English Morphology The Nominal Part

ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY
THE NOMINAL PART

MDLINA CERBAN
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 - The Noun 5
1.1. Formation of Nouns by affixation and compounding 5
1.1.1. Exercises 7
1.2. The Category of number. 8
1.2.1. Formation of plural nouns. 8
1.2.2. Countability. 10
1.2.3. Uncontable/ no-count . 11
1.2.3.1. Classification of uncountable/no-count nouns.. 11
1.2.3. Exercises.. 14
1.3. The Category of Case. 15
1.3.1. The Nominative case15
1.3.2. The Accusative case 15
1.3.3. The Dative case 16
1.3.4. The Genitive case 17
1.3.5. Exercises.. 22
1.4. The Category of Gender 22
1.4.1. Exercises 25
CHAPTER 2 The Article 27
2.1. The Definite Article27
2.1.1. The functions of the Definite Article27
2.2. The Indefinite Article 30
2.2.1. The functions of the Indefinite Article. 30
2.3. The Zero Article. 32
2.3.1. The functions of the Zero Article 32
2.4. The Omission of the article 35
3.5. Exercises 35
CHAPTER 3 THE ADJECTIVE38
3.1. The form of the adjectives. 38
3.2. The functions of the adjectives 40
3.3. The degrees of comparison 44
3.3.1. The form of the degrees of comparison44
3.4. Exercises 51
CHAPTER 4 THE NUMERAL. 53
4.1. Definition 53
4.2. The Classification of numerals... 53
4.3. Exercises 56
CHAPTER 5 THE PRONOUN.. 58
5.1. The definition of pronouns 58
5.2. The classification of pronouns58
5.2.1. Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns.. 58
5.2.2. Indefinite and negative adjectives and pronouns.. 60
5.2.3. Possessive adjectives and pronouns. 67
5.2.4. Interrogative adjectives and pronouns.. 68
5.2.5. Adverbial adjectives 69
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5.2.6. Relative pronouns 70
5.2.7. Personal pronouns 72
5.2.8. Reflexive and emphatic pronouns73
5.2.9. Reciprocal pronouns. 74
FINAL EXERCISES.. 76
REFERENCES78
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CHAPTER 1
THE NOUN
Uniti de nvare :
Formation of nouns by affixation and compounding
The grammatical category of number
The grammatical category of case
The grammatical category of gender
Obiectivele temei:
nelegerea modurilor de formare a substantivelor prin afixare i
compunere
cunoaterea conceptului de categorie gramatical a numrului.
Diferene ntre limba romn i englez
nelegerea categoriei de caz.
nelegerea categorie de gen
Timpul alocat temei : 4 ore
1.1. Formation of nouns by affixation and compounding
Nouns have characteristics that set them apart from other word
classes or parts of speech. According to the 3 criteria, the most important
characteristics of noun are:
1. morphologically , the noun is distinguished from other parts of speech
as regards its form and the grammatical categories (of number, case,
gender).
2. syntactically, nouns can function as subject, object, predicative,
apposition, attribute and adverbial modifier.
3. in point of meaning, the noun denotes objects (beings, things,
phenomena, etc).
A definition such as a noun denotes an object is correct but
incomplete since a noun is also characterized by specific morphological traits
as well as by syntactic functions hence the necessity to define this part of
speech from various points of view. In the present course we are going to deal
with the 2 basic morphological characteristics: their form and their
grammatical categories.
Form: From the point of view of form, nouns can be divided into:
1. simple nouns, these nouns formed made up of a one word which can
not be decomposed anymore, e.g. book, clock.
2. derivative nouns, nouns formed by means of derivational suffixes
(some of the most frequent noun-forming suffixes are :
- er (agential suffix): writer, driver, thriller
- ness: kindness, happiness unique nouns denoting abstract nouns
- hood: childhood, boyhood, denoting abstract qualities
- ing: reading verbal nouns denoting the action
- ion: expectation or state of the respective verbs
- ment: development
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- let: booklet (diminutive suffix)
In the case of a number of verbs, mainly of French origin, we can find
both a noun derived by means of a suffix and a second noun which is the form
in ing used as noun, e.g. from to develop
a) the development of our economy
b) the developing of new technologies is the chief target
The noun in ing has more dynamic implications and suggests a continue
action. Compare:
a) dezvoltarea (static)
b) procesul de dezvoltare (dinamic)
3. Compound nouns
are made of two or more words representing either homogeneous or non-
homogeneous parts of speech. The semantic relation between the elements of
the compound noun is of two types:
a) endocentric, the meaning of the compound analysed can be deduced
from the meaning of its parts;
b) exocentric, the meaning of the compound cannot be deduced from the
meaning of its parts.
Compound nouns appear in three forms:
as two separate words
as two separate words linked by a hyphene
as one word
The three orthographies depend on the extent to which the two
components are felt to have lost their original meaning or not. That is why
dictionaries sometimes differ with regard to the orthography of compound
nouns are:
a) endocentric:
N + N: post-office, clock-room, classroom (note the three
orthographies). In each case the meaning of the compound is deductible from
the meaning of its parts.
To understand a compound noun, we determine the meaning of the last
term (the Head). The preceding term supplying some information about it,
classroom means room for classes. Mention should be made that compound
noun have the principal stress on the first word, e.g. drug store, post office.
V-ING +N: this pattern is also of the endocentric type. In this
compound the V-ing can be originally:
- a gerund: a sleeping car, working conditions
- a present participle: used as an adjective which can be expended into a
relative (attributive clause: the working class = the class who works.
N+N (derived from verb-er): this pattern is usually of the endocentric
type, e.g. watch-maker, pencil-sharpener
V+N: watch dog, a rattlesnake
ADJ+N: blackboard
b) exocentric:
N + N: ladybird (buburuza), blockhead (netot), butterfly (fluture)
ADJ+N: hotdog, blackleg
4. Nouns formed by means of conversion from other parts of speech.
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a) from adjective: an adjective may function as a noun if it is preceded by the
definite article
e.g. the good- binele
The supernatural appears in many of Shakespeares plays.
If the converted adjective refers to people it is plural in meaning and
takes a plural verb (it represents a whole class of themes of multitude) the rich,
the selfish
e.g. The rich are often selfish.
The sick are well taken care of in our hospitals.
b) from verb in the form of
(i). the short infinitive of a simple verb: a try
e.g. Let me have a try at it.
(ii). the short infinitive of a complex verb. There are 2 different ways in which
the elements of complex verbs may be combined:
- the verb and particle may simple be joined (sometimes written as one word
as hyphenated - a hyphen can meet the nominalized verb and particle):
e.g. a breakdown, take off, make-up.
- the verb and the particle may be placed in reverse order to form a compound
noun:
e.g. break-out-outbreak; outcome
- the past participle:
e.g. the injured, the wounded (nouns of multitude)
-the ing form
e.g. being, reading, building
Sometimes the gerund takes the definite article and it becomes a noun
on such cases; it is often followed by the preposition of (the verbal noun) e.g.
the swimming
Give examples of noun formation: endocentric
versus exocentric.
1.1.1. Exercises:
1. Attach the appropriate noun-forming suffix: -dom, -hood, -ship, -ist, -ism, -
er, -ful, -ese to each of the following nouns: London, child, Portugal, mouth,
brother, friend, Japan, piano, art, hand, behaviour, teenage, star, impression,
village, boy, Darwin, owner, spoon, member, cello, king, philosophy.
2. Attach the appropriate noun-forming suffix: -age, -al, -ance/-ence, -ant, -
ation, -ee, -er, -ing, -ment to each of the following verbs: develop, use,
embody, write, accpt, receive, descend, paint, employ, upheave, marry,
produce, arrive, defend, house, describe, clean, form, abolish, train, refuse,
happen, enlighten, thrill, inhabit, starve, bathe, cover.
3. Supply a compound nouns in place of the phrase in italics:
1. We have bought a new lamp for reading. 2. You must repair the leg of the
chair. 3. Put this basket on the table in the kitchen, please. 4. The surface of
the road is wet. 5. I remember that the cover of the book was red. 6. Here is
the key of the car. 7. He has just repaired the keyboard of the computer. 8. Not
all of us agree to the policy of the party. 9. Have you locked the door of the
garage? 10. Margaret was very much interested in what the critic of the film
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was saying. 11. When we got there the door of the cellar was open. 12. You
will have to replace the handle of the suitcase. 13. There were a lot of people
at the gate of the factory. 14. I will ring you up from the phone in the office.
4. Translate into English using compound nouns:
1. Pantofii ti de dans sunt foarte frumoi. 2. Acesta este un vagon de
nefumtori. 3. Gara e la o distan de 5 minute de aici. 4. Eram n faa liceului
cnd am vzut curcubeul. 5. Sindicatele au luat atitudine mpotriva fumatului.
6. Mi-am scos haina de ploaie cnd am intrat n ser. 7. Camerista a fcut o
depresie nervoas. 8. Redactorul-ef e plecat n cltorie de afaceri. 9.
Zborurile de noapte sunt foarte rare. 10. Am observat urme de pai pe prag.
1.2. The category of number
The English noun has 2 numbers: singular and plural.
The singular is that form of the noun which denotes either one object (a book)
or an indivisible whole (money). The plural is that form of the noun which
indicates more than one object (book). When we are talking of the category of
number in nouns, there are 2 aspects that should be taken into account:
1.2.1. Formation of the plural number
a) regular plural forms: Nouns generally form their plural in a regular
predictable way by adding s to the simple form, to the singular form, e.g.
books, days
In adding s some spelling rules should be observed:
- nouns ending in a sibilant sound in the singular (spelt with s, -ss, -x, -
ch, -sh, -zz) add es, in the plural (pronounced (iz):
e.g. class/es, churh/es, box/es, wish/es, watch/es
Exceptions: when -ch is pronounced (k) epoch/s, stomack/s, monarch/s
- nouns ending in y follwing a consonant form their plural by dropping
the y and adding es:
e.g. country-countries, duty-duties
- nouns ending in y following a vowel form their plural by adding s
e.g. play-plays, boy-boys
- twelve nouns ending in -f(e) add es with -f changing into v:
e.g. calf/ calves, life, knife, half, leaf, loaf, self, shelf, thief, wife, wolf, elf
Exception: roof/s, chief/s, handkerchief/s
- nouns ending in o, add es
e.g. potato/es, tomato/es, hero-/es
Exception: piano/s , soprano/s, radio/s, photo/s, zero/s
b) Irregular plural forms: there are nouns preserved from Old English which
form their plural as they did in Old English by means of internal vowel
changes or mutation, e.g. man/men, woman/women, tooth/teeth, goose/geese,
foot/feet, mouse/mice, mouse/lice or by adding en to the singular , e.g.
child/children, ox/oxen, brother/brethren (fellow members of a religious
society)
c) Foreign plurals: a few nouns of Latin or Greek origin retain their original
plural forms, they form the plural according to the languages, were borrowed
from:
- is > -es:
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e.g. crisis/crises, basis/bases, analysis/analyses, thesis/these,
parenthesis/parentheses
- um >-a:
e.g. symposium/symposia, stratum/strata, medium/media, erratum/errata
- on > -a:
e.g. criterion/criteria, phenomenon/phenomena
- us >- i:
e.g. fungus/fungi, nucleus/nuclei, radius/radii, stimulus/stimuli
- a >- ae:
e.g. formula/formulae, alga/algae, larva/larvae, vertebra/vertebrae
- ex >- ices:
e.g. index/indices, appendix/appendices, matrix/matrices
There is tendency for some foreign nouns adopted in English to
develop regular plural forms, without losing the original forms. When both
forms are used the foreign one is more formal, which means that formulae
occurs in technical and scientific texts while formulas in everyday speech.
There is quite a large number of nouns (not necessarily of Latin origin)
which have double plural forms implying changes of meaning:
e.g. SINGULAR PLURAL
arm (bra) arms (brae; arme)
cloth (material) clothes (stofe, materiale); clothes (haine)
colour (culoare) colours (culori; drapel)
glass (sticl, pahar) glasses (pahare, ochelari)
d) Plural of compound nouns: compound nouns follow some definite rules
of plural formations, depending on the elements that make up of the
compound:
- in most compound nouns (N + N), the last element assumes the plural
form
e.g. horse-races, grown-ups, postmen
- in compounds composed of N + PREPOSITION + N, the first element
assumes the plural form
e.g. editor-in-chief/ editors-in-chief, sister-in-law/ sisters-in-law
- in compound nouns made up of N+ PARTICLE/PREPOSITION the
first element assumes the plural form
eg. looker/s-on, passer/s-by
- in compounds made up of VERB (without nominal ending) +
ADVERBIAL PARTICLE the last element assumes the plural form
e.g. take-offs, breaks-in
- if the word man or woman forms the first part of the compound, both
nouns assume the plural form
e.g. man-servant, men-servants, women-doctors
- in compounds consisting a N in their structure the last element assumes
the plural
e.g. merry-go-round/s, forget-me-nots
How is the plural of regular nouns formed?
State the rules of forming the plural of compound nouns.
Give 10 examples of foreign plurals.
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1.2.2. Countability
The most common manifestation of the category of number is reflected
in the notion of countability with presupposes the possibility of counting
objects. From the point of view of countability, English nouns can be divided
into 2 classes:
1. countable nouns are those nouns that can be counted, those nouns
that can be distinguished as separate entities. Count nouns have the following
characteristics:
- they are variable from the point of view of number, they have both
numbers in the singular and in the plural, eg. student/s, man/men,
criterion/criteria
- since they can distinguished one entity from others, they can be
individualized by means of determiners who cause quantifiers and/or number;
thus they may be preceded by the following determiners:
- in the sg: both art. : a(one), the determinatives, each, every, this/that,
no, the numeral one;
- in the plural: the article: the, the determinatives, these/those, once, any,
no, many, a few, several, numbers from 2 onwards
- they agree in number both with the verb and with the determiners. Thus, a
singular noun requires a singular verb and a singular determiner, while a plural
noun requires a plural verb and a plural determiner.
Those nouns that meet the 3 conditions mentioned above are countable
nouns.
a) individual (common) nouns, eg. student/s
Such nouns have the 3 characteristics mentioned above, eg. This book is
interesting. Those books are interesting. The vast majority of nouns in English
follow this pattern.
b) collective nouns are those nouns that semantically collect a number of
similar objects (usually of persons) into one group. Such nouns are: army,
assembly, audience, board, class, committee, family, flack, government,
group, jury, party, staff, team. These nouns are variable in form, meaning that
they have both numbers singular and plural. In this respect they behave like
individual nouns proper. A singular noun may take agree with a singular or a
plural verb, a family several families.
- a singular noun takes a singular verb when it refers to the group as a
whole as a unit. The noun behaves like an individual noun
e.g. The average family which now consists of 4 members at most, is a
great deal smaller than it used to be.
The committee is preparing its support.
Our team is in the second division.
Note that in this case the nouns are preferred to by inanimate singular pronoun
it, which.
- a singular noun may take a plural verb when the speaker or writer is
thinking more of the individual members/persons that make up the group (than
of the group itself).
- when such a noun in the singular refers to the separate members of a
collectivity, it behaves like a collective noun, as if it were plural, the
consequence being that.
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Although singular in form the noun agrees with a plural verb and it
also referred to by the animate plural, pronouns they, who.
e.g. My family are being and supportive; they are always ready to help me.
I dont know any other family who would do so much (the members of
my family).
The team are playing very well, arent they?
The government are discussing the new development scheme
(reference is made to the individuals that make up the act).
c) Some nouns with the same form for the singular and the plural have no
special form for the category of number: considering that the basic form is that
of the singular, we can say that they receive (unmarked nouns) a zero ending
in the plural. In spite of the fact that they are no variable in form, they are
considered to be countable nouns because they meet the others 2 conditions,
verbs and determiners with such nouns are either singular or plural according
to the meaning expressed by the nouns.
- some nouns ending in s : means , series, species (also headquarters,
works (factory)
e.g. A new means of transport is the hovercraft.
The fastest means of transport are not always the most comfortable.
This is a rare species.
- some nouns denoting animals (sheep , deer, also aircraft)
e.g. There is a stray sheep on the road. There are some stray sheep on the
road.
- some names of nationality : Chinese, Japanese, Swiss.
What are countable nouns? Give examples.
1.2.3. Uncountable /no-count nouns
They are invariable in form, having only one form either singular or
plural. They agree with the verb and determiners only in the singular or only
in the plural.
1.2.3.1. Classification of uncountable/no-count/ invariable nouns.
The nouns generally treated as uncountable nouns in English can be divided
into the following groups:
a) singular uncountable nouns
They have the following characteristics:
- they are invariable in form having one form : singular (they have no plural)
- since they dont express the opposition between singular and plural they
cannot be determined by means of quantifiers or numerals. They cannot be
used with the indefinite article a or with the determiners each, many, few,
these, those. The only determiners that can be used with uncountable nouns
are: the, this / that, some/anywhere, much, a little.
- they agree with the verb and the determiners only in the singular. In point of
meaning the nouns can be divided into:
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(i). mass/material nouns: they denote concrete things looked upon as a
whole, as indivisible entities which can not be counted as: bread, butter, chalk,
coffee, fish, gold, oil, salt, snow, steel, water, etc.
e.g. Water is pleasant to drink when cold,
Steel is much more resistant than copper.
He loves to drink wine.
Fruit is good to eat. Lets have some fruit for desert.
Some other uncountable nouns denote a whole composed of various units:
equipment, furniture, jewellery, luggage, baggage, money, machinery.
e.g. Where is your luggage?
The money is in the wallet.
Note: moneys: fonduri monetare, incasari.
(ii). abstract nouns: the class of abstract nouns is more extensive in English
than in Romanian,
e.g. advice, applause, business, cruelly, evidence, homework, income,
information, injustice, knowledge, progress, strength, trouble, thunder (most of
them are countable in Romanian).
e.g. His advice is always good.
He felt his strength was failing.
Your information is not reliable.
His progress in English is highly satisfactory.
Her knowledge of history is poor.
Note: Knowledge may take the indefinite article when is used in a particular
sense.
e.g. He has a good knowledge of mathematics.
Businesses intreprindere, localuri sedii de intreprindere
Uncountable nouns (both mass and abstract ones) can be individualized ,
quantified by means of:
1. partitive expressions like: a piece of, an item of, a bit of, an act of
e.g. a piece of chalk, a piece/word of advice, an act of cruelty/ injustice, a
piece /stroke of luck
2. by referring to a piece / part of a certain shape or to a container
e.g. a loaf of bread, a sheer of paper, a flash of lightning, a bar of soap
Some uncountable nouns in s: news, as well as nouns denoting sciences
in ics, (physics, linguistics, mathematics, athletics); some diseases (measles,
mumps, rickets); some games (billiards, darts, dominoes)
e.g. Near is the news /BBC announcement.
Draughts is an easier game than chess.
Some uncountable nouns can become countable ones, and therefore, can
be used in the plural or can be preceded by the indefinite article a (one) whom
they refer to varieties of things or when they denote a particular kind of things.
e.g. The steels of this plant are of very good quality.
Many different wines are made in France.
Various fruits were on display at the greengrocers.
The fishes of the Black Sea are good.
glass:
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- uncountable (the material). e.g. Windows are made of glass.
- countable (the container). e.g. Give me a glass of water.
Paper:
- uncountable (the material). e.g. The box was wrapped in paper.
- countable (test). e.g. He has written a good paper.
Iron:
- uncountable (the material). e.g. This tool is made of iron.
- countable (tool, implement used for smoothing clothes). e.g. He has got a
new iron.
Youth:
- uncountable (the state of being young ). e.g. The enthusiasm of youth.
- countable (a young person). e.g. Half a dozen of youths were waiting outside.
b) Plural Invariable Nouns (Pluralia tantum)
They are invariable in form, having only one form, that of plural, they
only occur in the plural and are never used at the singular.
- they agree with the verb and determiners (the, these/those) only in the plural
- in point of meaning, the nouns included in his group refer to...
a. summation plural: article of dress or instruments/tools who are composed of
similar parts
e.g. clothes, jeans, pants, tights, trousers, shorts, binoculars, glasses,
scales, scissors, tangs.
These trousers are too long for you.
Where are the scissors?
The nouns can be individualized/ quantified by means of the partitive
expression a pair of.
Other nouns that only occur in the plural: firewall, goods, dregs, proceedings,
wages, annals, outskirts, surroundings. In many cases there are forms without
s, sometimes with a difference of meaning, there are some nouns with have
difference meanings when used in the singular and in the plural as invariables
Nouns in - s have two meanings in the plural
e.g. content-contents; compass-compasses; custom-customs; brain-brains;
colour-colours; damage-damages; effect-effects; ground/s
c) Nouns of multitude (unmarked plural, zero plural)
There are some nouns who with the verb in the plural although they are
not marked formally for the plural , they have a form in the singular
e.g. cattle, people, police, youth, clergy
The cattle are grazing in the field.
There are a lot of people in the street.
The youth of today do not know what they want.
Note: do not confuse the noun of multitude people (=human beings) with the
countable noun a people (=nation) who is regular.
There is also a noun of multitude youth (=young people) with countable
noun youth (=young person)
d) substantivized adjective and participle
(i) adjective and past participle used with the definite article
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There arent very many substantivized adjective of this kind in
English, the construction is not productive. Most other adjective can not be
used in this way.
e.g. we cannot say: the foreign (=the foreign people), but we can say the
happy ( = the happy people), the old, the rich, the poor, the sick, the
wounded.
The rich get richer while the poor get poorer.
(ii). also adjective of nationality ending in sh, -ch,: the British, the English,
the Scotch, The Dutch, the Spanish, the French.
e.g. The Scots have the reputation of being thrifty.
What are uncountable nouns? Give examples.
1.2.3. Exercises:
1. Form the plural of the following nouns: fellow-citizen, passer-by, man-
eater, woman doctor, man-of-war, take-off, footstep, cameraman, sister-in-
law, potato, echo, leaf, roof, ski, sky.
2. Supply the plural of the following nouns of Greek and Latin origin: bacillus,
addendum, series, datum, crisis, schema, stimulus, criterion, phenomenon.
3. Choose the appropriate form of the verb. Note the difference in meaning
with the nouns that take both a singular and plural predicate:
1. His phonetics is/are much better. 2. My trousers is/are flared. 3. The scissors
is/are lost for ever. 4. Statistics show a great interest in ecology. 5. Youth
today is/are turning from church nowadays. 6. What is/are your politics? 7.
The acoustics of the National Theatre is/are excellent. 8. What is/are cattle
good for? 9. Fresh-water fish include/ includes salmon, trout and eel. 10. The
police as/ have made no arrest yet. 11. It is generally accepted that bad news
dont/ doesnt make us happy. 12. The class was/were warned not to talk
during the test. 13. Mumps is/are very painful ailment. 14. A number of cars
was/ were involved in the accident. 15. The council was/ were unable to agree.
16. One of the girls has/have lost her umbrella. 17. Fish and chips is/are a very
popular meal in England. 18. Either the boys or the girl help/helps the woman.
19. Advice is/are given on all the technical aspects. 20. The Italian clergy was/
were opposed to divorce.
4. Translate into English:
1. Casa lor nu este mare, dar mprejurrile sunt ncnttoare. 2. Casa lor este
lng o intersecie aglomerat. 3. tirile sunt cu adevrat interesante. 4.
Secretara ne+a dat procesul+verbal al edinei de ieri. 5. Brbatul pretindea
despgubiri. 6. Soldaii au salutat drapelul regimentului. 7. Dup un zbor de
trei ore am ajuns la destinaie. 8. Biliardul este un joc interesant. 9. Era un
spectacol minunat s admiri rsritul soarelui de pe stnci. 10. Simeam o
durere acut n piept. 11. Avem nevoie de un compass ca s desenm cercul.
12. Asemenea fenomene sunt greu de explicat. 13. Am cumprat o pung de
cartoi de trei kilograme. 14. Ipotezele sale s-au dovedit corecte. 15. Toate
criteriile de evaluare pot fi ndeplinite cu uurin. 16. Sfaturile lui nu sunt
utile. 17. Am o mulime de teme de fcut pn mine. 18. Progresele realizate
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de echip au fost observate de toat lumea. 19. Tocmai am trecut cu bagajele
prin vam. 20. Ochelarii bunicii au fost spari de nepotu su din neatenie.
1.3. The category of Case
Case is the grammatical category that indicates the relationship
between certain parts of speech (in particular between nouns). The
grammatical category of case can be marked, in synthetic languages by
inflections and in analytical languages by word order or prepositions.
Old English was characterized by a great number of inflections with
the consequence that there were four cases with distinct endings. In the course
of its historical development, the English noun has lost its former case system.
Thus, case which morphologically is a very complex grammatical category in
many European languages such as German, Russian, Romanian and many
other languages, is not very significant for the English noun. The
morphological structure of the noun is uniform irrespective of its relations and
functions. As a result of the general tendency towards analytical instead of
synthetic forms, case inflections disappeared. The English noun has, however,
the -s ending in the Genitive.
The loss of distinct case forms has been compensated by a stricter
word order in the sentence and the use of a large number of prepositions. The
question that arises is whether the disappearance of case inflections is general
among grammarians.
Those who pursue a formal approach restrict of number of English
cases to two:
- the common case (Nominative, Dative, Accusative) - unmarked
- the possessive case (Genitive) marked in s
Those who pursue a functional approach (besides form, the category of
case implicitly entails context and syntax) consider that there are 3 cases in
English:
- the Nominative used for subjects
- the Genitive used to indicate possession (This case in frequently termed
possessive although the purpose of its meaning is wider than possession (in
the normal sense of the world).
- the Objective Dative and Accusative used for objects of a verb or
preposition.
1.3.1. The Nominative case is the case of nouns that display the
function of a Subject, predicative or apposition in the sentence.
1.3.2. The Accusative Case is used with nouns that express the
function of Direct Object or of adverbial modifier. The old distinctive
inflections for the Accusative case have disappeared, their function being
taken over by strict word order:
e.g. The hunter killed the lion.
The lion killed the hunter.
A noun in the Accusative case is used after:
a) transitive verb to denote the objective that undergoes the change. If there is
only one object in the sentence, it gets the position immediately after the verb.
e.g. I read a book last night.
16
After some ditransitive verbs which may have 2 objects:
- the verbs to ask, to envy, to forgive may be followed by 2 objects in the
Accusative
e.g. The teacher asks the people several questions.
I envy John his garden.
- V+ objective animate + objective inanimate: the verbs to give, to hand, to
offer, to pay, to read, to show, to tell, to throw, to write, to wish are usually
followed by an indirect objective in the Dative and a direct object in the
Accusative.
e.g. I gave John my book.
b) some intransitive verbs changing them into transitive ones.
e.g. some intransitive verbs having the same root as the noun in the
Accusative (a Cognitive Object): to smile a bright smile, to live a bad
life, to fight a terrible fight.
c) prepositions: most prepositions in English are followed by (pro)nouns in the
Accusative.
1.3.3. The Dative Case is used with nouns that display the function of
Indirect Object. In present day English, the dative is marked either by
prepositions (to, sometimes for) or by strict word-order among the nouns of
the sentence. A noun in the Dative case is used after the following parts of
speech.
a) verbs:
- transitive
- intransitive
- some intransitive verbs followed by an indirect object of person: to happen,
to occur, to propose, to submit, to surrender, to yield,
e.g. It happened to my brother.
An idea occurred to John.
- some transitive verbs followed by 2 objects (If the indirect object is placed
before the direct objective, the prepositions to is omitted).
e.g. I paid the money to the cashier. I paid the cashier the money.
I am writing a letter to my friend. I am writing my friend a letter.
There is a number of verb obligatory followed by the preposition. In
these cases with the preposition to the indirect object is placed before the
direct object: to address, to announce, to propose, to relate, to repeat.
e.g. I introduced him to my mother. I introduced to my mother all my
friends.
- V + DO + (FOR). A direct object and an indirect object preceded by the
preposition FOR: to buy, to allow, to do, to leave, to make, to order, to
reserve, to save, to speak (The preposition FOR is omitted if the indirect
object is placed before the direct object)
e.g. She brought a present for her mother. / She brought her mother a
present.
She made a new dress for her daughter. / She made his daughter a
new dress.
17
b) some nouns: attitude, cruelty, kindness, help, promise, duty
e.g. Her attitude to animals surprised us. He kept his promise to his friend.
c) some adjectives of the same semantic field: cruel, kind, good, polite,
helpful, grateful, rude
e.g. Dont be cruel to animals.
I am grateful to the friends who help me.
She advised me to be kind to her.
d) Also adjectives involving a comparison: corresponding, equal, equivalent,
similar, superior, inferior, prepositional.
e.g. The result was not equal to his efforts.
Man is superior to animals.
1.3.4. The Genitive Case
The noun in the Genitive case expresses the idea of possession and
discharges the syntactic function of an attribute. There are 2 forms of
Genitive:
I. The Synthetic Genitive
Form: in English, the genitive is marked by the ending -s preceded by an
apostrophe. In present-day English there are 2 ways of marking the synthetic
genitive in writing:
- the apostrophe + the ending s are added to the singular form of nouns:
e.g. the girls name
and to unmarked plural noun or irregular in the plural:
e.g. the mens clothing, the childrens toys.
- the apostrophe is added to the plural form of regular nouns (the boys
teacher); to proper names ending in s (Dickens novels).
The Group genitive (Possessive): Compounds as well as noun phrases
denoting one idea are generally treated as one word and the genitival suffixes
are attached to the last elements of the group who may not be known rather
than to the head.
e.g. the queen Englands throne.
The group genitive is not normally acceptable following a clause.
e.g. A mums son I know has just been arrested.
In a group of words made up of a noun apposition the genitive mark is added
to the apposition.
e.g. Have you seen my brother Jimmys car?
Two nouns coordinated by and representing the possessors of the same object
take s after the last word.
e.g. Tom and Marys parents. (Tom and Mary are the possessors of the
same object, are brothers).
If they represent the possessors of different object, each noun receives the
suffix.
e.g. Toms and Marys parents.
18
Jasons and Shakespeares plays.
The position of the noun in the Genitive case
a) The noun in the genitive the determiner usually precedes the determined,
the noun in the nominative.
e.g. This is Marys bag.
b) The genitive with ellipsis
The noun in the genitive can appear by itself, the noun modified by the s
genitive may be omitted. This is possible when:
- the determined noun has been mentioned previously and the speaker wants to
avoid the repetition (if the context makes its identity clear).
e.g. This is Toms book. Marys is on the table.
- the determined noun denotes residence, establishment institutions, buildings,
represented by such nouns as shop, office, house, place, cathedral, store.
e.g. She went to the chemists shop.
I went into a stationers shop to buy a postcard. I was at the Browns
yesterday. St Pauls cathedral is one of the sights.
c) N+N Genitive
The noun in the syntactic genitive can follow the determiner noun in a Double
Genitival Construction. The double genitival is a construction which consists
of the two types of genitive: the prepositional Genitive (framed with
preposition of) combined with the syntactic Genitive. The double genitive is
used with the following values:
(i). a partitive meaning
e.g. A cousin of his wifes (one of his wifes cousins).
He is a friend of Johns (one of Johns friends).
The determined nouns must have indefinite reference (indefinite
article), it must be seen as one of an unspecified member of items attributed to
the post-modifier.
(ii). The double genitive differs in meaning from the prepositional genitive.
- a description of genitive (a description made by some body else about
genitive):
e.g. A description of Galsworthys (one of genitives description, a
description made by genitive)
- a description or emotional implication it expresses various shades of
subjective attitude the speakers contempt, arrogance, dislike (The noun is
determined by the demonstrative).
e.g. That child of Anns is a nuisance. That remark of Johns was
misplaced.
The uses of the synthetic genitive
The synthetic genitive is generally used in the following categories of nouns.
a) animate nouns, mainly with nouns denoting living beings:
- nouns denoting persons and proper names:
e.g. the boys book
- collective nouns (who indicate in effect a body of people):
19
e.g. The governments decision; the companys officials
- indefinite pronouns referring to persons (somebody, nobody, everybody,
another, either):
e.g. nobodys fault, everyones wish
-large animals:
eg. the lions mouth.
b) Some clauses of inanimate nouns:
- geographical names (names of continents, countries, cities, looked upon in a
political or economic sense.
e.g. Europes future; Londons museums
- nouns denoting institutions:
e.g. the schools program.
-natural phenomena:
e.g. the suns rays, the earths atmosphere
- nouns denoting units of time (temporal nouns):
e.g. New Years Eve, a days journey
- nouns denoting distance, measure, value:
e.g. a miles distance, a pounds worth of sugar.
- personifications:
e.g. Loves Labours Lost; lifes joys.
- set phrases:
e.g. in my minds eyes, at ones fingers end, the ones hearts content
The meanings of the genitive
1. possessive: this value, most frequently associated with the syntactical
genitive
e.g. my fathers car = my father has a car.
The boys book = the boy has a book.
2. subjective (the determiner is a subject while the determined noun is the
object):
e.g. the girls story = the girl told a story.
3. objective (the determiner is an object):
e.g. the prisoners release = release the prisoner.
4. classifying. The previous examples the genitive (the first name) has a
particular meaning
e.g. my fathers ca r- my father is a particular individual some genitive
expression have a class meaning.
It is equivalent to relative adjective. The use of the indefinite article
changes the noun in the genitive into a relative adjective.
20
e.g. childrens magazine a magazine for children
a womans college a college for women.
II Analytical Genitive (The prepositional genitive)
In the middle English, the analytic means of expressing the genitive
(the preposition OF +Noun) placed after the determined noun, came to
complete with the syntactical form, and today the Accusative has replaced the
syntactical genitive in some of its uses.
The analytic genitive is used with the following types of nouns:
- inanimate nouns: the title of the book, the roof of the house, the bend
of the river, the member of the faculty.
- some geographical names:
- in appositions: the city of London, the golf of Mexico.
- when the geographical names are looked upon from a partly
geographical point of view: The boundaries of Switzerland are...
- animate nouns may take the Analytical Genitive instead of Synthetic
Genitive
- for the sake of emphasis (when we went to emphasize the animate
noun the proper names, much as in titles), the focus of information
falls on the last word: Shakespeares plays = The complete works of W
Shakespeare; The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.
- When the determiner (the noun in the genitive) is a part of a complete
noun phrases, and it is determined in its turn.
-
e.g. The name of the man over there, at the table, who came yesterday.
The Synthetic Genitive may follow one another in a sentence if both
possessors are animate: a syntactic genitive may give another Synthetic
Genitive
e.g. Marys brothers friend.
My cousins wifes first husband.
But the use of the Synthetic Genitive with both nouns is rarely found in
speech. It is preferred to express to former genitive by a prepositional
constructions, the latter by the Synthetic Genitive. In some cases there is a
functional similarity between a Synthetic Genitive and an Analytical Genitive
(the S.G. and the A.G. are in free variation). Thus, both structures are possible
in: The gravity of the Earth / The Earths gravity. The S.G. is used in
newspapers headlines, perhaps for reasons of space economy:
eg. Fire at U.C.L.A. Institutes roaf damaged. While the subsequent news
item begins The roaf of a science institute on the compres was damaged last
night.
III The Implicit genitive
Many of the meaning characteristic of the genitive can sometimes
rendered by word order alone. The I.G. is rendered by the mere juxte-position
of 2 nouns without any formal mark. (without the suffix s or the preposition
of) which might be expressing the relation between them. In this simple
construction who is nothing that a compound noun, the first noun assumes a
determining role, it assumes the value of an attribute, thus preceding the
determined noun.
The I.G. can replace both syntactic genitive and analytic genitive.
21
In contemporary English, the I.G. appears chiefly in:
- titles names of organization : UNO (The United Nations organization)
- newspaper headlines: This kind of structure is extremely common, because it
saves place:
e.g. Death drug research centre spy drama expressions like these can be
understood by reading when bookwords. The headline is about a drama
concerning a spy in a centre for research into a drug that causes death.
I. The I.G. may be often replace a Analytical G. (a postdeterminer) by
meaning of a predeterminer: N1+(OF+N2) = (N2). N1.
e.g. a member of the faculty a faculty member, the Genitive a
postdeterminer is replaced by a predeterminer such as: the bank of the river,
the strings of the violin are transformed into I.G: the river bank, violin strings.
As a rule, I.G. issues mostly to describe common, well known kinds of
things; compounds are widely used, while for concepts which are not so well
known we use prepositional genitive.
Compare: mountains top, a tree top, but the top of a loudspeaker.
Sometimes, the different structures express different meanings.
Compare:
A cup of coffee - A coffee cup
A box for matches - A match box
We use the prepositional structure to express possession, to talk about
a container with its contents.
e.g. A cup of coffee = a cup containing coffee
A coffee cup = a cup for coffee
A box of matches = a box with matches in it
A match box = (perhaps empty)
II. The Implicit Genitive is used instead of the syntactic genitive in
expressions of time and distance.
In expression of time or distance beginning with a numeral, the S.G. can be
used as an adjective.
e.g. a five hours talk a five-hours talk; a ten minutes break a ten-
minute break.
a three miles distance a three-mile distance
As a rule the IG is more general than the syntactic genitive (who has a
more limited reference). Thus, the syntactic genitive is used when the
determiner is a particular individual while the IG is used when the determiner
usually refers to a whole class:
e.g. That cars engine is making a funny noise. (The SG is used to refer
to).
A car engine usually lasts for about 80,000 miles.
A Sundays paper (a paper that comes out on Sunday)
Please, put the dogs food under the table (the determiner dogs is a
particular individual: the dogs food is the food that a particular dog is
going to eat)
Dogfood costs merely as much as a steak, the structure in which the
noun is used as adjective: dog refers to a whole class: dog food is food
for dogs in general.
22
How many forms of Genitive are there in English?
Can you give examples of Implicit Genitive?
Name the differences between the Synthetic and the Analytical
Genitive
1.3.5. Exercises:
1. Join the two nouns in order to form a genitive. Sometimes you have
to use an apostrophe with or without s, sometimes you have to use the
analytical genitive:
1. the coat/ Jimmy. 2. the newspaper/ yesterday. 3. the wife/ the man crossinf
the street. 4. the neighbours/ my parents. 5. the roof/ house. 6. the mane/ my
friend. 7. the name/ that river. 8. the dress/ the girl we met yesterday. 9. the
policy/ government. 10. the marks/ the boy and the girl.
2. Write the following sentences inserting the possessive form of the
noun given in the brackets at the end of each:
1. The .. concert was most amusing (babies). 2. They did not see the ...
signal (policeman). 3. She stayed five days on her farm. (friends) 4. Our
welfare should always come first. (country) 5. The clinic has large stocks of
foods. (babies). 6. The leg was broken in that accident. (tourist). 7. The
meeting was held in the staff room. (teachers) 8. The face was met with
tears. (baby).
1. Casa prietenei lui Nick este foarte frumoas. 2. Ideile colegului fratelui meu
sunt interesante. 3. Cteva dintre jucriile copilului verioarei mele au fost
recent cumprate. 4. Caietele colegului lui Dan sunt foarte ordonate. 5.
Acestea sunt rezultatele testului de ieri. 6. Din avion am avut o vedere de
ansamblu a ntregului ora. 7. Dup o pauz de zece ore ne-am continuat
cltoria. 8. Membrii comitetului se vor ntlni peste trei zile. 9. Sunt sigur c
dup o vacan de dou sptmni de vei simi mai bine. 10. Maina
directorului liceului este parcat n faa colii.
4. Translate into English using the two forms of the Dative wherever
possible:
1. I-am trimis fiului meu nite bani. 2. Tu i-ai dat fetiei dou jucrii. 3.
Spunei-i secretarei numele dumneavoastr. 4. Doctorului i-a prescris un alt
medicament pacientului. 5. n fiecare diminea i spune la revedere bunicii
sale. 6. Le-a explicat bieilor regulile noului joc. 7. Prinii i cumpr un
ghiozdan nou surorii mele n fiecare an. 8. I-a scris o scrisoare mamei sale. 9.
Vrei s l prezini pe Tom prinilor ti_ 10. I-am oferit tnrului absolvent o
slujb foarte bun.
1.4. The category of Gender
Jespersen defines gender in the following wayby the term gender we
mean any grammatical division (presenting some analogy to the distinction
between masculine, feminine and neutral whether that division is) either based
on the natural division into the 2 sexes (M and F) or that between animate and
inanimate.
23
Some grammarians make the difference between grammatical gender
and natural gender. In most European languages gender, to a large extent, is
grammatical.
The irrelevance (the arbitrary character) of any kind of meaning to
gender can be illustrated by comparing the genders of some inanimate nouns
in several languages. Let us compare the gender of the nouns SUN and
MOON in some the Romance languages and German. In the Romance
languages sun is Masculine and moon is Feminin (R- soare, Fr- soleil, It-sole,
Sp-it sol; R- luna, Fr- la luna, It- le luna); but in German, sun is feminine and
moon is masculine (die Sonnes, der Mond).
In English, gender is to a large extend natural in that the connection
between the biological category sex and the grammatical category gender is
very close; in so far as sex distinction determine English gender. Thus, nouns
denoting beings (persons, sometime animals) are either masculine or feminine
(depending on whether they denote male or female beings) while inanimate
nouns are neuter.
In most European languages gender is a grammatical category, being
marked formally on the one hand the masculine and feminine nouns have
distinctive endings, on the other hand, articles and adjectives agree with the
noun in gender. Unlike in such languages in English the gender is rarely
marked for formally.
The grammatical category of gender is marked in 3 ways in English:
1) Lexically; 2) morphologically; 3) using gender markers.
1) Lexically, the masculine and the feminine can be indicated by means
of different words:
- For personal nouns: man/woman; boy/girl; brother/sister, etc
- For animate nouns (higher animate when sex difference is felt to be
relevant): stallion/mare; cook/hen.
2) Morphologically: by means of specific derivational suffix which is added to
the masculine in order to form the feminine.
-ess: prince-princess; host-hostess; actor-actress; duke-duchess
-ine: hero-heroine
-ette: usher-usherette
-ix: administrator-administratrix
These derivational suffixes are not productive, however they are not
regular, we can not form teacheress, doctoress on the pattern host /hostess.
The usual derivational suffix applied to animate nouns in ess
e.g. Lion/lioness; tiger/tigress
3) A number of nouns denoting a persons stares, function, profession has a
single form used both for masculine and feminine (the Common Gender or the
Dual gender):
e.g. artist, cook, cousin, doctor, enemy, foreigner, friend, guest, librarian,
neighbour, pupil, speaker, student, teacher, writer, worker.
Take out of the contrast, such nouns can be ambiguous (we do not
know whether they are M and F). The gender of such nouns can be identified
by means of words that mark gender. (gender markers).
a) the gender of such nouns is usually identified in a context by means
of pronouns with refer to nouns and who have different gender forms in the 3-
rd person singular (personal and reflexive pronouns, possessive adjective).
24
e.g. The teacher asked the pupil a few more questions, the sentence is
ambiguous to the gender of the 2 nouns, but it can be distinguished if
we add
. as she wanted to give him a better mark
When such nouns are used generically (neither gender is relevant), a
Masculine reference pronoun may be used (another solution would be to use
he or she),
e.g. He any student calls, tell him.
With nouns denoting large animals the choice of the pronoun can be a
matter of sex (he replaces male animals, she-female animal). When used
generically, such nouns denoting large animals are usually considered
masculine being replaced by the pronoun he.
The pronoun it usually replaced small animals and optionally all animals even
when sex is known.
A bull-can be he, it
A cat- can be he, she, it.
e.g. The horse was restive at first, but the soon be come manageable.
Gender in animals is chiefly observed by people with a special concern
(e.g. Fat animals are called she or he when they are thought of as having
personality intelligence by their owners, but not always by other people).
b) Besides pronouns, disambiguation with respect to gender is also possible by
using some words marking gender (gender markers such as boy/girl,
man/woman, male/female.
e.g. boy friend/girl friend, salesman/saleswoman,
policeman/policewoman.
This is not very productive because there are many words in which the
distinction do not work.
Others, chairman, for instance, do not change: in Great Britain a
woman who presides over a committee is still called a chairman Madam
Chairman although there is a tendency to replace words like this by forms
like chairperson.
With large animals, he/she, cock/hen can be used as gender workers.
e.g. he-goat; she-goat; cock-sparrow/hen-sparrow.
2. The stylistic use of the grammatical category of gender
Normally masculine nouns denoting inanimate things, are usually replaced by
it.
a) Some nouns denoting inanimate things, which are neuter in everyday
speech, are sometimes personified in literature.
The masculine gender is usually ascribed to nouns denoting strength,
violence, harshness; e.g. wind, ocean, sun, while the feminine gender is
ascribed to nouns denoting delicacy, tenderness or less violent forces: nature,
liberty, moon.
Let us compare 2 sentences, one from literature when the moon is
personified and the other in a neutral style.
e.g. The moon has risen. How pale and ghostly the roofs looked in her
silvery light!
25
The moon has no particular importance, except to the earth which it
attends as satellite.
Sometimes, the distinctions depend on the authors imagination and
intention. In other words, English writers are quite free to refer nouns and
lifeless things to any gender when personified. An example in point is The
Nightingale and the Rose where Oscar Wilde makes the Nightingale of the
feminine gender and the Rose tree of the masculine gender.
e.g. the rose-three shook his head and said: My roses are yellow.
b) In everyday speech, there are a number of derivations from the normative
pattern.
- nouns such : ship, boat, car often used as feminine (are often referred to as
her, she) the speaker conveying the fact he regards them with affection, that he
considers as close or intimate to him.
e.g. The ship struck an iceberg which tore a large hole in her side.
- names of countries when looked upon from the political or economic point of
view.
As geographical units, names of countries are treated as nominate:
e.g. Looking at the map we see France. It is one of the largest countries in
Europe.
As political /economic units, names of countries are often feminine.
e.g. France has been able to increase her deports by 10% cent.
- the nouns: baby, infant, child can be neuter and referred to by it:
e.g. She began nursing her child again.
Another is not likely to refer to her baby as it, but it would be quite
possible for somebody who is not emotionally connected with the child to
replace such nouns by it.
How is gender marked in English? Give
examples.
1.4.1. Exercises:
1. Form feminine nouns from the following masculine nouns using the
following suffixes: -ess, -ix, -a, -ine.
Actor, host, shepherd, administrator, sultan, lion, prior, negro, hero, prince,
tiger, heir, waiter.
2. Give the corresponding masculine nouns of the following nouns:
queen, woman, daughter, nun, lady, sister, goose, bee, duck, grand-daughter.
3. Give the masculine of: bride, girl-friend, maidservant, female
candidate, policewoman, lady footballer, woman diplomat, lady speaker,
spinster, lady, nurse, female student.
26
1. tiai c premiul a fost din nou cucerit de romni? 2. Este cea mai modern
poet a noastr. 3. Sora mea a jucat rolul prinesei. 4. Ambasadoarea a inut un
discurs. 5. Este o fat btrn foarte excentric. 6. Nu cred c vduva de la
parter este acas. 7. Leoaica pe care ai vzut-o la circ a fost adus din Africa.
8. A venit lptreasa azi? 9. Este plcut cnd eti servit de servitoare aa de
politicoase. 10. Toate miresele sunt frumoase. 11. Prietena fratelui meu are
numai 18 ani. 12. Bunica e mndr de copiii i nepoii ei. 13. Este foarte dificil
s ai de-a face cu astfel de paciente. 14. Toi membrii juriului, att juraii, ct
i juratele, au fost de acord asupra verdictului. 15. Contele i contesele au rang
mai mic dect ducele i ducesa.
REFERENCES
Banta, A. 1978. English and Contrastive Studies, Bucureti, Tipografia
Universitii
Broughton, G. 1990. The Penguin English Grammar A-Z for Advanced
Students, London, Penguin ELT
Crystal, David, 1997. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English language,
CUP
Curme, G., 1966. English Grammar, New York, Barnes and Noble
Gleanu Frnoag, G., Comiel, E., 1992. Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed.
Omegapress, Bucureti
Leech, G. and Svartik, I. 1994. A Communicative Grammar of English,
London, Longman House
Levichi, Leon, 1971. Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureti, Ed. Didactic i
Pedagogic
Levichi, Leon, 1970. Limba englez contemporan - Morfologia, Bucureti,
Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic
Murphy, R., 1992. English in use, ELOD
Nedelcu, C., 2004, English Grammar, Craiova, Editura Universitaria
Palmer F., 1971. Grammar, Penguin Books
Prlog H., 1995. The English Noun Phrase, Timioara, Hestia Publishing
House
Quirk, R.S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartik 1976. A Grammar of
Contemporary English, London, Longman
Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V. 1960, 1997. A Practical English Grammar,
OUP
***, 1996, Oxford English Reference Dictionary, OUP
***, 1999. MacMillan, English Dictionary for Advanced Learners
27
CHAPTER 2
THE ARTICLE
Uniti de nvare :
The Definite article
The Indefinite article
The Zero Article
Obiectivele temei:
nelegerea modurilor de folosire a articlolul hotrt n limba englez.
Diferene fa de limba romn
nelegerea modurilor de folosire a articlolul nehotrt n limba
englez. Diferene fa de limba romn
nelegerea construciilor gramaticale n care articolul nu este folosit
This class includes article and other parts of speech that can replace the
article before a noun, namely the demonstrative, possessive, indefinite,
interogative and negative adjective (a/the/this/my/each/what the most
important place within the class of determiners. It is used only as a determiner,
unlike the other parts of speech which can be used both as determiners
(determiner noun and as pronouns (stand for nouns).
As the commonest determiner of the noun, the article is used for
marking a definite, indefinite or generic reference to a noun (some articles also
discharge functions borrowed from other types of determiners to which they
are etymologically or grammatically related. The definite article may
discharge the same function as the demonstrative adjective, the indefinite
article those of the numeral ONE, the zero article may discharge the function
of indefinite adjectives such as some. From the point of view of function, there
are three articles in English: the definite, the indefinite and the zero articles.
2.1. The Definite Article
The definite article developed from the demonstrative this/that. The
definite article has the fuction of a demonstrative in those cases in which it is
interchangeable with a demonstrative determiner, with no change of meaning.
Eg. It is just what I want at this time.
Dont do anything of the /this/that kind.
Under the/these circumstances it would be foolish to leave.
The definite article also discharges the function of a demonstrative:
e.g. John the Great, Richard the Lion-Hearted
28
The definite article is invariable in spelling, but pronounced the in
front of words begeinning with a consonant or semivowel and thi before
words beginning with a vowel sound. thi is pronounced when it is stressed.
eg. Jones is the thi specialist in Kindmy trouble.
The definite article can be used with singular and plural nouns.
2.1.1. The functions of the definite article
1. Individual, definite/specific/unique reference (it is a deicitic
reference; deictic=pointing to)
The function of the definite article is to show that the noun to which it is
attached is definite, is known, is particularized in a certain context:
- The preceding context (anaphoric reference)
- The following context (cataphoric reference)
-
a) The anaphoric reference (anaphora= the use of a word) as a substitute
for a previous word or group of words. The noun to which the definite article
is attached by the speaker as being known to the interlocutor, which
(generally speaking) presupposes a previous occurrence of the respective
noun.
(i). The antecedent may be found in the same linguistic context ( in the
same sentence or in a previous sentence).
e.g. I brought a book yesterday. The book seems interesting.

The noun to which the definite article is attached is known because it
has been introduced previously.
(ii). The antecedent may be found in the non-linguistic context.
The definite article is used with nouns whose reference is understood,
therefore is definite in the situational context (of communication).
e.g. a situational context may be: a room. If somebody says: Close the
window.
although the noun window hasnt been mentioned previously, it is
known by the speaker and by the interlocutor, therefore it is definite /unique in
the situational context in which the alternance takes place.
e.g. In a town: the townhall, the police station are definite, unique within
the town that the speaker and intelocutor are in.
On a broader plane, in the world, in the universe, we talk of the sun,
the moon, the earth as unique elements known as a whole.
b) The cataphoric reference: when the definite determination follows the
noun being expressed by a relative clause or a prepositional phrase (again
here the definite article is used on the basis of the linguistic context).
e.g. The book that I brought yesterday seems quite interesting.
The book on the table seems quite interesting.
The post determiners (Relative Clauses, Prepositional Phrases) require definite
articles.
2. Non-significant reference with proper names
Proper names need no articles as they are definite enough in
themselves, the individualization of the nouns is denoted by themselves. In
other words, having unique or individual reference by themselves, proper
29
names are not expected to be used with the definite article, so the presence of
the definite article is logically superfluous.
This use of the definite article can be explained historically: Proper
names were used as adjectives determining a noun:
eg. The Atlantic Ocean
Even when the determined noun (the head) was later omitted, but the
proper name is still preceded by the definite article, the Atlantic.
The other words, the definite article is used with those geographical
names which are still felt as adjectives to which the head may be added.
The definite article is used with the following classes of proper names:
I. geographical names: names of oceans, seas, rivers, mountains ranges,
names of countries, (which certain a common noun such as republic, state);
names of canals, deserts, gulfs, etc.
e.g. The Atlantic (ocean) , The Mediterranean sea, The Danube River, The
USA, The Sahara Desert.
II. names of institutions: hotels, restaurants, threatres, cinema, museum,
libraries.
e.g. The Ritz Hotel, The Atheneum , The British Museum.
III. names of newspapers
e.g. The Times
IV. names of ships
e.g The Titanic
V. Proper names are used with the definite article where they are post-
modified by an attribute or a clause.
e.g. The England of Queen Elizabeth, but Elizabethan England.
I didnt like The Ophelia in the modern version of the play.
The Paris I used to know was more beautiful now than ever.
The plural of Proper name preceded by the definite article denotes a
whole family.
e.g. The Wilsons are going abroad
3. Generic reference
when the noun is used in its general sense, as a representative of a class, as a
whole. The definite article discharges this use before the singular member of
countable nouns.
e.g. The horse is an useful animal.
Lions are animals of prey.
4. Syntactically, the definite article occurs:
- before comparatives and superlatives (adjectives and adverbs)
e.g. The richest (people) are not always the happiest.
- before ordinal numerals
e.g. the fifth lesson.
The more they argued, the angrier they become.
30
- set phrases: in the main, on the one/other hand, to take the trouble, on the
whole, to tell/speech, to be out of question, to be on the safe side, for the time
being in the long run, by the way.
What are the functions of the Definite
Article?
2.2. The Indefinite Article
Developed from the word one, it has 2 forms:
- a used before words beginninig with consonnants or semivowels
- an used before words beginning with vowel sounds: a man, a university, an
egg, an hour.
2.2.1. The functions of the indefinite article
It is used with singular countable nouns.
1. The Indefinite (anticipatory) epiphonic reference.
The typical use of indefinite article is this epiphonic use: a(n)
introduces a new element in the communication when the speaker considers
that noun preceded by the indefinite article is not known to the interlocutor.
e.g. I brought a book yesterday.
I saw a lion at the zoo.
Corresponding to indefinite a used with singular countable nouns in
the indefinite determiner, some used with plural nouns.
e.g. I brought (some) books yesterday. I saw some lions at the zoo.
In such indefinite use it is possible to skip some but not a. The nouns
that are introduced in the speech by the anticipatory a are later referred to by
anaphoric the.
2. The Numeric functions
a) The indefinite article as a weak form of the numeral one is used with
a clear numerical value before countable nouns in the singular indicating
measure or a numerical series.
e.g. Wait a minute!
She was silent for a (one) moment.
A and one are often interchangeable.
b) When used distributively, the indefinite article approaches the
meaning of each/every in expressions of price, speed, radio.
e.g. It costs a penny a pound.
He works 8 hours a day.
His rent is 100 a mouth.
In numeral English, a could be replaced by the prepositions per.
e.g. The brewers use barely approximately 100,000 tens per year.
3. The Generic/classifying function
31
The indefinite article can be used with countable nouns in the singular
to represent a class, of things as a whole (a representative member of a class).
This function is usually formal in definitions
e.g. A lion is a beast of prey.
or in proverbs
e.g. A friend is a friend indeed.
When the indefinite article is used generically it may be considered a
weaker any.
The indefinite use and the generic/classifying use of a(n) may be
distinguished from each other by their different plurals.
Indefinite: I saw a lion - singular
I saw some lions - plural
Generic: A lion is a wild animal.
Lions are wild animals.
Some is used with the plural corresponding to the indefinite a, but with
the plural of generic a.
4. In certain syntactic constructions
a) the indefinite article occurs with nouns in predicative positions (the
predicate) denoting a profession, job, nationality)
e.g. John was/become a teacher.
He is an Englishman.
No article is used when the noun designates a unique representative of a
profession.
e.g. He was elected president of the trade union.
b) in oppositions
e.g. W. Irving, an American prose writer, was born in 1793.
c) after the conjunction as (meaning in the capacity of) .
e.g. He worked there for several years as a designer.
He was often ill as a child.
No article is used if the noun designates a unique profession, rank.
e.g. As chairman, I insist that nobody speak out of terms.
d) after such, quite, rather, what, too, so, how.
e.g. Mary is such a pretty girl! Such a pity!
We had quite a party!
He is rather a fool.
What a pretty girl Mary is!
How perfect a view!
She is too kind a girl to refuse!
We could not do it in so short time.
How /so + adj + a +noun, usually used in the literary style are replaced in
colloquial speech by what and such.
e.g. How astonishing a night What an astonishing night!
So short a time - such a short time.
32
e) The determiner phrase many a followed by a singular noun phrase with
singular agreement has plural meaning (it is rather literary in use): Many
a+Nsg.+Vsg:
e.g. Many a traveller has admired the Danube Delta.
But, the determiner phrase a good/great many is followed by a plural N.P.: A
good great many +Npl+Vpl:
e.g. A good(great) many children were going to the demonstration.
f) The indefinite article can be used with a plural construction expressing a
measure and regarded as a single whole, as it can be seen from the form of the
verb (in the singular).
e.g. We spent a pleasant three days in the country.
The show was performed for another 3 weeks.
5. In set phrases
We have to bear in mind the big difference to Romanian language. In
Romanian most of these set phrases have a article: to be in a hurry, take a
seat, at a distance, to be a pity, to be in a rage, all of a sudden, have a mind to,
take a funny to.
What are the functions of the Indefinite
Article?
2.3. The Zero Article
It occurs with all the categories of nouns, singular and plural, countable
and uncountable nouns.
2.3.1. The functions of zero article are:
1. The generic function/ reference
It is the typical function of the zero article. The zero article is characteristically
a generic determiner in which function it used before:
a) uncountable nouns concrete or abstract nouns
The use of the zero article with such nouns viewed in general is in
opposition with the use of the zero article when referring to a concrete/definite
noun grammatically: when the noun is determined, when it is followed by a
post-modifier, a relative clause, a prepositional phrase.
e.g. Water is necessary to life. (concrete noun)
We have to notice that the use of the zero article before a mass noun:
water is viewed in general, as unlimited material.
The water in the jug is not fresh.
We have to notice that the definite article is required because the post-
modifying phrase in this jug makes the fact that the water refers to a definite
quantity.
e.g. Friendship is a noble feeling. (abstract noun)
The friendship between the two writers lasted long.
33
We have to notice that the definite article is required because the post-
modifing phrase between two writers makes the friendship to have an unique
reference. Other abstract nouns free of articles: nature, society.
e.g. We have duties to society as well as to ourselves.
b) countable nouns:
(i). countable nouns in the plural: plural nouns preceded by the zero article
denote an indefinite number:
e.g. Books are useful to a scholar.
Children like to play.
The some opposition can be established here between the use of the
zero article with the use of the definite article: when a post modifier
construction limits the meaning of the noun to a specify member, the noun is
preceded by the definite article.
e.g. The books for this course are available to any library.
(ii). countable nouns in the singular (man/woman)
e.g. Nature has been changed by man.
Man is an intelligent being.
When the generic use of the articles proves to be syntactically relevant,
the general nouns, the concrete nouns are accompanied by the definite article
while abstract nouns have the zero article.
There is a large category of nouns which are used either with the
definite article or with the zero article depending on whether their meaning
is considered as concrete or abstract (A typical example is school: to go to
school means attend school, while to go to the school means go to the place
where school building is located).
(iii). with nouns expressing buildings and places such as: college, school,
hospital, prison, jail, town, bed, table, the zero article is used when reference
is made to the activity performed, while the definite article is used when they
refer to the concrete meaning.
e.g. I was late going to bed. (go to sleep)
She flung herself down on the bed.
Some opposition can be formed with nouns denoting seasons, names of meals.
e.g. I like winter.
Cricket is played in summer.
But where talking about a particular, concrete season, we use the
definite article (the definite article has a demonstrative value = this/that)
e.g. The autumn was cold. (that autumn)
We shall go to the seaside in the summer. (this summer)
The first meal of the day is breakfast.
The definite article is used when the reference is made to a particular meal.
e.g. The breakfast they offered was very good.
2. Individual, definite (or unique) reference (non-significant reference)
34
(i). Proper names
No article is necessary, the definite article is not used with proper
names, because they are unique names and thus they have unique reference.
The zero article is used with:
a) names of people (also when accompanied by a close apposition or by an
attribute which expresses an intrinsic quality).
e.g. Peter, Dr. Brown, King Lears, Joljon, Poor Tom.
Note 1: But the titles (doctor, etc.) used without proper names are preceded by
the definite article.
e.g. The doctor was sent for in the middle in the night.
Note 2: the group Adj+Pr. Name takes the definite article when the adjective
is defining or contracting.
e.g. The brave Admiral Nelson was celebrated by all people.
Nouns denoting members of the family (father, mother, aunt) are used
with zero article and thus they are treated as proper names. Compare:
e.g. Father is out, but mother is in. (the speaker refers to his own mother)
But, The father was the completely wrong. (the speaker refers to a strange
person)
b) geographical names: the zero article is used with names of continents,
countries, regions, districts, towns, cities, lakes, peaks.
E.g. Europe, Egypt, Moldavia, London, Lake Ontario, Mount Everest
Exceptions: The Sudan, The Cong, The Hague.
The zero article is also used when the names of continents, countries
have a geographical or historical attribute (when the adjective is used only for
describing).
e.g. Northern America, Western Europe, ancient Egypt, but, the England of
Queen Victoria (post-modification).
The zero article is also used with names of parks, buildings, streets, in
which the proper name is followed by a common name.
e.g. Hyde Park, Oxford Street.
c) Calendar items: festivals, months and day of the week.
e.g. Christmas, Easter, in January, on Monday.
But when the nouns are particularized by an attribute they take the definite
article.
e.g. On the following Monday.
3. The Z.A. in Set Phrases.
In parallel/symmetrical constructions: day by day, face to face, from
morning till night, from beginning to end.
Other set phrases: take offence, give permission, by hand.
What are the functions of the Zero Article?
35
2.4. The Omission/ ellipsis of the articles
The omission or ellipsis of the article is a stylistically marked form
used in telegrams, journalese (newspaper advertisements and headlines) stage
directions, colloquial language, usually practised for economy of space.
e.g. (A) plane crashes on (the) motorway.
George goes (the) table (on the) left.
Colloquial language: (It is a ) pity they wont be there.
(Is the) car still not working.
The omission of the articles is to be clearly distinguished from the
zero article.
Compare:
a) Salt is necessary in cooking.
b) Urgent deliver salt to ASTY retailer.
In the first example, we have to do with a special kind of
determination- the zero article -with a mass noun for generic reference.
In the second example we have to do with the omission of the
determiner. The definite article is used with definite, unique reference. In
normal circumstances, without omission, the second sentence (the text of a
telegram) would be: it is urgent to deliver the salt to the retailer from ASTY.
In the second example the article can be inserted in the place from
which it has been omitted.
State the difference between the Zero Article and
the omission of the article.
2.5. Exercises:
1. Insert definite, indefinite and zero articles where necessary in the
following sentences:
1. What man has done, man can do. 2. He wanted to be race-horse
and win Derby. 3. horse has come home. 4. Why not turn linguist? 5.
books filled shelves. 6. He believes in woman. 7. He is afraid of
nothing, man or beast. 8. More and more girls want to become Nadia
Comaneci. 9. He insisted on nap in sun. 10. We do not sell pepper
by weight, we sell it by box. 11. He was sitting there, cap in hand,
speaking in whisper. 12. He is away on trip to West Germany,
Netherlands, United States. 13. He is always in hurry. 14. Do you think
our pattern of life will have changed a lot by year 2000? 15. He made
them man and wife. 16. plane was on domestic flight to
Alexandria on Mediterranean Sea. 17. We have no job for you whether you
are accountant or builder. 18. They have been directors of mine,
father and son for six years. 19. Johnson, who is professor of
sociology at University of Essex, is member of executive. 20. In
early society, women were mens equal and occupied leading position in
household and in society.
36
2. Supply the necessary articles in the following sentences:
1. Long before birth of Cristopher Columbus people in Europe
believed that earthly paradise, land of plenty, with perfect climate
lay to west across Atlantic Ocean. 2. In his letter Columbus wrote of
Carribean landscape and described abundance and fertility of
newly-found islands. 3. In reply he sent home from other side of
Atlantic, he wrote islands are fertile to extraordinary degree. There are
trees of thousand kinds, some in flower, some with fruit. 4. From
West Indies he wrote: I learnt by signs that there was king in
south, who owned many vessels filled with gold. 5. When later
explorers reached Andes and found gold for taking, it seemed that
their dreams of paradise on earth had at last come true.
1. Mi s-a spus c s-a fcut un anun special la radio azi diminea. 2. Doctorul
Taylor lucreaz la un spital londonez lng teatrul Old Vic. 3. i place viaa,
dar nu a avut o via prea interesant. 4. Ce facei voi dac nu gsii banii care
v trebuie? 4. Omenirea a visat ntotdeauna la spaiul cosmic. 5. Organizaia
Naiunilor Unite militeaz pentru colaborarea ntre popoare. 6. Cltoreau
ziua. 7. E professor bun? 8. V declar so i soie. 9. Asear a avut loc o
premier la Oper. 10. Tare a vrea s am un tablou de Baba. 11. n drum spre
cas, domnul Ionescu, preedintele Asociaiei apicultorilor, va face o escal la
Otopeni. 12. Creang s-a nscut la Humuleti. 13. Nu scriei cu stiloul, scriei
cu cerneal. 14. Meseria de olar nu este o raritate n Romnia. 15. N sunt n
msur s v spun dac metodele au fost introduse pe scar larg. 16. l
considerm sportive bun. 17. De regul li se spune oamenilor s viziteze
Galeria Tate i Muzeul Britanic. 18. Dac va fi numit director, o s ncurajeze
tinerii specialiti. 19. Am sa i spun alt dat, acum m grbesc. 20. E timpul
s pui capt acestei situaii ridicole.
REFERENCES
Berry, Roger, 1993. English Guides, Articles, Harper-Collins Publishers,
Birmingham
Berry, Roger, Page V, Collins/Cobuild, 1993. Articles, The University of
Birmingham
CUP
Jespersen, O. 1965. Essentials of English Grammar. London, George Allen &
Unwin Ltd.
37
Pedagogic
Levichi, Leon. 1968, 1993. Sinonime n gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureti,
Ed. tiinific
OUP
38
CHAPTER 3
THE ADJECTIVE
Uniti de nvare :
The form of the adjective
The functions of adjectives: attributive and predicative
The degrees of comparison
Obiectivele temei:
nelegerea modurilor de formare a adjectivelor prin afixare i
compunere
cunoaterea conceptului de categorie gramatical a adjectivului.
Diferene ntre limba romn i englez
nsuirea funciilor pe care le poate avea adjectivul n limba englez
nelegerea modului de formare a gradelor de comparaie
The adjective is the part of speech that, just like the noun can be defined
from the point of view of the 3 criteria (semantic, morphological and
syntactic).
a) From semantic point of view, the adjective denotes some characteristic
of an object.
b) From the morphological point of view, the adjective has the
grammatical category of comparison.
c) From the syntactic point of view, the adjective has the syntactic
function of an attribute, predicative, apposition, complement (in
Romanian we call it nume predicativ suplimentar) in the sentence.
3.1. The form of the adjective
1) Apart from those adjectives that have no specific endings (small,
long), some adjectives expressing qualities have several specific endings /
suffixes. Those are derived from other parts of speech by means, meaning that
they can be identified by these suffixes.
Derivational suffixes:
-ful: useful, handful
-ly: friendly, lovely, deadly
-ish: childish, greenish
-ible/able: valuable, credible
-ous: famous, courageous
-less: careless, useless
-y: rainy, dirty
-some: tiresome, troublesome
2) Conversion: The analytical system of Modern English makes it
possible not only for adjectives, but for any part of speech, or even word
combinations that convey a quality or feature to be used as an attribute in pre-
position (before a noun).
39
a) nouns: the great bulk of relative adjectives is supplied by converted nouns
e.g. a brick house denominal adjective
When a noun (house) is used as adjective before another noun it is
always used in singular, even if its meaning is plural
e.g. a horse race - a race of horses.
There are some exceptions: some nouns in s (sports, customs, clothes)
as well as some sg nouns ending in ics (athletics, economics) are used as
adjectives without any change.
e.g. a sports car, a clothes shop, a mathematics teacher
They have to be used in the plural become these words have meaning
that are different from the adjectives that end in ic.
Compare: Some converted nouns have corresponding adjectives ending in en
or y. In each synonymic pair, the converted noun denotes the material a thing
is made of while the proper adjective ending in -en/-y has a qualitative
meaning, especially a figurative one.
b)Verbs: the verbal forms used are participle (present or past participle)
(i). The present participle (v-ing form)
e.g. an amazing success, a surprising attitude, the coming year, singing
birds.
Such -ing forms can be used into Relative/Attribute Clauses:
e.g. a success that amazed everyone
(ii). The Past Participle (v-ed forms)
e.g. a tired expression, a broken window, the results obtained
A few past participles take the en suffixes when are used as
adjectives, but they take the ed or the suffix when are used with a verbal
function (to form perfective tenses: present/past/perfect)
The verbs that have two past participle are:
e.g. Sink-sunk-sunken; melt-melted/molten
Drink-drunk-drunken; shrink-shrunk-/en
swell-swelled-swollen; shave-shaved-shaved
e.g. The storm has sunk the ship - sunken eyes
For a few others, there is no difference between adjectives and the
verbal participle in spelling but there is in pronunciation: in adjectives the
suffix ed is pronounced [id]
e.g. a learned man/I have learned this poem; also an aged women
c) Compound adjectives - are very frequent in contemporary English. The
most frequent patterns in which they occur are:
(i). Adj + Past Participle:
e.g. hard-boiled egg
(ii). N + Adj.: Most of them are derived from implicit or explicit Relative
clauses
e.g. ice-cold water - water which are as cold as ice
world-famous sportsman - a sportsman who are famous all over
40
(iii). N + Past Participle/Present Participle
e.g. a hand-made object - an object which is made by hand
a peace-loving person - a person who love peace
(iv). Numeral + N: The noun in the compound often occurs in the singular
form even it is preceded by numerals higher than one:
e.g. five pounds - a five pound note; six-pence - a six-penny note
a three-week trip - a trip which lasts three weeks
(v). Adv + Past Participle:
e.g. well-bred person, well-meant remark
(vi). Adj + N + -ed: the construction occurs with:
- parts of the body: e.g. thin-faced, grey-haired; blue-eyed
- also figuratively: e.g. cool-headed; broad-minded
- pieces of clothing: e.g. long-sleeved, white-collared
- miscellaneous: e.g. thick-leavel, long-shaped
(vii). Adv + Adj.
e.g. evergreen plants, wide-open window
(viii). Verb + Noun
e.g. a telltale signal
(ix). Verb + Verb
e.g. a would-be champion
(x). Verb + Adv
e.g. a runaway criminal
(xi). N + N
e.g. a sound-proof room
(xii). Prepositional groups:
e.g. an out-of-the-way an out-of-the-date theory, a do-it-yourself kit; a
stay-at-home-wife
Enumerate at least 5 ways of forming adjectives (simple and
compound)
3.2. The functions of the adjectives
Two factors are generally considered to be characteristics of
adjectives: their function and the grammatical category of comparison.
I. The functions of adjectives. The most frequent are attribute or
predicative function in the sentence.
(i). The attributive function
41
The adjective discharges the functions of an attribute when it is placed
before or sometimes immediately after the noun to which it refers.
a) Adjectives in English are usually placed in front of the noun which
they modify or determine. This position is so relevant for adjective that any
word or group of words placed in the position has the function of an attribute.
When a noun is preceded by 2 or more adjectives, the question of their
relative position rises. The adjectives in attributive position come in the
following order (although no normal nominal group- NP- is likely to have a
representative in each column):
b) Another position in English is immediately after the noun
1. This position belongs chiefly to the literary style.
e.g. Once upon a midnight dreary
2. It is also found in some set-phrases of French and Latin origin
e.g. secretary general, court martial, poet laureate, time immemorial
3. If the adjective is expended (modified, qualified) by a word or phrase;
e.g. It was an ugly house - it was a house ugly with decay
a clever boy - a boy clever at games
4. If the adjective is part of an expression of measurement (weight, age)
e.g. a wall six feet high, ten years old, two miles long
5. Adjectives ending in -able, -ible are placed after the noun (if this is
preceded by a superlative or by only)
e.g. He was driving at the greatest speed possible.
6. After indefinite pronouns ending in -thing/-body/-one.
e.g. She brought some thing nice.
He said nothing interesting.
7. A few adjectives are found in both positions with a difference in meaning;
e.g. present, proper;
The present members
After the introduction we started the meaning proper (itself).
Proper follows the noun when it means itself /themselves; before the noun it
means real, genuine.
(ii). The predicative function
When an adjective is connected with a noun by means of a link verb it
has a predicative function. Some verbs require adjectives instead of adverbs.
These verbs are:
- verbs of seeming: to seem, to appear
- verbs of becoming: to become
- verbs of continuing: to go on, to continue
- verbs of physical perception: to feel, to hear, to smell, to taste
Words like nervous, good, perfect do not show how the action is
fulfilled, but how the subject is, having the function of an adjective, not that of
an adverb. The same verbs can be accompanied by adverbs which show us
how the action is fulfilled;
42
e.g. She taste the food slowly.
He sounded the bell furiously.
Predicative adjectives with complementation
When used in the predicative function some adjectives can be followed by:
a) a prepositional phrase in 2 patterns:
- Preposition + NP
e.g. I was angry to him/at the delay.
- Preposition + V-ing
e.g. I was angry at seeing such a great disorder.
b) an infinitival phrase. Some adjectives such as glad, happy, pleased, sory,
difficult, hard, certain, likely.
e.g. I was very glad to see him.
She is certain to be in.
c) a clause
e.g. I was glad that you came.
(iii). Adjectives used attributively and predicatively
In most cases, an adjective can be used both attributively and predicatively.
e.g. This is a good book the book is good.
However, some adjectives can only occur in one of these 2 positions.
a) Adjectives used only attributively
- adjectives ending in -en, derived from nouns (denominal adjective)
e.g. a wooden box, a woollen dress.
- adjectives denoting material
e.g. a stone box
These adjectives cant be used in predicative position.
e.g. *The box is wooden.
The corresponding concept is expressed predicatevely by OF + Noun
e.g. The box is made of wood.
The adjectives in -en only when used figuratively can be used both
attributive and predicative.
e.g. Her face turned ashen at the news.
- the adjectives : joint, live, mere, sheer, little, late
e.g. sheer luck. We can not say: *Her luck was sheer.
- adjectives referring to time (ending in -ly or converted from nouns)
e.g. a daily /morning newspaper
- adjectives ending in -ie (-el) derived from nouns
e.g. atomic energy, a chemical plant, a lyric poet
43
- adjectives denoting cardinal points
e.g. Romania lies in Eastern Europe.
- the adjectives which are past-participles
e.g. drunken-man, sunken-eye
- a few adjectives in -er that are not longer recognized as comparatives:
former, inner
e.g. the former manager. We can not say *The manager is former.
b) Adjectives used only predicatively
- adjectives derived by means of the prefix -a
When used attributively, some of the above mentioned adjectives are replaced
by a synonym.
e.g. She is afraid of mice./The frightened child.
He is alone in the house./ A solitary man.
Some of these adjectives may be used attributively when they are preceded by
an adverbs.
e.g. fully awake person, a very ashamed child
- the adjectives: content, drunk, poorly, ready, well, worth
e.g. I am feeling quite content.
c) Adjectives which can be used in both positions: attributively and
predicatively , but with a difference in meaning
- glad: is used mainly in a predicative position
e.g. I am glad to hear you can come
Attributively, the corresponding concept is expressed by happy
e.g. She has a happy life.
In attributive position, glad occurs chiefly in phrases: glad news (joyful, to
give sb the glad eye)
- ill: is used mainly in a predicative position
e.g. He has been ill.
It occurs in an attributive position in certain phrases with the meaning of
bad, evil
e.g. ill-fame, ill-luck, ill-temper, to have an ill effect on the mind
- sorry: is used chiefly in a predicative position
e.g. I fell sorry for you.
Where is used attributively , it means sad, pitiful, worthless
e.g. a sorry sight, a sorry excuse
- sick: used attributively means awful
e.g. a sick man (with his meaning in American English sick is common in
predicative position).
Used predicatively sick means suffering from nausea, vomiting.
44
What are the functions of the adjective?
Give at least 5 examples of adjectives whose
meaning changes when used attributively /
predicatively.
3.3. The degrees of comparison
Comparison refers to the forms assumed by an adjective to show that a
quality may exist in various degrees with two objects or with one and the same
object at various moments. Comparison applies to all those adjectives which
refer to values on a scale, to adjectives that are gradable. On the whole,
qualitative adjectives of all kinds form degrees of comparison.
Some adjectives can not be compared. Some of them are superlative
intrinsically, expressing a quality in its highest degree even in their basic form:
excellent, perfect, superb, extreme, exceptional, exquisite. Some of them are
superlative etymologically:
e.g. maximum, optimum, or comparatives: superior, inferior, major, minor;
others refer to material:
e.g. wooden, woollen;
or adjectivized nouns:
e.g. iron, glass;
and therefore the possibility for grading them is not normally preceded.
A further category is that of adjectives of a rather general nature,
hardly conceivable in comparison with other elements:
e.g. chemical, alternative
Like in Romanian, there are three degrees of comparison: positive,
comparative and superlative.
I. The Positive degree
It is the basic form of the adjective, it does not imply a comparison with
another quality.
II. The Comparative degree
It expresses the comparison between 2 or more objects enjoying the same
quality or between the quality of the same object.
III. The Superlative degree
It shows quality of an object is in the higher degree.
3.3.1. Formation of the degrees of comparison
There are 2 regular ways of making the category of comparison, and an
irregular one.
a) the synthetic (inflectional) comparison: the comparative and superlative are
formed by adding the suffix -er or -est to the positive form of the adjective.
This type of comparison is used with:
- monosyllabic (one-syllable) adjectives;
e.g. short/er/est
- some disyllabic (two-syllable) adjectives ending in -y/-ow/-le/-er
45
e.g. happy/happier/est; narrow/er/est
simple/er/est; clever/er/est
Exceptions: proper, hostile, fragile, eager take the analytical
comparison. The suffix -most is found as the superlative sign in a number of
words, most of which indicate locality, space, position, some are formed with
the comparative: inner most, upper most
- other with the positive degree of the adjective or adverb: kindmost, foremost,
- others again to nouns: rearmost, his innermost thoughts (wide, furthest)
b) the analytic (periphrastic) comparison: the comparative and superlative are
formed by means of the adverb more and the most with:
- polysyllabic adjectives;
e.g. interesting/more/the most interesting
- adjectives derived from present or past participle
e.g. boring/more/the most boring
valued/more/the most valued
- certain adjectives commonly found only in predicative case, such as afraid,
alive, alone.
Some monosyllabic adjectives, such as: calm, cross, fit, fond, frank,
grave, prompt, right, and some disyllabic adjectives, such as common, eager,
pleasant, precise, sincere display both patterns of comparison.
When the comparative expresses a comparison of two qualities in the
same person or thing, the analytic form is commonly used:
e.g. She is more kind than intelligent
c) The irregular comparison
The irregularly compared adjectives are those adjectives whose forms
for comparison are irregular. Some irregularities in the comparative and
superlative forms are due to the fact that they come from different bases.
- good-better-the best
e.g. His marks are good, but they were better, last. Men of few words are
the best men.
- bad/worse/the worst
- little-less/lesser-the least
Little has two meanings.
(i). having the meaning of the qualitative adjective small used with
countable nouns, little is not normally compared. The possible comparative is
younger, the superlative the youngest.
e.g. John is a little boy. He is Marys youngest son.
(ii). having the meaning of a quantifier determiner used with material and
abstract nouns (uncountable nouns), little has the comparative less, the
superlative the least.
e.g. He gives us a little trouble.
Less money is needed now.
A differentiation has taken place between less and lesser to that less to
quality and it is attached to uncountable nouns while lesser refers to value or
46
importance and it is attached to countable nouns. Lesser is more literary and it
is used only attributively.
e.g He has less time than I have.
Choose the lesser of two evils; to a lesser degree.
- much-many/more/the most
e.g. He has much money. His father has more. Their grandfather has the
most.
We have many books, but our school library has even more.
Some other adjectives have the comparative and superlative formed by
contraction, vowel change and epesithesis. These adjectives have double
forms in the comparative and superlative:
- far/farther-further/the farthest-the furthest
The forms farther- the farthest are used with reference to distance in space.
e.g. The village was farther than we had expected.
Pluto is he fathest planet.
The forms further- the furthest can be used with reference to distance
in space.
e.g. The isle is a mile further on, but these forms have acquired another
meaning as well: addition, besides, .
e.g I need no further bibliography for my paper.
The forms of superlative the farthermost and the furthermost express
an even higher degree than the corresponding forms farther, furthest, meaning
the most distant.
e.g. Scientific expeditions are studying the furthermost ends of the
Antarctic.
- near/nearer/the nearest- next
The nearest refers to distance, space, closest while next refers to time, order,
succession, immediately following.
e.g. The nearest house is 3 miles away.
Next time you see your parents remember me to them.
- late/later-latter/the latest/last
Late and later /the latest are used with the basic meaning of time
e.g. Today the evening train is later than usual.
The latest means the most recent, the last up to now
e.g. This is the latest fashion.
Latter and last are used with reference to order, sequence. Latter is used:
(i). in the sense of the second.
e.g. The latter half of January was cold.
(ii). in contrast to former, meaning the second.
e.g. The Whigs and the Torries are names of political parties in England:
the former is no longer used today, but the latter is still common.
47
Last is used as the apposite of first.
e.g. I spent my last money yesterday.
He was the last person to call.
- old/older-elder/the oldest/the eldest
The regular forms older, the oldest are used to denote age and length of
time; they are used with reference to people and things.
e.g. When you get a little older, youll understand.
This is the oldest monument in our city.
Elder and the eldest are semantically used only with reference to
people. They are chiefly used with reference to persons connected by kinship
(members of the same family). Syntactically, they usually occur attributively
(before a noun).
e.g. His elder sister is 10 years older than he is.
I have 3 elder brothers.
Elder and the eldest may be used predicatively if they are preceded by
a determiner (definite articles, possessive adjectives) .
e.g. Here are my children: this is the eldest.
Elder and the eldest are also used when we speak of people higher in
rank or of authorities; elder is frequently substantivized.
e.g. He is the eldest and most respected member of the collectivity.
The experience of our leaders is of great help to us.
Comparison of compound adjectives
Compound adjectives form the degree of comparison in two ways, depending
on the fusion of the elements.
(i). when the first element is an adjective that presents its meaning, this is
changed in the comparative and superlative.
e.g. well known/ better known/ the best known
intelligent boy/ more intelligent boy/ the most intelligent boy
(ii). when the two elements make up a whole from the point of view of
meaning, the comparison is achieved by means of more and the most.
e.g. heart broken/ more heart broken/ the most heart broken
The Uses of the Comparative
I. The comparative degree
a) Comparison of equality
Quality is expresses by means of an adjective in the positive degree placed
between the conjunction as as.
e.g. He is as tall as his father.
A great number of idioms are based on comparatives of equality
(though the idea of superlative is implied): similarities: as black as pitch, as
busy as a bee, as sweet as honey, sometimes the first conjuction as which
precedes the adjective may be omitted.
e.g. The wall is black as pitch.
b) Comparison of inferiority can be indicated in two ways:
48
(i). by means of the adverb less placed before the adjective in the positive
degree
e.g. This book is less interesting than that one.
Less is generally not used with one-sylalble adjectives.
(ii). by means of the negative form of the comparative of equality not so/as
.as is prefered with short adjectives (the construction not as as is prefered
in spoken English).
e.g. This book is not so/as interesting as that one.
c) Comparison of superiority is expressed by means of the comparative
degree of the adjective. In constructing a sentence in the comparative of
superiority, the basic of comparison can be:
- implied by the whole context and then the comparative sentence does not
contain the basic form of the adjective
e.g. the lower classes, the younger generation.
She is much better today.
- made fully explicit, being introduced by means of the conjuction than.
e.g. John is more stupid than Bob (is).
He is older than I am.
The pronoun in formal English remains in the nominative case because
it is still considered to be the subject of the verb, even if the verb is not
expressed; however, in informal English, the pronoun is often into the
Accusative Case: than me. When the pronoun is used with a verb, only subject
pronouns are possible.
e.g. Lucy made more mistakes than I did.
After a few comparisons taken from Latin: superior, inferior, exterior,
posterior, junior, senior, the conjunction than is replaced by the preposition to.
e.g. Our team is superior to yours.
When only two things or persons are being compared, the comparative
(instead of the superlative) is preceded by the definite article.
e.g. His two sons look the same age: which is the older?
I like Betty and Harry, but I think Bettys the nicer of the two.
The comparative of superiority occurs in same special constructions.
(i). gradual increase or continuing change is expressed by two comparatives,
joined by means of the conjunction and in the case of monosyllabic adjectives
by repeating the comparative form of the respective adjective, and in the case
of polysyllabic adjectives by repeating more and more.
e.g. The house is bigger and bigger.
More and more people are buying cars.
(ii). the emphatic, intensifying force can also be rendered by certain words,
used before the comparative such as: much, by far, ever, still, a great deal, not
at all.
e.g. This book is much better than that one.
Anne is cleverer by far than her brother.
It would be a great deal better for us to go there now.
Henry is nice, but his brother is even nicer.
49
(iii). prepositional or parallel increase is expressed by the comparative
preceded by the in correlation with a similar comparative: The + Adj in
comparative form + Subject + Verb +the +Adjective in comparative + Subject
+ Verb. The pattern expresses that the degree of one quality or characteristic is
dependent upon the degree of another.
e.g. The older he gets, the wiser he is.
The better you behave, the more popular you will become.
The verb to be may be absent from the 2 sentences.
e.g. The harder the task, the greater satisfaction.
The more hurry, the less speed.
b) The superlative degree
It shows a quality in its highest degree in comparison with other
objects. It is expressed by means of the superlative degree of the adjective.
e.g. The adjective in the superlative is usually preceded by the definite
article the. The head (the qualified noun) is usually followed by a
prepositional phrase (usually introduced by in, sometimes by of) or by a
Relative clause.
e.g. He is the happiest men in the world.
Roses are the most beautiful of flowers.
Of is possible after a superlative without a noun phrase.
(i). The Relative Superlative
The definite article in front of the Relative Superlative is sometimes
omitted when the thing spoken of is not compared, but regarded as possessing
a certain quality in a very high degree. In other words, it is equivalent to
Absolute Superlative.
e.g. The sky was palest blue.
The Relative Superlative may be intensified by very, much, far.
e.g. He is much the most imaginative of them all.
The organization was by far the most powerful.
This is the very good book.
The Relative Superlative may also be intensified by means of
adjectives such as imaginable, possible, placed after the determiner noun.
e.g. I hope youll have the finest weather possible.
I have read the worst novel imaginable.
(ii). The Absolute Superlative
It shows a quality in its highest degree without a comparison with other
objects. It is usually formed by means of the adverb very placed before the
adjective in the positive degree.
e.g. I have read a very nice/interesting book.
Numerous adjectives derived from past participles used predicatively
form their Absolute Superlative by means of much or very much. They cannot
be preceded by very alone. Other adverbs that can be used are: greatly, quite
particularly, deeply.
e.g. The financial situation seems to be (very) much improved.
50
We are (very) much obliged to you/greatly obliged.
I was very much surprised to hear it.
When used attributively, adjectives derived from part participle can
form the Absolute Superlative with very, but not all of these adjectives can.
e.g. He is a very celebrated actor /a well-known writer.
There was a very surprised look on his face.
Very is not often used with some of the adjectives in predicative
position beginning with a; thus, instead of very awake we say widely awake,
instead of very alone we say very much alone/all alone/very lonely.
Other means of expressing the Absolute Superlative:
There are some other adverbs which can fulfill the same function as
very, but implying shades of meaning or stylistic changes they are more
emphatic than very.
- the most + the adjective in the positive degree: the most used without any
article or with the indefinite article is synonymous with very (it is a
strengthened very).
e.g. She is most beautiful (means that she is extremely beautiful, and not
that she is more beautiful than all).
Everybody was most kind to me.
- much/far + too + the adjective in the positive degree
e.g. It is far too difficult.
- too is also commonly used (especially in American English) as a synonym
of very negative sentences.
e.g. I dont feel too good.
- we can also achieve an intensifying effect by using the adverbs: extremely,
mightily, highly, quite remarkable, awfully, terribly, frightfully, dreadfully,
utterly + the adjective in the positive degree
e.g. His activity is highly satisfactory.
It is awfully kind to you.
Thats terribly nice to Ann.
I am dreadfully sorry.
- quite + an ungradable adjective which are intrinsically superlative
expresses the idea of completeness, i.e. full, wrong, right, sure, certain or with
a strong adjective such as: perfect, amazing, extraordinary.
e.g. Youre quite wrong.
It is quite extraordinary.
I cant understand it al all.
We can also achieve an intensifying effect by repeating attributive adjectives
or degree intensifiers:
e.g. an old, old man = a very old man
It is very, very good = extremely good.
State the differences between the regular and
irregular comparison of adjectives.
Give at least 5 examples of means of expressing the
Absolute Superlative.
51
3.4. Exercises:
1. Form adjectives from the following nouns:
accident, winter, faith, grace, influence, economy, autumn, occasion, poison,
sympathy, comfort, expression, fire, man, charity, method, hero, danger,
custom, affection, skill, ocean, suspicion, melody, volcano, fear, person, boy,
nature, mania.
2. Put the adjectives in brackets into the correct form:
1. Bucharest is (far) from Madrid than from Paris. 2. Geroge is (tall) boy in the
class. 3. Your homework is (bad) than hers. 4. These books are not
(expensive) as the other ones. 5. His car is (good) than mine. 6. You have as
(many) pencils as me. 7. Peter is (clever) boy in school. 8. Books are and
nowadays (expensive). 9. She was kind and gave me (far) information. 10.
My (old) sister works in one of the (old) schools in town. 11. Lucy and Peter
are in theie room: the (fore) is reading, the (late) is watching TV. 12.
Yersterdays weather was (bad) than todays.
1. Am admirat peisajele pitoreti. 2. Cred c a fost bine intenionat, dar e
limpede ca bun ziua c nu a reuit s gseasc cele mai bune soluii. 3.
Cltoriile n spaiul cosmic devin din ce n ce mai frecvente. 4. Fiul meu este
cu trei ani mai mare dect el. 5. Ultimele tiri sunt ncurajatoare. 6. Aceste
aspecte ale problemei sunt mai puin interesante dect cele precedente. 7. ie
i e i mai fric dect lor c preurile or sa devin mai mari. 8. Uitndu-m la
cei doi copii, nu mi vine s cred c primul este la fel de mare ca i al doilea. 9.
Cu ct mbtrnim, cu att devenim mai nelepi. 10. M-am oprit la pot i i-
am trimis fostului meu profesor o carte potal. 11. Era foarte mulumit c
putea s i ajute pe cei sraci. 12. Erau destui oameni care l puteau ajuta. 13.
Au intrat n clas doi cte doi. 14. Noi mergem la munte o dat la dou
sptmni.
REFERENCES
Universitii
Banta, A. 1996. Descriptive English Syntax, Iai, Institutul European
CUP
Gruia, George, 2002. A Concise English Grammar, Ed. Grupus, Craiova
Unwin Ltd.
Pedagogic
52
Prlog H., 1982. More on the Superlatives. AUT, XX, pp. 85-88
OUP
53
CHAPTER 4
THE NUMERAL
Uniti de nvare
Definition of numerals
Classification of numerals
Obiectivele temei
nelegerea prii de vorbire a numeralului
formarea capacitii de a identifica diferitele tipuri de numerale
4.1. Definition
The numeral is a word that denotes an abstract number or the abstract
numerical order of objects; it can be a noun, an adjective or a pronoun.
The questions they answer are: how many?; how much?; which?
Irrespective of their morphological status, numerals are invariable:
e.g. Ten multiplied by two is twenty. (noun)
Ten books are on the desk. (adjective)
The first has been the fastest. (pronoun)
4.2. The Classification of numerals:
Numerals can be classified according to various criteria:
(i). according to the form:
a. simple: one, two, twenty
b. compound: sixty five
c. by derivation: thirteen, fourteen and all the ordinal numerals
(ii). according to content:
a. cardinal numerals
b. ordinal numerals
c. fractional numerals
d. multiplicative numerals
e. distributive numerals
f. adverbial numerals of recurrence
ii.a. Cardinal numerals show the number of objects:
one, two, ten, three thousand, seven hundred, two million, four billion
Notes:
- numerals hundred, thousand, million, billion do not get a plural suffix when
used with numbers:
e.g. 3,000 = three thousand, 4,000,000 = 4 million
However, when we use them to show an indefinite number, they can be used
in plural:
e.g. There are thousands and thousands of people on the streets.
There are ten of millions of people in the library.
54
- use and before the tens:
e.g. 1,124 = one thousand, one hundred and twenty-four
- a comma (,) is used instead of a full stop to separate millions from hundreds
of thousands, thousands from hundreds:
e.g. 3,125,879
- use a full stop instead of a comma in decimal fractions:
e.g. 5.7
- years are read as follows: the first two figures together and the last two
together:
e.g. 1984 = nineteen eighty-four
- the cardinal numeral is also used instead of the ordinal numeral to show the
number of a house, bus, flat, chapter, section, volume:
e.g. chapter 2, flat eleven
- telephone numbers can be read in several ways. They are usually read figure
by figure if the figures are different:
e.g. 45.25. 35 = forty-five twenty-five thirty-five
If the figures are identical we can use the word double:
e.g. 45.22.35 = forty-five double two thirty-five
- the figure zero is used in the following ways:
- zero is used to express temperatures, in mathematics
- oh is used when reading long numbers
- nil is used to express scores in games
- love is used to express scores in tennis
- telling the time: the traditional way of telling the time uses prepositions (past
and to) and cardinal numerals for hours and minutes, e.g. it is twenty to five.
There is a newer form that has been imposed by international use (flights,
trains tec) and which consists of the juxtaposition of two cardinal numbers, the
first telling the hour and the second telling the minutes, e.g. four twenty (a.m.
or p.m.).
ii.b. Ordinal numerals
When we want to identify or indicate something by indicating where it comes
in a series or sequence, the ordinal numbers are used. They are formed with
the help of the suffix
th added to their equivalents, except the first three numbers which have
irregular forms, and the compound numbers with which only the last figure
gets in ordinal form:
e.g. the first the second
the third the fourth
the fifth etc.
Except the first three ordinal numerals whose form is different, the
others are formed from the cardinal numeral, and all are preceded by the.
55
Uses:
telling the date: the date may be written in various ways, but it is read as
follows: the + the numeral + of + name of the month and then the year,
e.g. June, 4
th
, 2000 = the fourth of June, two thousand etc.
to show regular intervals, e.g. every third week = o dat la trei sptmni,
twice every second week etc.
ii.c. Fractional numerals
They express:
- common fractions: 2/3 = two thirds; =one fourth; 4/6 = four sixths;
half; 3 = three and a half etc.
- decimal fractions: special attention should be paid to the fact that instead
of comma in the European system, a full stop/a period is used in the
Anglo-Saxon system, e.g. 5.6; 3.56; 2.8765; 1.2 etc.
ii.d. Multiplicative numerals
Show how many times a quantity or number increases
e.g. adjectival use: double - dublu
threefold - ntreit
fourfold - mptrit
The form is an ordinal numeral + fold.
adverbial use: twice - dublu, ndoit, de dou ori
three times, threefold - ntreit, de trei ori
four times, fourfold - mptrit, de patru ori
a hundred times - de o sut de ori
ii.e. Distributive numerals
These numerals show the distribution and grouping of objects:
e.g. (one) by one - (unul) cte unul
by twos - cte doi
by threes - cte trei
ii.f. Adverbial numeral of recurrence
Shows how many times an action is repeated or how many times a quantity or
number is larger/smaller than another quantity or number
e.g. once - o dat
twice, two times - de dou ori
three times, thrice - de trei ori
four times - de patru ori
once and a half - o dat i jumtate
three times a year - de trei ori pe an
many times - de multe ori
Give at least 5 examples of the different
numerals mentioned in the unit above.
(cardinal, ordinal, etc)
56
4.3. Exercises:
1. Answer the following questions using the figures given in brackets. Write
the years in letters:
1. When did Marconi invent the radio? (1895)
2. When was the White House built? (1792)
3. When was Australia discovered? (1616)
4. When was the typewriter invented? (1829)
5. When was the Eiffel Tower built? (1889)
6. When were the mountains on the moon discovered? (1609)
7. When did Elisabeth II become Queen of England? (1952)
8. When was Shakespeare born? (1564)
2. Answer the questions:
1. When is the first school-day? 2. When is your birthday? 3. When is
Christmas? 4. When is your national holiday? 5. When is the last school-day?
6. When is the last day of the year? 7. When is your mothers birthday? 8.
Whats the date today? 9. Whats the date tomorrow? 10. When was Eminescu
born?
1. Copiii au intrat n coal doi cte doi. 2. Am citit sute de pagini n ultimele
sptmni. 3. Tocmai am cumprat dou duzini de chibrituri. 4. Cred c
maina are mai mult de o sut de km. pe or. 5. Biletul tu de clasa a doua este
pentru data de 22 iulie. 6. Un sfert din locuitorii acestui orel lucreaz n
min. 7. Numai dup ce am citit problema de trei ori am neles-o. 8. Nu
ducem la teatru din dou n dou sptmni. 9. Dup strngerea recoltei, anul
acesta, ranii sper s obin un ctig ntreit. 10. Am ntlnit-o o dat sau de
dou ori, dar nu am discutat cu ea niciodat. 11. Regele Richard III a fost unul
dintre mai sngeroi regi din istoria Angliei. 12. Capitlolul IX mi s-a prut mai
interesant dect capitolul V. 13. Care este rspunsul tu la cea de-a douzecea
ntrebare? 14. Nou ori doi fac optsprezece. 15. Trenul va sosi n jurul orei
14.20. 16. Invenia lui a adus un profit nzecit fabricii la care lucreaz. 17. Trei
cincimi plus o cincime fac patru cincimi.
REFERENCES
Universitii
CUP
Unwin Ltd.
57
Pedagogic
OUP
58
CHAPTER 5
THE PRONOUN
Uniti de nvare
Definition of pronouns
Classification of numerals
Obiectivele temei:
nelegerea categoriei de pronume. Diferene fa de adjectivele
pronominale
Folosirea corect a diferitelor tipuri de pronume.
5.1. The definition of pronouns
For practical reasons adjectives and pronouns of the same kind will be
considered together; the main difference between an adjective and a pronoun
of the same kind lies in the fact that the adjective goes with the noun/noun
equivalent while the corresponding pronoun expresses the same thing and also
replaces the noun/noun equivalent, e.g. a demonstrative adjective is a word
that determines a noun/noun equivalent while a demonstrative pronoun
expresses the same meaning as the demonstrative adjective, but unlike the
latter it also replaces the noun/noun equivalent: this book is mine (adjective),
this is mine (pronoun).
Adjectives Pronouns
1. Demonstrative Demonstrative
2. Indefinite + negative Indefinite + negative
3. Possessive Possessive
4. Interrogative Interrogative
5. Relative whose Relative
6. Adverbial ------------
7. ------------ Personal
8. ------------ Reflexive/emphatic
9. ------------ Reciprocal
5.2. The Classification of pronouns
5.2.1. Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns
Demonstrative adjectives Pronouns
this/these this/these
that/those that/those
the same the same
another another
the other the other(s)
other others
such such
59
This/these, that/those used as adjectives, agree in number with the
nouns/noun equivalents they determine and are the only adjectives to do so,
e.g. This book is quite interesting.
These children are my nephews.
That exhibition closed a month ago.
Those pencils are not mine.
When used as pronouns the idea of number is still there, referring
either to one object or to more than one (= plural),
e.g. This is my book and that is Ann's.
Those were not here yesterday.
These are longer than those (ones).
Those can be followed by a defining/restrictive relative clause (atributiv
propriu-zis).
e.g. Those who were caught in the fire suffered serious wounds.
This/That can replace a previously mentioned noun/phrase or clause, e.g.
e.g. The are cleaning the house. They do this every Saturday.
When there is some idea of comparison or selection, the pronoun
one/ones is often placed after this/these, that/those, but it is not essential
except when these demonstratives are followed by an adjective,
e.g. This chair is too low. I'll sit on that (one).
I like this (one) best.
but I like this blue one/these blue ones.
In the last example one/ones cannot be left out.
The same can be used with all kinds of nouns, countable or mass, singular or
plural when it is used as an adjective.
e.g. The same person(s) I met yesterday gave me the same advice.
As a pronoun the same can represent a previously mentioned noun, phrase or
any longer unit
e.g. The same was said about his parents.
The same here can stand for a word, a sentence or a whole story.
Another is singular in meaning and as an adjective takes a singular noun while
as a pronoun it replaces a singular countable noun,
e.g. Give me another book, I don't like this (one).
Another is sometimes opposed to one.
e.g. One says yes, another says no.
Other (an adjective) can take plural countable nouns.
e.g. She does not know what to say, other things are important now.
Don't show yourself, other people may come soon.
60
The other as an adjective takes singular or plural countable nouns.
e.g. One man came yesterday, while the other person has just arrived.
The other(s) as a pronoun can replace any countable noun in the singular or in
the plural.
e.g. One said yes, the other said no.
Such (an adjective and a pronoun) can be a determiner referring back to
something that has already been mentioned; it can take a plural or replace a
plural noun,
e.g. Such beautiful flowers are very expensive.
Such was the problems they have to solve.
In the singular such is used with the indefinite article:
e.g. She is such a nice girl!
Give examples of demonstrative
pronouns.
5.2.2. Indefinite and negative adjectives and pronouns
Most of them are both adjectives and pronouns and the meaning is the
same in either form, therefore the explanation will be one.
Adjectives Pronouns
a) numerical
several several
many/more/most many/more/most
(a) few (a) few
each each
every/all - /all
both both
either either
neither neither
b) numerical and quantitative
some some
any any
no none
lots of a lot
enough enough
c) quantitative
(a) little (a) little
much/more/most much/more/most
d) only pronouns
some/any/no + body/thing/one;
the same as above + else
a) numerical
Several, which can be used as an adjective as well as a pronoun, is not
followed by ones, unless there is a qualitative adjective after it.
61
e.g. Several persons told me the same thing.
There are several new ones on the table.
Many/more/most more and most can be used quite freely, and so can many
with negative verbs.
e.g. He didnt buy many books.
He gets a lot of books, but she doesn't get many.
The students made more spelling errors than we expected.
Most people are not familiar with these notions. But many with
affirmative and interrogative verbs has a restricted use, i.e. many is possible
with affirmative verbs when preceded by a good/a great, or when modified by
so/as/too and very
e.g. I saw a good many beautiful houses there.
When not modified, many is usually replaced by a lot/lots of (+noun) or by a
lot/lots (pronouns).
e.g. I saw a lot/lots of important people at the meeting.
I expect you saw a lot, too.
Compare the following: He hasn't won many races; but you've won a
lot/lots of races or You've won a lot/a great many races. The same restrictions
of use are applied to much/more/most, i.e. the quantitative indefinite adjective
and pronoun that is mentioned under c) above. Examples:
We don't have much coffee.
They drink too much.
but He spends a lot/lots of/a great deal of money on his
house.
compare with
He didn't eat much fruit.
She ate a lot/lots of/a great deal of fruit.
or She ate a lot/a great deal.
Little and few (adjectives and pronouns) denote scarcity or lack and have
almost the force of a negative
e.g. There was little coffee left.
Little has been said about this urgent matter.
Few people knew about his tragedy.
This use of little and few is mainly confined to written English,
probably because in conversation little and few might easily be confused with
a little and a few. In conversation, therefore, little and few are normally
replaced by hardly any or a negative verb + much/many
e.g. We saw little = We saw hardly anything/We didn't see much;
Tourists come here but few stay overnight = Tourists come here but
hardly any stay overnight.
But little and few can be used more freely when they are qualified by
so/very/too/extremely/comparatively/relatively etc.
e.g. I would like to visit Kenya, a country I know so little about.
They have too many technicians, we have too few.
62
There are fewer people living in this building.
Only placed before a few means a small number in the speaker's opinion
e.g. Only a few students like mathematics.
But quite placed before a few increases the number considerably
e.g. I have quite a few books on English morphology. (=quite a lot of
books).
A little/little can be adverbs mainly used with verbs:
e.g. They talked a little about their holiday abroad.
and with negative adjectives or adverbs:
e.g. a little anxious, a little annoyed, a little tired etc.
and with comparative adjectives and adverbs:
e.g. The cake should be a little sweeter.
Cant you drive a little faster?
All /each/every all means a number of people or things considered as a
group, while each/every means a number of people or things considered
individually.
Each is an adjective and a pronoun while every is an adjective only;
each can be used of two or more persons or things, and is normally used of
small numbers; every is not normally used of small numbers, e.g. Every man
had a weapon = All the men had weapons; Each man had a weapon = the
speaker went to each man in turn and checked that he had a weapon
(Thomson and Martinet 1997: 64).
Each can be followed by of + these/those/nouns/pronouns in the accusative
e.g. each of these/the boys/them/us.
Each can be associated with the personal pronoun
e.g. They each understood the problem.
All as a pronoun can be followed by of + the/this/these/that/those/
possessives/proper nouns in the possessive case
e.g. all of the students were there; all of his life he has only; all of these
were bought; all of Toms boys were
The preposition of can be omitted in the examples above, but it cannot be left
out in the construction all+ of + personal pronoun
e.g. all of it; all of us etc.
All of it was broken.
All of us were upset.
All of them left.
If, for some reason, the preposition of must be left out, all follows the noun
e.g. I want it all.
They wanted us all.
The manager dismissed us all.
63
Both (an adjective and a pronoun) means one and the other and takes
a plural verb, e.g. Both (doors) were open.
Both (parents) agreed with their sons teacher.
A personal pronoun in the nominative/accusative + both is also possible
e.g. We both knew him or Both of us knew him.
They called us both or They called both of us.
When one of these pronoun + all/both combinations is the subject of a
compound tense the auxiliary verb usually precedes all/both
e.g. We are all waiting. and not *We all are waiting.
You must both help me.
Either/neither are both adjectives and pronouns. Either means any one of the
two and takes a singular verb
e.g. I have two oranges; you can take either (of them).
Either of you go and buy some bread.
Either + a negative verb can be replaced by neither + a positive verb
e.g. I havent read either of these (books) = I have read neither of these
(books).
When neither is the subject of a verb it cannot be replaced by either + a
negative verb
e.g. Neither of them knew the way is possible.
Neither means not one and not the other of the two. It takes a singular
verb and can sometimes replace either + a negative verb, except when it is the
subject of a construction (see above).
Either/neither can take a prepositional phrase: of + the/these/personal
pronoun/possessives
e.g. I tried both keys but neither of them worked.
Neither of them knew the way.
Neither elevator was working.
Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives associated with
either/neither (singular adjectives or pronouns) used of people should
technically be he/him, she/her, and his/her, but in colloquial English the plural
forms of the personal adjectives or pronouns are generally used
e.g. Neither of them were working, were they?
Neither of them had brought their passports, hadnt they?
Either ..or/ neither. nor are double conjunctions
e.g. Neither her sisters nor her brothers understood him.
They wanted to go either to France or to England.
The double conjunctions must connect identical parts of speech or identical
constructions (two nouns, two pronouns, two verbal forms etc)
b) Numerical and quantitative adjectives and pronouns
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Some and any are used mainly with plural countable nouns and mass nouns
(nite), e.g. There are some people at the door.
There is some time left.
SOME:
Some is used in affirmative structures (=an affirmative verb) while any is
mainly used in interrogative and negative structures
e.g. Are there any students there?
There arent any books on that table.
Some is also used
with singular countable nouns
e.g. Hes living at some place in Africa.
Ive read that story in some book or other.
with singular countable nouns, with a deprecating meaning or
implying the fact that the person or object is unknown to the speaker
e.g. The little girl was drawing some flower.
Theres some man in the hall.
In spoken English the intonation is enough to make the difference; in
written English, however, the larger context does the same.
with singular countable nouns, stressed, in familiar English
denoting appreciation
e.g. This is some dress!
with plural countable nouns to contrast with other + noun/others
e.g. Some people learn languages quickly (while others dont).
Some people like their coffee hot (other people like their coffee cold).
with countable or mass nouns to mean a considerable
quantity/number (it is always stressed)
e.g. I will be away for some time (fairly long time).
The railway station is at some distance (quite a long way).
in interrogative constructions in form but which are actually
invitations or requests
e.g. Will you have some coffee?
Would you buy me some bread?
in interrogative constructions when they refer to a part of the whole
or of a quantity
e.g. Could I take some apples, please?
Do you have some change about you?
in interrogative sentences if the question does not refer to some
(Levichi), e.g. Why are there so many people in here?
It is true that some people hate watching TV.
As pronouns some and any follow the same rules as those mentioned above
e.g. Did you buy any stamps? Yes, I bought some/No I did not buy any.
65
ANY:
As already mentioned, any is used with countable or mass nouns mainly in
negative and interrogative constructions, as an equivalent of some
e.g. I havent seen any books on the table.
There isnt any coffee left.
Any is also used:
with hardly/barely/scarcely (which are almost negative)
e.g. I have hardly any spare time;
She has hardly any food left.
with without when without any means with no
e.g. She can learn almost any foreign language without any difficulty.
He is able to swim across the lake without any visible effort/with no
effort.
after if and whether and in expressions of doubt
e.g. If you need any help, just let me know.
I suppose there isnt any student in the classroom.
in affirmative sentences
e.g. Any woman can wear Armanis dresses.
Can I choose a book? Yes, you can have any.
No (an adjective) and none (a pronoun) can be used with an affirmative verb to
express a negative (as an alternative to any + a negative verb); it can be used
with countable or mass nouns
e.g. I have no apples = I dont have any apples;
I had some last year, but I have none this year.
No changes were made in this department.
A lot of/a lot (see above)
Enough is both an adjective and a pronoun on the one hand, and an adverb
on the other. As an adjective enough precedes the noun/noun equivalent it
determines
e.g. She has enough money to buy whatever she wants to.
You have enough time to get to the party.
As an adverb enough follows the adjective/adverb/verb it modifies
e.g. She is smart enough to become a doctor.
They worked enough.
c) Quantitative adjectives and pronouns
For practical reasons quantitative adjectives and pronouns have been dealt
with in parallel with other adjectives and adverbs, so, see sections for little and
much/more/most.
d) Pronouns: some, any and no combine with body, thing and one, the
resulting compounds being pronouns. These compounds are: somebody,
something, someone, anybody, anything, anyone; nobody, nothing, no
66
one; as compounds of some, any and no they follow the rules for some, any
and no (see under some, any and no)
e.g. Someone called me on the street.
I dont want to go anywhere.
Anyone can tell the truth.
These pronouns can be used in the possessive case.
e.g. It is nobodys business.
Someones passport has been stolen;
Is this anyones seat?
I dont want to waste anyones time.
These pronouns have a singular meaning and take a singular verb, so
personal pronouns and possessive adjectives should logically be he/him,
she/her etc. However, plural forms are more common:
e.g. Has anyone left their luggage on the train?
No one saw Tom go out, didnt they?
Else can be placed after the pronouns mentioned above as well as after
everyone, everybody, everything (pronouns also) and after the adverbs
somewhere, anywhere, nowhere, everywhere, e.g. somebody else, anybody
else, somewhere else etc.
e.g. Im afraid I cant help you; youll have to ask someone else.
There isnt anyone else to ask.
somewhere else etc. - forms can be used in the possessive case
e.g. By mistake, I took someone elses coat;
Was anyone elses luggage opened?
Give 10 examples of indefinite adjectives and
pronouns.
Exercises
1. Suply each, every or all:
1. Wages differ with job. 2. Write down item you buy and penny you
spend for a week. 3. women go in for jewels. 4. One of the effects of higher
education should be to develop in student a greater sense of responsibility.
5. member union sends delegates to the conference. 6. warmth is
sentimental. 7. It is not easy to find the right job time. 8. man has some
secret in his life. 9. I enjoyed minute of it. 10. leaves had fallen.
2. Fill in the blanks with some, any or no:
1. person or other has spotted us. 2. Ill see you day next week. 3.
morning sun lasts a whole day. 4. She is forbidden to do washing. 5. Come
at time you like. 6. He might make it ambassador to remote country. 7.
two men are alike. 8. She is friend of mine. 9. Can you give me
lunch? 10. I have hesitation in saying that it was worth it. 11. I dont owe
man a penny. 12. Lets have beer and cakes. 13. Ill abandon claim.
14. Did he have excuse? 15. Thats a town of importance.
67
3. Supply some, (a) little (a) few, much, many:
1. As she was still hungry, she asked for more ham and eggs. 2. Last year I
spent New Years Eve at the seaside; there were people on the beach. 3.
Are there lions at the Zoo? 4. Did you have difficulties in translating this
text? 5. The tea is too sour, you have too lemon in it. 6. There are letters
for you today. 7. There are fine shops on this street. 8. His lectures provide
opportunity for discussion. 9. of my knowledge was dated. 10. Theres
very accommodation near the colleges.
4. Complete these sentences with (a) little, (a) little of the, (a) few/(a)
few of the, much of the, many/ much of the:
1. There is too flour left for the pancakes. 2. He has looked over letters.
3. There are still people waiting for the doctor. 4. Tractors now do work
formerly done by the farmers. 5. People usually have money left by the end
of the holiday. 6. Mrs. Kean has planted rose-bushes I have sent her. 7. I
think we are going to break our journey and stay days in Paris. 8. May I
have jam, please? 9. There were unoccupied seats when he arrived. 10.
people I stopped had heard of Half Moon Lane.
5.2.3. Possessive adjectives and pronouns
Form: Person Adjectives Pronouns
I my mine
II your yours
III his his
her hers
its ----
I pl. our ours
II pl. your yours
III pl. their theirs
Possessive adjectives and pronouns in English have only one form which
refers to the possessor and not to the thing(s) possessed, and do not agree in
number, gender or case with the object(s) possessed
e.g. This is my car and the red one is yours.
If you need a car you can use mine.
Own can be used after possessive adjectives to emphasize the idea of
possession
e.g. He couldnt trust his own friends;
She didnt want to see me, her own mother!
Parts of ones body, pieces of clothing or personal belongings are most
frequently preceded by a possessive adjective
e.g. Put on your coat !
Where are my glasses?
He wont lend me his car!
Give examples of possessive
pronouns in sentences of your
own.
68
Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks with the necessary possessive determinative or the
definite article:
1. I was struck with the expression of face. 2. The waist of the coat was
below hips.3.The dog bit him in leg. 4. I could not hide curiosity as
to origin, life. 5. He struck me on head. 6. I could hear teeth grinding
in jaws and faces were so pale that I grew alarmed for leves. 7. She
kissed the baby on head.
2. Translate intro English:
1. Casa era a lui acum, dar nainte fusese a surorii lui. 2. Cu toate c i dorise
ca toate crile s le fie date elevilor lui, sora lui a decis s le pstreze pentru
ea. 3. Fratele i sora soului meu sunt plecai din ar. 4. A noastr e mai nou
dect a voastr. 5. Credeam c tot ce era a lor era mult mai mult.
5.2.4. Interrogative adjectives and pronouns
For persons: Nominative case: who (pronoun), dative/accusative cases:
whom/who (pronoun), of which whom is the technically correct one, but who
is used, especially in spoken English; possessive case: whose (adjective and
pronoun); what can also be used for persons and its form is invariable.
For things: what (adjective and pronoun) has an invariable form.
For persons and things when the choice is restricted: which has an invariable
form.
Who, whose, which, what, when used as subjects are usually followed by an
affirmative verb
e.g. Who told you this?
Whose words are these?
What went wrong?
But with who, whose etc. + be + noun or personal/distributive pronoun, an
interrogative verb is used
e.g. Who is he? Whose is that?
What is that noise?
What can also be used in other constructions
e.g.
- what + action + for? meaning why?
e.g. What did you do that for? = Why did you do that? or
What did you go there for?= Why did you go there?
- what + be..+ like? is a request for description or comment
(animate/inanimate)
e.g. What was your trip like? (possible answer: It was too long and difficult
to enjoy)
What was the weather like? (possible answer: It was cold and windy)
What is your friend like? (possible answer: He is nice and friendly)
69
- what + do/does/did + they/he/she/it + look like? is a request for description
only e.g. What does she look like? (possible answer: She is tall and
slender)
What does it/the car look like? (possible answer: It is brand new and as
quick as one could imagine).
- what + be + you/he/she/they? is a question eliciting an answer about ones
profession
e.g. What are you? (possible answer: I am a teacher).
- what (and how) are used in questions about age and measurements, i.e.
depth/height/length/width, although in conversation it would be more usual to
say how old/deep/high/ tall/long/wide?
Formal English Conversation
What age are you? What is your age? How old are you?
What height is she? What is his height? How tall is he?
What is the weight of the parcel? How heavy is it?
Ever can be placed after who/what (as well as after the adverbs where,
why, when, how) although it is not necessary; when added, it emphasizes the
speakers surprise/astonishment/anger/irritation/dismay. It has the same
meaning as on earth/in the world and it is not polite
e.g. Who ever are you? (it expresses the speakers irritation, the other person
is probably an intruder);
Who ever told you about it? =Who on earth told you about it?
Who ever and what ever (two words) are different from whoever
(pronoun only) or whatever (pronoun and adjective); whoever means the
one who, he/she who (whoever, whichever and whatever are relative
adjectives/pronouns, but it seems logical to mention them here as well)
e.g. Whoever gains the most points wins the competition.
In order to emphasize the importance of a request or command whatever you
do is often placed before or after it
e.g. Whatever you do, dont mention my name.
Give examples of interrogative adjectives
and pronouns
5.2.5. Adverbial adjectives
They are hundreds of words that begin in a- that is usually attached to
nouns, adjectives or verbs, e.g. aback, abask, abeam, ablaze, abloom, ablush,
aboard, abreast, acock, adrift, afar, afield, afloat, afoot, afore, afresh, agape,
agaze, aghast, aglow, agog, aground, ahead, ajar etc.
These words are neither pure adjectives nor pure adverbs since they partly
show the state of an object and partly its characteristic at a given moment; they
are classed as adjectives, however, because of the following reasons:
70
1. state being a transient quality of something, the general meaning of these
words falls under the heading of qualitative adjectives;
2. they are morphologically non-flexional; some may combine with more
and the most, e.g. more afraid, more alive etc.;
3. syntactically they combine with other parts of speech, like any other
qualitative adjectives: with adverbs, e.g. he was painfully alive to the great
universal things (Jack London); with prepositional combinations, e.g. He
walked away under a sky of clear steel-blue, alive with stars (Galsworthy);
4. They combine with infinitives, e.g. He is afraid to come back;
5. they are usually predicatives
e.g. They are asleep.
The door was ajar.
Give at least 5 examples of adverbial
pronouns in sentences of your own.
5.2.6. Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses which can be a)
defining/ restrictive relative clauses or b) non-defining/non-restrictive
relative clauses;
a) Defining relative clauses describe the preceding noun in such a way as
to distinguish it from the other nouns of the same class. A clause of this
kind is essential to the clear understanding of the noun
e.g. The man who came yesterday refused to give me his name.
The part in parentheses is the relative clause; if we omit it, it is not clear what
man we are talking about.
Relative pronouns used in defining/restrictive relative clauses:
for things: N. who/that, D. and Acc. Who(m)/that, G. whose;
for things: N., D., Acc. which/that, G. whose/of which
Examples:
- for persons, nominative: The man who robbed you has been arrested:
that is a possible alternative after all, everyone, everybody, no one,
nobody and those; if in doubt, use who, e.g. Everyone who/that knew him
liked him;
- for persons, accusative: the pronoun changes from the formally correct,
whom, to the more usual one, who, then to that or it is left out altogether,
e.g. The man whom/who/that/-----I saw told me to come back yesterday;
- for persons, genitive: People whose rents have been raised can appeal;
- for things, nominative: This is the picture which/that caused such a
sensation; that is a possible alternative to which, but when in doubt, use
which;
- for things, accusative: the pronoun changes from which to that or is left
out completely, e.g. The car which/that/----- I hired broke down;
71
- for things, genitive: A house whose walls were made of glass cost a
fortune;
A defining/restrictive relative clause can be replaced by an infinitive or a
participle
b) Non-defining/non-restrictive relative clauses are placed after nouns that
are definite already, so they do not define the noun, but merely add
something to it by giving some more information about it; unlike defining
relative clauses, they are not essential in the sentence and can be omitted
without causing confusion; the pronouns, however, can never be omitted as
they play an important role in the subordinate clause. This construction is
fairly formal and more common in written than in spoken English.
Relative pronouns in non-defining relative clauses:
for persons: N. who, D., Acc. who(m), G. whose
for things: N.,D., Acc. which, G. whose, of which
Examples:
- for persons, nominative: My friend, who doesnt like fishing at all, went
fishing yesterday;
- for persons, accusative: Peter, who(m) everyone suspected, turned out to
be innocent; --for persons, genitive: Ann, whose children are at school
today, is trying to get a job;
- for objects, nominative: That block, which cost $2 million to build, has
been empty for years;
- for objects, accusative: These books, which you can get at any bookshop,
will give you all the information you need;
- for objects, genitive: This house, whose windows were all broken, was a
depressive sight.
Which can also modify a whole main clause or a longer unit that was reported
before
e.g. Apart from his talent, he was tall and handsome, which made the jury
select him for the main part in the movie.
or (a longer unit), which left him poor and broke.
Both in defining and non-defining relative clauses the preposition, if
there is one, should be kept after the verb it belongs to. The preposition may
precede the relative pronoun sometimes, but this construction is rather formal
and is never used in spoken English, although it may appear in written form:
so, it is more usual to say The man I was travelling with was from San
Francisco than The man with whom I was travelling was from S.F, in which
the preposition precedes the relative pronoun; the same is true for all instances
of relative pronouns associated with prepositions.
72
The importance of commas in relative clauses
A defining relative clause is written without commas, while a non-defining
relative one is always put between commas, or comes after a comma, at the
end of the sentence. The presence of commas is very important as the meaning
changes when commas are inserted
e.g. The students who wanted to go on a trip were disappointed when it
started to rain (=not all were disappointed, only those who wanted to go
on a trip) and
The students, who wanted to go on a trip, were disappointed (all wanted
to go on a trip and all were disappointed).
Give examples of relative pronouns in
sentences of your own.
5.2.7. Personal pronouns
Pronouns are words which replace nouns; the personal pronoun has
an anaphoric function, i.e. they replace nouns previously mentioned or
notions the interlocutor(s) is/are already informed about.
The personal pronoun has number (singular and plural), gender (masculine
and feminine, and the inanimate it), and case (nominative, and
dative/accusative):
For the position of the pronoun objects see under noun, the category of the
case.
Synonyms of personal pronouns:
- myself can stand for I
e.g. John and myself went on foot.
or after as/than/but
e.g. No person has ever been more intolerably tortured than myself.
- we is sometimes used instead of you in the following cases:
- when talking down (doctor to patient)
e.g. How are we feeling today?
- when talking to children
e.g. Are we hungry?
The pronoun It has been explained under noun, the category of gender; it has
other functions as well:
- Demonstrative IT- very much like the demonstrative adjective, when the
pronoun could be replaced by a demonstrative
e.g. Who is it?
Its all right.
- Impersonal IT- used with time, weather, distance etc.
e.g. It is late.
What time is it?
It is 10 miles distance away.
73
- Introductory-anticipatory IT - it introduces the sentence and anticipates
the logical subject/object, being itself a formal grammatical subject or object;
it also introduces passive constructions (for other introductory functions see
under adjective of quality), e.g. It is easy to learn English.
It is clear that he wont do it.
- Introductory-emphatic IT- sometimes the speaker feels that it is not strong
enough to use only the subject and the predicate, he feels the need to
emphasize the subject, e.g. The doctor prescribed the medicine (=Doctorul mi-
a prescris medicamentul) is not convincing enough, so the speaker says: It
is/was the doctor who prescribes/prescribed the medicine (=Doctorul e cel
care mi-a prescris medicamentul); or It was only yesterday that I found out the
truth; It was the teacher who told me what to do etc.
- An emphatic-predicate IT- when it refers to person/thing/situation which is
final or ultimate, e.g. This is it! Thats it!
- An empty-meaningless IT- because of the compulsory presence of a
subject, e.g. It is Monday; It is raining etc, very much like b), the
impersonal IT.
Make sentences using the different forms
of IT.
5.2.8. Reflexive and emphatic pronouns
The form of the reflexive pronoun is the same as the emphatic pronoun,
the two can be distinguished in use.
Person/Number Reflexive/Emphatic/Emphasizing pronoun
I singular myself
II singular yourself
III singular himself
herself
itself
I plural ourselves
II plural yourselves
III plural themselves
The indefinite reflexive/emphasizing pronoun is oneself.
1) as reflexive pronouns they are used as objects of a verb when the action of
the verb returns to the doer, i.e. when the subject and the object are the same
person; the word order is: subject + verb + reflexive pronoun
e.g. I cut myself.
He cant shave himself.
Reflexive pronouns can be used after verb + preposition
e.g. He spoke to himself.
Look after yourself!
The preposition by preceding any of these pronouns changes their meaning to
alone, not accompanied or without help
e.g. He was sitting there by himself =he was sitting there alone.
74
I did it by myself =I did it without any help.
2) as emphatic pronouns, they have a different place, i.e. subject + emphatic
pronoun + verb + object OR subject +verb + object + emphatic pronoun
e.g. Ann herself opened the door =Ann opened the door herself.
The king himself gave her the medal.
Give examples of reflexive and
emphatic pronouns.
5.2.9. Reciprocal pronouns
They are one another and each other; both can be used for two or
more, but each other is preferred when there are no more than two
e.g. Tom and Ann looked at each other.
The reciprocal pronoun can be used in the genitive
e.g. The boys whispered in each others ears.
It was a general fight, people tearing each others clothes.
In contemporary usage each other is frequently preferred over one
another, even when there are more than two people present.
State the difference between each other
and one another. Give examples.
Translate into English:
1. Nu e nici un pic de lapte n cas. 2. Unele cri sunt chiar ieftine. 3. Ai fost
obligai s nchidei vreun pavilion? 4. Orice colecie se poate mndri cu acest
tablou. 5. A prsit conferina fr nici un motiv. 6. Nu tiu dac vreunul din
musafirii notri s-a odihnit puin nainte de mas. 7. Jocul lui nu are nici o
ncrctur emoional. 8. Nu vrei s te serveti i cu prjitur? 9. M ndoiesc
c a luat vreo pastil. 10. Nu mi ntmpl niciodat s trec pe lng o florrie
fr s cumpr flori. 11. Plou prea tare ca s plantm floarea n dimineaa
asta. 12. Toi banii sunt n monede fr valoare. 13. Amndoi copiii sunt foarte
politicoi. 14. Fiecare dintre cei trei oferi este vinovat. 15. Majoritatea
timpului se poart cu mine de parc a fi sora lui mai mic. 16. Cteva ziare au
dat tirea. 17. Nu prea sunt sperane s se fac bine. 18. Noi exportm o
cincime din producia noastr. 19. Nu-i aa c i-am dat bani i ieri? 20.
Fiecare membru al expediiei s-a odihnit puin nainte de plecare.
75
REFERENCES
Universitii
CUP
Unwin Ltd.
Ed. tiinific
OUP
76
FINAL EXERCISES
I. Fill in the blanks with the corresponding articles:
It was raining hard, but when I went to get.umbrella, I found that out
of.umbrellas, we have at.home, there was no one I could use. I decided to
take allumbrellas to.umbrella-maker.
So I took them, left them at.umbrellas-makers, saying I would call
forumbrellas on myway home in.evening.When I went to dine
in.afternoon, it was still raining very hard.
II. Translate into English:
1. L-ai cunoscut pe profesorul de englez al surorii mele?
2. Blana de pisic e moale.
3. Trebuie s m tund la coafor.
4. Dei fratele meu este mai n vrst cu trei ani pare mult mai tnr.
5. Ia-o pe poteca mai ngust.
6. E de departe cel mai bun elev din clas.
7. El e ultimul, dar nu cel din urm.
8. Se simea din ce n ce mai ru.
9. Este adevrat c romanul acesta recent publicat este ultimul dumneavoastr
roman?
10. Am nevoie i de alte amnunte pentru a trage o concluzie.
III. Fill in the balnks with the appropriate pronoun:
1. Almostmight have those.
2. will you take, milk or cream?
3. I dont know .fault it is.
4. The boyyou see there is our teachers son.
5. They were afraid of.
6. There is a simple explanation, but it isnt the onltI can give.
7. There ismilk in the fridge; I cant make the cake.
8. If you haveto do, at least do not disturb me.
9. He tried to save her in spite of
10. Each of them seem to finds silence restful.
IV. Use the words in capitals to complete the blanks with the suitable forms:
1. The of your papers took me a long time. CORRECT
2. Time and space are.. LIMIT
3. I am about the value of his suggestions. DOUBT
4. The witness gave ..opinions about the accident. CONTRADICT
5. The of his actionsis questionable. MORAL
6. The police had to make aentry. FORCE
7. This jewel of yours isyou should keep it in a safe. PRICE
8. She bases her statement on a false. SUPPOSE
9. This novel is.for his work. REPRESENT
10. The.of the task took his several months. ACCOMPLISH
V. Correct the mistakes:
1. The man whom I said would be waiting for you had just left.
2. The most of the people there were strangers.
3. They have agreed to cooperate on numerous matters of mutually interest.
4. There was little flour left and she made some pancakes.
77
5. Who won the race: Fred or Larry? The second.
6. The two friends kept writing to one another all through the holidays.
7. The cattle was taken to market.
8. A reliable friend should be a honest person.
9. As lon you support me, I feel more slef-confident.
10. The audience is asked to take its seats.
VI. Translate into English:
tefan ntinse braul ca s l acopere mai bine cu ptura. Antim se suci brusc,
apucnd cu ambele mini servieta. D-ta erai? ntreb el speriat. i l privi
cercettor, cu bnuial. tefan i zmbi i se ghemui sub ptur. Se simea
aproape ngheat. Ar fi vrut s adoarm din nou i nchise ochii. Dar i
redeschise imediat i ntoarse capul. Antim nu se culcase, i urmrea atent
micrile. Ochii li se ntlnir o clip. Stnjenit, tefan se ntoarse cu faa la
perete.
78
REFERENCES
Universitii
Berry, Roger, 1993. English Guides, Articles, Harper-Collins Publishers,
Birmingham
Berry, Roger, Page V, Collins/Cobuild, 1993. Articles, The University of
Birmingham
CUP
Unwin Ltd.
Pedagogic
Ed. tiinific
Prlog H., 1982. More on the Superlatives. AUT, XX, pp. 85-88
Prlog H., 1995. The English Noun Phrase, Timioara, Hestia Publishing
House
OUP

English Morphology The Nominal Part

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