor8(
)hat are the 8ey components in the ioniation chamber(
,. -ssume that #$ e% is re"uired to create an ion pair.
!f the applied voltage is ,00 %, what is the amplification factor for the proportional
counter(
2eiger-%uller $ounters
&erhaps the most widely used radioactivity detectors are 5eiger:uller .often called
5eiger/ counters. :ore precisely these counters detect numbers of ionization particles
entering the detector. Nnlike the ionization chambers or proportional counters, 5eiger
counters do not reveal numbers of primary ion pairs in their detecting chambers.
(hat is the working principle of 5eiger:uller !ounters3
5eiger:uller counters evolve from proportional counters. (hen the voltages applied to
the ion chamber of the ionization chamber reach more than 7,BBB 9, as few as one primary
ion pair in the chamber causes a spark .arc/. (henever an ionization particle .including
photons/ enters the chamber, a primary ion pair causes a single spark. The charges 4umped
over the electrodes depend on the number of primary ion pairs, but we often are more
interested in the numbers of particles entering the chamber.
' spark causes a temporary conduction in the detector chamber. The voltage across the two
electrodes drops during the sparking period, but a current flowing across a resister causes
the voltage between points on both sides of a resister to increases .% C i R/. The sudden
drops or increases in voltage are called pulses. 5eiger counters count the number of pulses,
and this can easily be achieved by electronic means. The counters can also be designed to
give an audible signal for each pulse.
' 5eiger counter usually refers to an instrument consisting of a detector- a high voltage
supplier, and an electronic pulse counter. Nsually, audio and meter outputs are parts of
an instrument. (hen the audio output is switched on, the 5eiger counter gives a clicking
sound whenever a pulse is registered. The fre+uency of the clicks is proportional to the
radioactivity .L+/ of the source. The meter output is very similar to an amperemeter. The
current is proportional to the fre+uency of the pulses, however, not related to the energy of
the particles entering the detector.
5eiger:uller counters count the number of radiation events, not the energy of the ionizing
particles. 't this level of operation, the number of counts per unit time from a steady source
is independent of the voltage applied to the electrode. To insure the stability and uniformity
of the detector, a voltage in the middle of a range of voltages that gives a steady number of
counts from a steady radiation source is usually chosen.
5eiger:uller counters are usually used to detect X, gamma and betarays. 'lpha
particles have a limited range, and they may not be able to enter the chamber to cause any
ionization of the gas in it. Thus, alpha particles may escape detection by 5eiger:uller
counters.
"ue to their high sensitivity, 5eiger:iller counters are useful for geological survey,
personnel monitoring, tracking of radioactivity movement, and radioactivity detection. The
fre+uency of clicks is proportional to the radioactivity of the source, and the audio output
1orking $omponents of a 2eiger %uller $ounter
7=BB 9
supplier

1
"etector
#ource
2eiger-%uller $ounter4
&ulse counting electronics
frees the visual sense for other purposes. $owever they can not differentiate sources
from ray sources, and other detectors are re+uired for proper characterization of
radioactivity.
5eiger counters count pulses. 'fter each pulse, the
voltage has to return to a certain level before the ne0t
pulse can be counted. Thus, after each pulse, there is a
period called dead time during which radiation can not
be detected. The length of the dead time depends on the
gas mi0tures used in the detector, and on the
sophistication of the electronics. (hen the source has a
very strong radioactivity, the pulses generated in the
detectors are very close together. 's a result, the 5eiger
counter may register a zero rate. In other words, a high
radioactive source may overwhelm the 5eiger counter,
causing it to fail. (hen you use a 5eiger counter for a survey, keep this in mind. The zero
reading from a 5eiger counter provides you with a .false/ sense of safety when you
actually walk into an area where the radioactivity is dangerously high.
Ionization chamber, proportional counter, spark chamber and 5eiger:uller counters are
similar in design and construction. "ifferent voltages applied to the detector chambers
make them perform differently. "epending on the applied voltage, the characteristic of the
detector changes.
Review Questions
1. ;ow does a ?eiger&'uller counter wor8(
)hat are the 8ey components in a ?eiger counter(
,. )hy there is a dead time in ?eiger counters(
)hat caution should be e4ercised in using ?eiger counters for survey wor8(
#olid-state Detectors
#olidstate detectors are for accurate measurements of radiation energy. They are based on
ionization, but they are very different from ionization chambers, proportional counters,
spark chambers and 5eiger counters.
(hat solids are used for solidstate detectors3
$ow do solid state detectors work3
#emiconductors such as silicon and germanium are used for solid state detectors. -very
atom in the crystal is bonded to four other atoms throughout the entire crystal. $owever,
Dead )ime in "ulse $ounting
"ead time
usually doped semiconductors are used as detectors. #ignals in solid states after receiving
ionization radiation are processed by electronic means.
In a solid semiconductor, atoms are fi0ed in their locations. -lectrons are tightly bound to
atoms or chemical bonds. &ure semiconductors have some free electrons and holes due to
thermal motions or defects. -lectrons are negative charge carriers, whereas holes are
positive charge carriers. Loth electrons and holes are responsible for the small conductivity
of semiconductors, but movement of hole is much slower than that of electron in a solid.
-nergy re+uired to free an electron from the valance band into the conduction band is
called the band gap, which depends on the material; diamond, = e9S silicon, 7.7 e9S
germanium, B.@2 e9. 't room temperature, the thermal energy gives rise to 7B
7B
carriers
per cc. 't li+uid nitrogen temperature, the number of carriers is dramatically reduced to
almost zero. 't low temperature, it is easier to distinguish signals due to electrons freed by
radiation from those due to thermal carriers.
"oping semiconductors is a process by which some atoms of the crystal are replaced by
other type of the atoms. )or e0ample, atoms of a germanium crystal are replaced by atoms
of phosphorus. ' phosphorus atom has one more electron than the host atoms, and the
phosphorus doping adds negative carriers in the crystal creating a negative (3! 5unction.
#imilarly, doping with impurities deficient in electron adds positive carriers to the region,
forming a positive ("! 5unction. #olids with a % or & 4unction is called a diode, and those
with both a % and a & 4unction are called transistors. -lectrons and holes in transistors do
not belong to particular atoms. They belong to either the valence band or the conduction
band. -lectrons in the conduction band move easily under the influence of an electric field.
The electronics used to analyze the pulses does more than counting. It separates the pulses
into hundreds of groups called channels according to the pulse heights. Therefore, the
e+uipment is often called multichannel analyzer. (hen intensities of these channels are
displayed according to their energies, the measurement gives a spectrum. ' gammaray
spectrum of
=?
!o measured using a solid state detector is shown above. The continuous
background is due to !ompton scattering. #ingle and double escape peaks .marked #-&
and "-&/ are also shown.
The modern instruments for Xray and gamma ray detection use doped solid detectors. '
&% 4unction of semiconductors is placed under reverse bias, thus no current flows. &assage
of ionizing radiation through the depleted region e0cites electrons into the conduction band,
causing a temporary conduction which gives rise to a pulse corresponding to the number of
e0cited electrons or energy entering the solid state
D
.
D
6ow level radiation sensor seeking industrial collaborators to develop and commercialize future lowlevel
radiation sensor systems; 5ermanium detector provides highresolution data has been developed. #ee web
site; http;KKwww.llnl.govKsensorTtechnologyK#TR77.html
2amma ray spectrum of
678m
"b (half-life 7,97: sec!
2B@m
&b "ecay #cheme

;<
=
6
>????????????;:<<,@ ke
7e=
7B?<
7e8
=?>
A
=
6
-????????????A:B,8 ke
7B?<
7e<
. . =?>


;
=
6
-????????????7,7 stable
7e2



7B =?> 1 7B?<



7
Review Questions
1. )hat are semiconductors(
)hat elements are used to dope semiconductors to ma8e 9 and / >unctions(
,. )hat advantages do solid state detectors have over proportional and ?eiger counters(
#cintillation $ounters and *luorescence #creens
#cintillation counters are commonly used for Xrays and gamma rays. The name suggests
that the working principle for scintillation counters is not based on ionization, but based on
light emission.
(hat is the working principle of scintillation counters3
&hotons striking a sodium iodide .%aI/ crystal, which contains B.= mole percent of thallium
iodide .TlI/ as an activator, cause the emission of a short flash of light in the wavelength
range of <<BB=BBB ' .in the ultraviolet region/. The light flashes are detected by a
photomultiply tube, which gives a pulse corresponding to the light intensity. These pulses
are measured by a multichannel counter.
)he .ey $omponents of a )ypical #cintillation $ounter
$igh voltage
supplier and
multichannel
analyzer K
computer
system
&hotomultiply tube
&hoto
cathode
%a.Tl/I
crystal
Thin 'l
window
X or
rays
The output pulses from a scintillation counter are proportional to the energy of the
radiation. -lectronic devices have been built not only to detect the pulses, but also to
measure the pulse heights. The measurements enable us to plot the intensity .number of
pulses/ versus energy .pulse height/, yielding a spectrum of the source.
#cintillation counters and solid state detectors are used to determine the energy of the
incoming particles. The former uses a doped %aI crystal, which may be kept at room
temperature, and needs no special care. :ost solidstate detectors must be maintained at
low temperatures .cooled by li+uid nitrogen or li+uid helium/ to achieve e0cellent
resolution, i.e., to distinguish radiation particles of various energy. &ulses from solidstate
and scintillation detectors are counted by multichannel analyzers or computers. -ach
measurement gives a spectrum of the source of radiation.
Review Questions
1. ;ow does a scintillation counter wor8(
)hat does it measure and what type of results is obtained.
,. )hat are the advantages of solid&state detectors and scintillation counters for
radiation measurement(
*luorescence #creens
H.H. Thomson used fluorescence screens to see electron tracks in cathode ray tubes. In 7J>=,
RUntgen saw the shadow of his skeleton on fluorescence screens. $is screen was made of
bariumplatinocyanide. Rutherford observed alpha particle on scintillation material zinc
sulfide, Vn#. )luorescence screens are important detectors for ionizing radiation and high
energy photons.
)luorescence material absorbs invisible light and the energy e0cites the electron. "e
e0citing of these electrons results in the emission of visible light. Ly mi0ing different
materials together, we have engineered many different fluorescence materials to emit lights
of any desirable colors.
)luorescence screens are convenient detectors of highenergy radiation. They are used in
many other applications such as fluorescence tubes, N9 detectors, computer and T9
screens and movie screens. -ven laundry detergents contain fluorescence material to emit
blue light to make the cloth whiter than white after washing with them.
Review Questions
1. )hat is a fluorescence material(
?ive some applications of fluorescence material.
,. ;ow do T% screens wor8(
$loud and (ubble $hambers
#tudies of particle tracks have led to the discovery a zoo of particles. !loud and bubble
chambers have contributed greatly to these discoveries. These chambers show tracks of
ionizing particles.
(hy do cloud and bubbles form along the trail of these particles3
(here did the ideas of using cloud and bubble chambers to record the tracks of
particles come from3
!loud and bubble chambers for the detection of radiation particles are based on the
ionization effect of energetic particles. $owever, working functions for cloud and bubble
chambers are different from ionization chambers, proportional and 5eiger counters.
The ion pairs on the tracks of ionizing radiation form
seeds of gas bubbles and droplets. )ormations of
droplets and bubbles provide visual appearance of
their tracks. Therefore, cloud and bubble chambers
are called path-- <-dimensional-, or track-
detectors. In the good old days, photographs of
these tracks were taken for detailed analyses. In
modern science, highenergy particle track detectors
are built using sophisticated electronics and
computers for the study of particle behavior.
The story on the development of cloud chambers is fascinating because the chambers were
originally studied for a completely different reason than the study of radiation.
)urthermore, a young man at his teens initiated the studies.
't age 7=, the #cottish physicist !.T.R. (ilson .7J?>7>=>/ spent a few weeks in the
observatory on the summit of the highest #cottish hill Len %evis. $e was intrigued by the
color of the cloud droplets. $e also learned that droplets would form around dust particles.
$e built apparatus according to an earlier study of !oulier and 'itken to e0pand moist air
to study the formation of cloud. Letween 7J>? and 7>72, he found dustfree moist air
formed droplets at some oversaturation points. $e repeated the e0periments with the same
air and found cloud drops always form at some saturation points. $e concluded that
although dust particles were nucleation centers of cloud drops, there was something else
that would also nucleate cloud drops. $is meticulous e0periments showed that these centers
were always present in air, and he considered them ions rather than dust particles. $e
further suspected that these ions were produced by energetic particles, and he was
determined to confirm that.
The news of RUntgenPs discovery reached (ilson, who also learned of H.H. ThomsonPs
investigation of air conductivity due to Xrays. $e set up his cloud chamber apparatus in
front of an Xray tube, and after the Xrays were turned on, he e0panded the air in the
chamber. To his astonishment, he found many cloudlike small drops, not the rainlike
large drops as he usually saw. The Xrays have created a large number of cloud nucleation
centers. This marked the beginning of his research in trying to perfect an apparatus for the
detection of ionizing particles. $e carefully designed the apparatus so that the e0pansion
"hotographing the "article )racks
!loud or bubble chamber
radia
tion
will not disturb the air, leaving the tracks of ionizing radiation undistorted. This apparatus
enabled scientists to study tracks of radiation. :oreover, the tracks marked by cloudlike
droplets can be seen, photographed, studied, reported, and published.
The perfection of the cloudchamber techni+ues had a much farther impact in the
development of nuclear science and particle physics. 6ater using oil vapors, :ilikan
studied the force e0erted on a drop by an electric field, and determined the amount of a
fundamental charge .of an electron/. !loud chambers showed particle tracks being fatter
and shorter than those of particle, and they enabled scientists to study behavior of
particles under the influence of electric and magnetic fields. Tracks in cloud chambers
revealed the rays .electrons e4ected by particles/, origins of secondary electrons,
ranges of and particles, variations of ionization along the tracks, charge densities of
ionization, and absorption of Xrays by atoms.
Nsing the cloudchamber techni+ue, !ompton discovered that high energy photons gave
portions of their energies to electrons, and they became less energetic with longer
wavelength. This is now known as !ompton scattering. !ompton and (ilson shared the
7>2@ %obel prize for physics. )urthermore, using the cloud chamber while working as
RutherfordPs student, &.:.#. Llackett .7J>@ 7>@8/ studied elastic collisions of particles
with atoms, and transmutation of nitrogen when bombarded by particles,
78
% . , p/
7@
*.
The tracks were fatter than the proton tracks, and the angles of deflection agreed with his
calculated results. Llackett attached 5eiger counters on both sides of large cloud chambers
to catch the tracks of elusive cosmic rays. This further development led to other
achievements including 'ndersonPs discovery of positrons, and the visual demonstration of
the processes of pair production and annihilation of electrons and positrons. Llackett
.7>8J/ received the 7>8J %obel prize in physics Wfor his development of the (ilson cloud
chamber method, and his discoveries therewith in the fields of nuclear physics and cosmic
radiationsW. The cloud chamber contributed to the discovery of the transmutation of atomic
nuclei carried out by !ockroft .7>=7/ and (alton .7>=7/. Rutherford once remarked that
Xthe cloud chamber was the most original and wonderful instrument in scientific history.Y
The cloud chamber had been evolved into a continuously sensitive detector by diffusing
warm vapor into a cool chamber.
6ike the formation of droplets from saturated vapor, the formation of bubbles in a li+uid
also re+uires nucleation, without which overheating results. Ion pairs due to radiation serve
as nucleation centers, and the tiny bubbles mark their tracks in bubble chambers, which
were developed by the N.#. physicist "onald '. 5laser .7>2?/. $e began his research in
elementary particles, some of which had energy in the order of 5e9 .7B
>
e9/, and the
diffusion cloud chambers he constructed could not covered the entire tracks. In order to
keep the chambers to a reasonable size and yet covered the entire track, 5laser .7>?B/
thought of using a superheated li+uid to observe the entire track of his particles. $e
contributed to both the theories of bubble nucleation and engineering of instruments.
'mong the li+uid he had used were diethyl ether, propane, 0enon, and hydrogen. The idea
of using bubble chamber was +uickly adopted by others. The success of the bubble
chambers is marked by the discovery of a large number of new particles and phenomena.
&recise information on masses, spins, lifetimes, parity, and decay had been determined. The
importance of these developments was highlighted by the %obel &rize for physics awarded
to him at age <8 .in 7>?B/. The citing of the prize was for his invention of the bubble
chamber.
Tracks of single particles and their decay
products have been recorded in bubble
chambers. )or e0ample, when an
antiproton,
p
, entered a propane bubble
chamber, it underwent a charge e0change
reaction with a proton, p, to give a
neutron, n, and an antineutron n ,
p
1 p Q n 1 n.charge e0change/
' moment later, the antineutron annihilated with another neutron giving a star of tracks due
to the many particles in the reaction. 'gnew et al., .7>=J/ suggested the five tracks to be
due to
1
and

pions in the reaction,

n 1 n Q <
1
1 2

.
' sketch of the tracks as seen in a propane bubble chamber is shown here. The pions have a
mass of about 78B :e9, and a life time of 2.? 0 7B
J
s. They were discovered by !ecil ).
&owell and his coworkers in 7>8@. The discovery of pions in the cosmic radiation used
yet another track detectors using photographic emulsions, which will be discussed in the
ne0t section.
:illions of particletrack photographs have been taken using the bubble chambers for the
study -ach photograph contains many tracks, and each has to be analyzed. 'lmost all
tracks are left by particles already well known and understood. The few tracks of new
particles are buried in trillions of tracks. Their discoveries are getting harder as more and
more have been discovered.
Review Questions
1. )hat cause the formation of droplets in clouds(
-nd what causes the formation of bubbles in overheated fluids(
,. )hy bubble chambers can cover the entire trac8 whereas cloud chambers can not(
A #ketch of the )racks of $harge Exchange
and Antineutron-"roton Annihilation,
antiproton
!harge
e0change
'ntineutron
neutron
annihilation

1
"hotographic Emulsions and *ilms
-veryone knows that when photographic films are e0posed to light, the silver bromide
grains of the emulsion are sensitized and they developed into blackened grains. )rom the
stories of discoveries of radioactivity and Xrays, you have also learned that photographic
emulsions played important in nuclear technology. Zet, we often forget to count
photographic films and emulsions are detectors of radiation. In fact, they are two
dimensional detectors. (hen several films are stacked together to record particle tracks
directly, these are threedimensional detectors. *n the other hand, dentists still use films to
record Xray images of teeth.
&hotographic films and emulsions of various speed and sensitivity towards light. #pecial
films have been made for X and rays. *ften au0iliary devices such as fluorescence
screens are used in medical applications. (hen photons of high energy strike the
fluorescence screens, visible lights are emitted that give images on the films. Images on
film are permanent, and they may be reinvestigated.
'n emulsion sensitive to fast moving protons was independently developed by Vhdanov in
6eningrad and by Ilford 6aboratories in 7><=. The method has some success, but it is not
widely used because it did not give constant ranges for energy calculation. This is probably
due to the consistency of particle size in the emulsion.
Review Question
7. ?ive some e4amples where photographic films are used for the detection of ioniing
radiation.
."iscoveries of Xrays, radioactivity, and many highenergy particles are made via
using photographic plates/
-0ercises
7. :ost significant scientific discoveries re+uire instruments for their dectection.
$owever, instruments alone were insufficient. (hat are other ingredients for scientific
discoveries3 "escribe some e0amples of discoveries, including instruments used
e0periment performed.
2. 't 2@< A and 7 atm pressure, 7.B mol of %
2
occupies 22.8 6. !alculate the number of
%
2
molecules in 7.B 6. 't 2@@ A, 7.B 6 of water weighs 7.B kg. !alculate the number
of moles of water in 7.B 6. !alculate the number of $
2
* molecules in 7.B 6 at 2@@ A.
The density of lead .2, J2S at. wt. 2B@.2/ is 77.2> gKm6, calculate the number of atoms
in 7.B 6. .7.B mole of %
2
an avogadroPs number, ?.B2 0 7B
2<
, of %
2
molecules/.
<. !alculate the velocities of the alphaparticle, the proton, and the electron if they all
have the following kinetic energies;7B.B :e9, 7.B :e9, 7.B ke9, 7BB e9, and 7 e9.
8. !alculate the ratios of the rates of energy loss .stopping power/ for the alphaparticle,
the proton, and the electron by using the simple e+uation;
.d3Kd4/ C k .'
2
K 3/.
'ssume these particles have the same kinetic energy.
=. -0plain the three processes by which beta particles lose energy when they pass by a
nucleus.
?. 5ammarays lose their intensity e0ponentially,
! C !
B
e
& a 4
.
where !o is the initial incident intensity, 4 is the distance in the medium, a is the
absorption coefficient, and ! is the intensity of gammarays after passing the medium
by a distance of 4. )ind the distance re+uired to reduce ! to B.2= !
B
., e0press this result
in terms of a.
@. )or 'l .aluminum/ and &b .lead/, a C B.7 and 7B respectively for certain gamma rays.
!alculate the ratio of half thickness .i.e., ! C B.= !o/ for these two substances.
J. "escribe the mechanisms by which the gamma rays interact with matter. -0plain each
mechanism separately.
>. -0plain how a 5eiger:uller counter works.
7B. $ow do bubble chambers and cloud chambers work3 (hat are the similarities and
differences between bubble chambers and cloud chambers3
77. (hat roles do photographic films and emulsions play for the detection of ionizing
radiation3
Reference and )urther Reading
'gnew, 6.-., -liot, T., )owler, (.L., 5illy, 6., 6ander, R., *swald, 6., &owell, (., #egr[,
#teiner, $., (hite, $., (. (iegand, !., and Zpsilantis, T. .7>=J/, /hys. Rev. ;;7, >>8.
Lrackett, &.:.#. .7>8J/ Cloud chamber researches in nuclear phyusics and cosmic
radiation, in 9obel lectures, physics. <. &ublished for the %obel )oundation in 7>?= by
-lsvier &ublishing !ompany.
!hadwick, H. .7><=/, 9eutron and its properties, in 9obel lectures, physics. <. &ublished
for the %obel )oundation in 7>?= by -lsvier &ublishing !ompany.
!ockcroft, H.". .7>=7/ 34periments on the interaction of high&speed nucleons with atomic
nuclei, in 9obel lectures, physics. 6. &ublished for the %obel )oundation in 7>?= by -lsvier
&ublishing !ompany.
(alton, -.T.#. .7>=7/ -rtificial production of fast particles, in 9obel lectures, physics. <.
&ublished for the %obel )oundation in 7>?= by -lsvier &ublishing !ompany.
!ompton, '.$. .7>2?/, @&rays and electrons, !hap. >, %ostrand
!ompton, '.$. .7>2@/, @&ray as a branch of optics, in 9obel lectures, physics. 6.
&ublished for the %obel )oundation in 7>?= by -lsvier &ublishing !ompany.
5laser, ".'. .7>?B/, 3lementary particles and bubble chambers, in 9obel lectures,
physics. <. &ublished for the %obel )oundation in 7>?= by -lsvier &ublishing !ompany.
L.5. $arvey, !ntroduction to nuclear physics and chemistry, 2nd -d., &rentice $all, 7>?>.
V. :. $aissinsky, 9uclear chemistry and its applications, 'ddison(elsley, 7>?8
(ilson, !.T.R. .7>2@/, On the cloud method of ma8ing visible ions and the trac8s of
ioniing particles, in 9obel lectures, physics. 6. &ublished for the %obel )oundation in
7>?= by -lsvier &ublishing !ompany.