1. Mention difference between Parametric Tests and Non Parametric Tests.

Parametric and non-parametric statistical tests differ in the type of data they're used to analyze.
Parametric tests make many assumptions, the most significant of which is that the data are normally
distributed. Non-parametric tests make fewer assumptions and deal with data that are not normally
distributed. Parametric tests generally have higher statistical power.
Parametric tests make the assumption from prior knowledge that the data are normally distributed.
Various tests can be performed to determine whether or not this is a valid assumption. If the data aren't
normally distributed, they may be transformed in various ways so that parametric tests can still be used.
Alternatively, non-parametric analyses can be used. Non-parametric tests make no assumptions about
the distribution of data.
Parametric tests make the assumption that the data are measured on an interval scale, so that the
interval between data points is meaningful. Height in inches or weight in pounds are interval data. By
contrast, non-parametric tests make no assumptions about the scale of the data.
Parametric tests employ parameters that can estimated with a data set that is normally distributed. The
mean, variance, standard deviation and skewedness are examples. These parameters are used to make
inferences in parametric tests. By contrast, non-parametric tests do not make use of these statistical
parameters.

In general, the statistical power is lower in non-parametric tests than in their parametric counterparts.
Statistical power refers to the probability that the statistical test will reject the null hypothesis when the null
hypothesis is in fact false, and thus should be rejected. In other words, power refers to the likelihood that
the test will lead to the correct inference about the population.


2. Write a short note on Factor Analysis.
A method of quantitative multivariate analysis with the goal of representing the
interrelationships among a set of continuously measured variables (usually represented by
their inter-correlations) by a number of underlying, linearly independent reference variables
called factors. Although the term factor analysis has come to represent a family of analysis
methods, the two most commonly used approaches are the full component model, in which
the entire variance of the variables (represented by unities inserted in the principal diagonal
of the correlation matrix) is analyzed, and the common factor model, in which the
proportion of the variance that is accounted for by the common factors (represented by
communality estimates inserted in the principal diagonal) is analyzed.
The method was developed in England around the turn of the century and was first applied
to the study of the structure of intellectual abilities. Since then it has been used in many
disciplines, from agriculture to zoology, in which the underlying structure of multiple
variables and their representation in that structure are of interest. Another application of
factor analysis is to represent parsimoniously the variables in the set on which the
observations are made by a smaller number of underlying reference variables or factors.



3. Write a short note on Research Design
The next step after stating the management problem, research purpose, and research hypotheses and questions, is
to formulate a research design. The starting point for there search design is, in fact, the research questions and
hypotheses that have been so carefully developed. In essence, the research design answers the question: How are
we going to get answers to these research questions and test these hypotheses? The research design is a plan of
action indicating the specific steps that are necessary to provide answers to those questions, test the hypotheses,
and thereby achieve the research purpose that helps choose among the decision alternatives to solve the
management problem or capitalize on the market opportunity
According to David J. Luck and Ronald S. Rubin,
"A research design is the determination and statement of the general research approach or strategy
adopted/or the particular project. It is the heart of planning. If the design adheres to the research objective, it will
ensure that the client's needs will be served."

4. Explain the steps in Research Process.
STEPS
IN PLANNING THE RESEARCH DESIGN:
There are four broad steps involved in planning the research design as explained below:
(1) Determining work involved in the project:
(2) Estimating costs involved
3) Preparing time schedule:
4) Verifying result

5. Differentiate between
i) Pure Research and Applied-
Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental
research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.
Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is termed pure or basic research.4 Research
concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on
with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of
fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a
concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify
social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research
(research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the
marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the
central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem,
whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

ii) Questionnaire and Schedule
The important points of difference are as under:

1. The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified
in a covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The schedule is generally filled out by
the research worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions
when necessary.
2. To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have to
spend money only in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents.
Here no field staff required. To collect data through schedules is relatively more expensive
since considerable amount of money has to be spent in appointing enumerators and in
importing training to them. Money is also spent in preparing schedules.
3. Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not respond and
many return the questionnaire without answering all questions. Bias due to non-response
often remains indeterminate. As against this, non-response is generally very low in case of
schedules because these are filled by enumerators who are able to get answers to all
questions. But there remains the danger of interviewer bias and cheating.
4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the
identity of respondent is known.
5. The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do not return
the questionnaire in time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules the information
is collected well in time as they are filled in by enumerators.
6. Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method as
questionnaires are sent to respondents by post who also in turn return the same by post.
But in case of schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents.
7. Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and cooperative, but
in case of schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to
be illiterate.
8. Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under the questionnaire
method, but in respect of schedules there usually remains the difficulty in sending
enumerators over a relatively wider area.
9. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the questionnaire
method, particularly when people are unable to understand questions properly. But in case
of schedules, the information collected is generally complete and accurate as enumerators
can remove the difficulties, if any, faced by respondents in correctly understanding the
questions. As a result, the information collected through schedules is relatively more accurate
than that obtained through questionnaires.
10. The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but
in the case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of enumerators.
11. In order to attract the attention of respondents, the physical appearance of questionnaire
must be quite attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as they are to be filled
in by enumerators and not by respondents.
12. Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such a thing is not possible
while collecting data through questionnaires.
iii) Descriptive and Analytical Research.
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries
of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto
research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic
of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report
what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used
for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example,
frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also
include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the
variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of
all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. In analytical research, on the
other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

iv) References and Bibliography.
1.Bibliography is listing all the materials that have been consulted while writing an essay or a book.
References, on the other hand, are those that have been referenced in your article or book.
2.Bibliography is not directly included in the text. References are those that are directly included in your
actual text.
3.Both bibliography and references are arranged alphabetically. But a Reference list can also be arranged
in Numeric style
6. Describe the role of Computers in Research.
To the researcher, the use of computer to analyse complex data has made complicated research
designs practical. Electronic computers have by now become an indispensable part of research
students in the physical and behavioural sciences as well as in the humanities. The research student,
in this age of computer technology, must be exposed to the methods and use of computers. A basic
understanding of the manner in which a computer works helps a person to appreciate the utility of
this powerful tool. Performing calculations almost at the speed of light, the computer has become one of the most
useful
research tools in modern times. Computers are ideally suited for data analysis concerning large
research projects. Researchers are essentially concerned with huge storage of data, their faster
retrieval when required and processing of data with the aid of various techniques. In all these operations,
computers are of great help. Their use, apart expediting the research work, has reduced human
drudgery and added to the quality of research activity.
Techniques involving trial and error process are quite frequently employed in research methodology.
This involves lot of calculations and work of repetitive nature. Computer is best suited for such
techniques, thus reducing the drudgery of researchers on the one hand and producing the final result
rapidly on the other. Thus. different scenarios are made available to researchers by computers in no
time which otherwise might have taken days or even months.
The storage facility which the computers provide is of immense help to a researcher for he can
make use of stored up data whenever he requires to do so.
Thus, computers do facilitate the research work. Innumerable data can be processed and analyzed
with greater ease and speed. Moreover, the results obtained are generally correct and reliable. Not
only this, even the design, pictorial graphing and report are being developed with the help of computers.
Hence, researchers should be given computer education and be trained in the line so that they can
use computers for their research work.