Audiovisual Translation

DELIA CHIARO
Audiovisual translation (AVT) is the term used to refer to the transfer from one language
to another of the verbal components contained in audiovisual works and products. Feature
lms, television programs, theatrical plays, musicals, opera, Web pages, and video games
are just some examples of the vast array of audiovisual products available and that require
translation. As the word suggests, audiovisuals are made to be both heard (audio) and seen
(visual) simultaneously but they are primarily meant to be seen. We talk of watching a
movie, a show, or even an opera; we see programs that are shown on television.
However, while the verbal and visual codes in audiovisuals are linked to such an extent
that the words naturally tend to rely heavily on the visuals, the translation of these
products operates on a verbal level alone.
Precisely because audiovisual materials are meant to be seen and heard simultaneously,
their translation is different from translating print. Written works are primarily meant to
be read. Illustrations in books, newspapers, journals, and magazines such as photographs,
diagrams, and graphs, are there to accompany and enhance the verbal content. On the
other hand the verbal and visual contents of audiovisual products function inseparably to
create a meaningful whole.
Audiovisuals are made up of numerous codes that interact to create a single effect. On
one level, audiovisual products contain a series of verbal messages that will be perceived
both acoustically and visually. In lmic products, as well as what the actors say, audiences
may also hear the lyrics of songs while simultaneously being exposed to a range of
written information such as street signs, billboards, letters, notes, and so forth. Also, at
the beginning and end of a program, substantial written information about it, such as the
names of the director, producers, the cast, and the production team will also be visible.
On a different level, but together with such acoustic and visual verbal input, lmic prod-
ucts also contain nonverbal sound effects and background noises, body sounds (breathing,
laughter, crying, etc.), and music. At the same time actors facial expressions, gestures and
movements, costumes, hairstyles, makeup, and so forth convey additional meaning. Further-
more, scenery, colors, special effects, and three-dimensionality are also part of the lmic
whole. AVT needs to take all this diversied verbal and visual information into account
bearing in mind that this inseparable link between verbal and visual codes may often
constrain the translation process.
Multimedia Translation
Audiovisual products are typically created with the support of technological apparatus.
Movie making traditionally involves the use of cameras and celluloid, the creation of
Web pages requires a computer and specialized software, and so on. Similarly, many
audiovisual products are also consumed by means of diverse technological media. Cinema
screens, television sets, computers, and video-game consoles are examples of equipment
normally adopted in order to make use of audiovisuals. Furthermore, lmic products
can be accessed by means of terrestrial, satellite or cable networks, in DVD format or in
streaming from a computer connected to the World Wide Web. Likewise, their translations
The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, Edited by Carol A. Chapelle.
2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0061
2 audiovisual translation
are both created and accessed through one or more electronic devices, hence the overlap
with the alternative and all-inclusive term, multimedia translation. For example, an AVT
modality such as subtitling involves the use of sophisticated software while dubbing and
voice-over require specic hardware. In addition, users access these translations by means
of screens (i.e., cinema, TV, and computer screens) hence another overlapping term screen
translation.
However, not all AVT involves screens. Theatrical productions such as musicals as well
as opera are examples of audiovisual products that are traditionally performed live on
stage. Typically, operas are performed in their original languages while audiences follow
the written lyrics in translation in librettos. Speakers of the language in which the opera
is performed also resort to librettos to help them understand what the characters are sing-
ing as the lyrics may be difcult to understand owing to the particular stress, pitch, and
rhythm required by the conventions of the genre. Librettos thus exemplify intralingual
translations which, unlike inter-lingual translation that regards language transfer between
two different languages, concern the interpretation of verbal signs into a different system
of signs in the same language (see Jakobson, 1959). Nowadays, however, opera translation
is becoming highly technological with translations projected onto the proscenium in the
form of surtitles or else provided in electronic librettos on the back of theatre seats.
Again, while not being strictly audiovisual, in the sense that the reader cannot actually
listen to them, comic books have much in common with audiovisual products and the
process of their translation involves similar constraints. Comic books consist of a series
of framed images with dialogues contained in speech and thought bubbles linked to
characters mouths in such a way that evokes real dialogue. Furthermore, much of the
conventional language in comic books has a highly aural avor reected in words, often
placed outside speech bubbles, such as boom!, vroom!, zoink!, and zzzzzzzz.
Graphic frames and dialogues come together to create a narrative that unfolds in real time
rather like that of a lm. So although comic book images are static, readers are able to
imagine speech and noise while following the sequential framework. Thus they can be
placed on the interface between print texts and screen products such as lms and video
games. Signicantly, there is a strong tradition of comic characters that subsequently
developed into lmic, animated, or both lmic and animated form (e.g., Batman, Spiderman,
etc.) while the late 20th century saw the expansion of traditional Japanese comic books,
manga, into a new form of animated cartoon known as anime which have since ourished
into a global industry; for example, Pokemon and Dragon Ball (see Zanettin, 2008).
AVT Modalities
The main modalities for screen translation of ctional products are dubbing and subtitling.
Traditionally, Western Europe has been divided into a subtitling block that included
Scandinavian and Benelux countries, Greece and Portugal, while the so-called FIGS
countries (France, Italy, Germany, and Spain) made up the dubbing block. However,
nowadays the situation is no longer so clear-cut. The spread of DVD technology and the
cost-effectiveness of subtitling has allowed this modality to enter many dubbing strongholds
as an alternative. Furthermore, many cinemas in dubbing countries now also offer screenings
with subtitles while digital television provides viewers with the choice of both modalities.
In addition, political entities such as Wales, Catalonia, and the Basque country choose
dubbing as a support for minority languages (OConnell, 1996; Izard, 2000) while
Scandinavian countries which traditionally only dubbed childrens television programs,
now also dub some programs for adults (Gottlieb, 2001a). English-speaking countries tend
to prefer subtitling for the few foreign language lms that enter these markets which tend
audiovisual translation 3
to be restricted to educated art-house cinema audiences (Chiaro, 2008, 2009a). Outside
Europe, dubbing is strong in mainland China, Japan, Latin America, and Qubec while
subtitling is the preferred mode in Israel, Hong Kong, and Thailand.
Dubbing
The aim of dubbing is to make the translated dialogue appear as though it is being uttered
by the actors in the target language by means of the replacement of the original speech
by a voice track which attempts to follow as closely as possible the timing, phrasing, and
lip-movements of the original dialogue (Luyken, Herbst, Langham-Brown, Reid, & Spinhof,
1991, p. 31).
In the early 20th century, the birth of talking lm and the rise of Hollywood led pro-
ducers to come to terms with the issue of marketing their products in different languages.
Initially producers inserted short dialogues in the target language within the English
dialogues, but when this proved to be unsatisfactory with audiences, they began produc-
ing multiple-language versions of the same lm. Paramount Pictures, for example, set up
a large studio in Joinville, France, dedicated to the production of these multiple-versions
which, however, turned out to be economically unfeasible. The idea of substituting the
original voice track with one in another language is generally attributable to the Austrian
lm producer Jakob Karol, who in 1930 realized that the technology to do this was already
available (see Paolinelli & Di Fortunato, 2005, pp. 456). At rst, dubbing into European
languages was carried out in the USA; Hal Roach famously had Laurel and Hardy read
off prompts in French, German, Italian, and Spanish, but by the early thirties each European
country had begun to set up its own dubbing industries.
According to Danan (1991, p. 612) dubbing is an assertion of the supremacy of the
national language and is often linked to rgimes wishing to exalt their national languages.
Indeed it is not by chance that Austria, Germany, Italy, and Spain should opt for dubbing
over subtitling while France may well have chosen dubbing to perpetuate its well-established
tradition of caring for the French language and protecting it from the onslaught of
anglicisms.
Traditionally, the entire process of dubbing a lm was overseen by a project manager
aided by an assistant who was responsible for negotiating costs, timescales, and general
organizational aspects of the process. Dubbing a lm began with the literal, word for word,
translation of the script. Next, a dubbing-translator adapted the translation so that the
new target language utterances sounded natural and were in sync with the lip movements
of the actors on screen. Dubbing-translators did not need to be procient in the source
language but they did need to be talented in scriptwriting in the target language so as to
render the new dialogue as natural and credible as possible. In the meantime, the dubbing
assistant would divide the lm into loops or short tracks and begin organizing studio-
recording shifts for the various actors or voice talents. Once recording began, actors watched
the lm and listened to the original soundtrack through headphones while reading the
translated script. However, actors would be free to modify the translated script as they
felt t. The completed recording of the dub was nally mixed and balanced with the
international track and musical score. This artisan approach is, however, being largely
replaced by digital technology which does away with the need to prepare reels of celluloid
into short tracks and for voice talents to perform in a recording studio, as hi-tech allows
actors to record from their personal workstations while software will take care of editing
different tracks together. Moreover, advances in technology are such that facial and lip
movements of actors on lm can now be modied to synchronize with the movements of
the target language, while other software programs are able to match the voice quality of
4 audiovisual translation
the original actor with the recording of the translation giving the impression that it is the
original actor speaking (Chiaro, 2009b).
Poland and Russia enjoy a nonsynchronized form of dubbing in which all the different
actors, regardless of gender, are dubbed by a single male voice known as a Lektor, but may
also consist of two voices, one male and one female, voicing-over the male and female
characters respectively. This style of dubbing is similar to the modality of voice-over
adopted in Europe for nonction screen products such as documentaries and news pro-
grams. Unlike synchronized dubbing, in voiced-over products the original soundtrack is
always discernible and not totally covered by the translated soundtrack. It is also the norm
for the initial and nal utterances, together with other short pieces of the original speech,
known as sound bites, not to be voiced over. However, at the time of writing, Russia is
slowly converting to a more synchronized form of dubbing.
Subtitling
Subtitles consist of the rendering in a different language of verbal messages in lmic
media in the shape of one or more lines of written text presented on the screen in sync
with the original message (Gottlieb, 2001b, p. 87).
Subtitles are an abbreviated written translation of what can be heard on screen and are
known as open when they are incorporated onto the lm itself and as closed when
chosen by the viewer from a DVD or teletext menu. At lm festivals subtitles are generally
projected live onto the screen in real time.
Subtitles considerably reduce the actual dialogue simply because viewers need the time
to read them without running the risk of missing any of the action on screen (Antonini,
2005, p. 213). Furthermore, ideally, viewers should be unaware of the fact that they are
reading and be able to simultaneously watch the lm, read the subtitles, and enjoy it. The
subtitling process involves three basic steps: elimination, rendering, and condensation.
Elimination consists in reducing elements that do not change the meaning of the source
dialogue such as false starts, repetitions, and hesitations. Rendering refers to the elimin-
ation of taboo items, slang, and dialect and condensation involves the simplication
of original syntax in order to render the subs more easily readable (Antonini, 2005,
pp. 21315). Traditionally a technician carries out the spotting or cueing process that
involves marking the transcript of the dialogues according to where the subtitles should
begin and end. Translators then gauge their work in line with these cues after which
subtitles are checked for sync with changes of frames. However, technology now allows
translators to work directly onto electronic les that enable them to create complete
products from their personal workstations.
Conventionally, subtitles were restricted to 30 to 40 characters including spaces that
were displayed at the center bottom of the picture, or else left-aligned (Gottlieb, 2001b).
Nowadays, such restrictions are disappearing as subtitling programs working with pixels
allow letters to be modied according to space. Furthermore, wider screens tend to have
longer lines and DVDs allow viewers to rewind and re-read features they may have missed,
while alignment changes according to the directionality of script in individual languages
(Daz Cintas & Remael, 2007). In addition, because of the possibility of placing the titles
anywhere on the screen, the term caption(ing) is now becoming widespread.
Accessibility
Accessibility or inclusion refers to the provision of audiovisual products such as plays,
lms, and opera for all members of the public including those who are in some way
audiovisual translation 5
sensorally challenged. Thus accessibility endorses intralingual translations in the form
of subtitles, sign language interpreting for the deaf and hard of hearing, and audio-
descriptions for the blind and visually impaired. A sign language interpreter will translate
verbal information (audio) into meaningful hand signals (visual) while subtitles for the
hard of hearing, as well as conveying the verbal contents of audiovisuals, will also transmit
other nonverbal acoustic information, such as music and sound effects, in writing. Subtitles
for the hard of hearing for TV programs are available in Europe by means of each countrys
individual teletext service.
Audio-descriptions consist of an additional soundtrack especially recorded for the use
of blind and visually impaired people to help them enjoy audiovisual products. During
breaks in the dialogues, an off-screen voice provides an account of what is happening
on screen. Audio-descriptions are especially common in museums and art galleries thus
exemplifying a type of intersemiotic translation in which visual signs are transmuted into
verbal signs.
SEE ALSO: Commercial Translation; Strategies of Translation
References
Antonini, R. (2005). The perception of subtitled humor in Italy: An empirical study. In D. Chiaro
(Ed.), Humor: International journal of humor research (Special issue). Humor and Translation,
18(2), 20925.
Chiaro, D. (2008). Issues of quality in screen translation: Problems and solutions. In D. Chiaro,
C. Heiss, & C. Bucaria (Eds.), Between text and image: Updating research in screen translation
(pp. 24156). Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins.
Chiaro, D. (2009a). The politics of screen translation. In F. M. Federici (Ed.), Translating region-
alised voices in audiovisuals (pp. 2742). Rome, Italy: Aracne.
Chiaro, D. (2009b). Issues in audiovisual translation. In J. Munday (Ed.), The Routledge companion
to translation studies (pp. 14165). London, England: Routledge.
Danan, M. (1991). Dubbing as an expression of nationalism. Meta, 36(4), 60614.
Daz Cintas, J., & Remael, A. (2007). Audiovisual translation: Subtitling. Manchester, England:
St. Jerome.
Gottlieb, H. (2001a). Anglicisms and TV subtitles in an Anglied world. In Y. Gambier &
H. Gottlieb (Eds.), (Multi)media translation. Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins.
Gottlieb, H. (2001b). Subtitling: Visualizing lmic dialogue. In L. Garcia & A. M. Pereira Rodriguez
(Eds.), Traduccin subordinada (II): El subtituolado (pp. 85110). Vigo, Spain: Servicio de la
Univeridad de Vigo.
Izard, N. (2000). La traducci i la normalitzaci de la llengua catalana: El cas de la televisi. In
A. Engelbert (Ed.), Actes du XXIIe Congrs International de Linguistique et de Philologie Romane
(Vol. III). Tbingen, Germany: Niemeyer.
Jakobson, R. (1959). On linguistic aspects of translation. In R. A. Brower (Ed.), On translation
(pp. 2329). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Luyken, G.-M., Herbst, T., Langham-Brown, J., Reid, H., & Spinhof, H. (1991). Overcoming
language barriers in television: Dubbing and subtitling for the European audience. Manchester,
England: European Institute for the Media.
OConnell, E. (1996). Media, translation and translation studies. In T. Hickey & J. Williams (Eds.),
Language, education and society in a changing world (pp. 1516). Clevedon, England: Multilingual
Matters.
Paolinelli, M., & Di Fortunato, E. (2005). Tradurre per il doppiaggio. Milan, Italy: Hoepli.
Zanettin, F. (Ed.). (2008). Comics in translation. Manchester, England: St. Jerome.