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The document discusses Galerkin methods, which are numerical techniques used to approximate solutions to differential equations. Galerkin methods convert continuous operator problems into discrete problems using finite basis functions. Examples include the finite element method and boundary element method. The document also discusses Lagrangian and Eulerian specifications for describing fluid flow, as well as meshfree methods as an alternative to traditional mesh-based numerical simulations. Meshfree methods use particle representations of the domain rather than a mesh grid.
The document discusses Galerkin methods, which are numerical techniques used to approximate solutions to differential equations. Galerkin methods convert continuous operator problems into discrete problems using finite basis functions. Examples include the finite element method and boundary element method. The document also discusses Lagrangian and Eulerian specifications for describing fluid flow, as well as meshfree methods as an alternative to traditional mesh-based numerical simulations. Meshfree methods use particle representations of the domain rather than a mesh grid.
The document discusses Galerkin methods, which are numerical techniques used to approximate solutions to differential equations. Galerkin methods convert continuous operator problems into discrete problems using finite basis functions. Examples include the finite element method and boundary element method. The document also discusses Lagrangian and Eulerian specifications for describing fluid flow, as well as meshfree methods as an alternative to traditional mesh-based numerical simulations. Meshfree methods use particle representations of the domain rather than a mesh grid.
In mathematics, in the area of numerical analysis, Galerkin methods are a class of
methods for converting a continuous operator problem (such as a differential equation) to a discrete problem. In principle, it is the equivalent of applying the method of variation to a function space, by converting the equation to a weak formulation. Typically one then applies some constraints on the function space to characterie the space with a finite set of basis functions. !ften when using a Galerkin method one also gives the name along with typical appro"imation methods used, such as #etrov$Galerkin method or %it$ Galerkin method. The approach is credited to the %ussian mathematician Boris Galerkin. &"amples of Galerkin methods are' The finite element method (oundary element method for solving integral equations )rylov subspace methods In mathematics, a weak solution (also called a generalied solution) to an ordinary or partial differential equation is a function for which the derivatives appearing in the equation may not all e"ist but which is nonetheless deemed to satisfy the equation in some precisely defined sense. There are many different definitions of weak solution, appropriate for different classes of equations. !ne of the most important is based on the notion of distributions. *voiding the language of distributions, one starts with a differential equation and rewrites it in such a way that no derivatives of the solution of the equation show up (the new form is called the weak formulation, and the solutions to it are called weak solutions). +omewhat surprisingly, a differential equation may have solutions which are not differentiable, and the weak formulation allows one to find such solutions. -eak solutions are important because a great many differential equations encountered in modelling real world phenomena do not admit sufficiently smooth solutions and then the only way of solving such equations is using the weak formulation. &ven in situations where an equation does have differentiable solutions, it is often convenient to first prove the e"istence of weak solutions and only later show that those solutions are in fact smooth enough. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION: * differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown function of one or several variables that relates the values of the function itself and its derivatives of various orders. .ifferential equations play a prominent role in engineering, physics, economics, and other disciplines. .ifferential equations arise in many areas of science and technology' whenever a deterministic relation involving some continuously varying quantities (modeled by functions) and their rates of change in space and/or time (e"pressed as derivatives) is known or postulated. *n e"ample of modeling a real world problem using differential equations is determination of the velocity of a ball falling through the air, considering only gravity and air resistance. The ball0s acceleration towards the ground is the acceleration due to gravity minus the deceleration due to air resistance. Gravity is constant but air resistance may be modeled as proportional to the ball0s velocity. This means the ball0s acceleration, which is the derivative of its velocity, depends on the velocity. 1inding the velocity as a function of time involves solving a differential equation. *n ordinary differential equation (!.&) is a differential equation in which the unknown function (also known as the dependent variable) is a function of a single independent variable. * partial differential equation (#.&) is a differential equation in which the unknown function is a function of multiple independent variables and the equation involves its partial derivatives. (oth ordinary and partial differential equations are broadly classified as linear and nonlinear. * differential equation is linear if the unknown function and its derivatives appear to the power 2 (products are not allowed) and nonlinear otherwise. 3ewton0s +econd 4aw in dynamics (mechanics) 5amilton0s equations in classical mechanics %adioactive decay in nuclear physics 3ewton0s law of cooling in thermodynamics The wave equation 6a"well0s equations in electromagnetism The heat equation in thermodynamics 4aplace0s equation, which defines harmonic functions #oisson0s equation &instein0s field equation in general relativity The +chr7dinger equation in quantum mechanics The geodesic equation The 3avier8+tokes equations in fluid dynamics The 4otka89olterra equation in population dynamics The (lack8+choles equation in finance The :auchy8%iemann equations in comple" analysis The #oisson8(oltmann equation in molecular dynamics The shallow water equations ;niversal differential equation FEM: The finite element method (1&6) (its practical application often known as finite element analysis (1&*)) is a numerical technique for finding appro"imate solutions of partial differential equations (#.&) as well as of integral equations. The solution approach is based either on eliminating the differential equation completely (steady state problems), or rendering the #.& into an appro"imating system of ordinary differential equations, which are then numerically integrated using standard techniques such as &uler0s method, %unge$)utta, etc. In solving partial differential equations, the primary challenge is to create an equation that appro"imates the equation to be studied, but is numerically stable, meaning that errors in the input and intermediate calculations do not accumulate and cause the resulting output to be meaningless. Its development can be traced back to the work by *le"ander 5rennikoff (2<=2) and %ichard :ourant (2<=>). 5rennikoff0s work discreties the domain by using a lattice analogy while :ourant0s approach divides the domain into finite triangular subregions for solution of second order elliptic partial differential equations (#.&s) that arise from the problem of torsion of a cylinder. :ourant0s contribution was evolutionary, drawing on a large body of earlier results for #.&s developed by %ayleigh, %it, and Galerkin. .evelopment of the finite element method began in earnest in the middle to late 2<?@s for airframe and structural analysis and gathered momentum at the ;niversity of +tuttgart through the work of Aohn *rgyris and at (erkeley through the work of %ay -. :lough in the 2<B@s for use in civil engineering. (y late 2<?@s, the key concepts of stiffness matri" and element assembly e"isted essentially in the form used today. 3*+* issued a request for proposals for the development of the finite element software 3*+T%*3 in 2<B?. The method was provided with a rigorous mathematical foundation in 2<CD with the publication of +trang and 1i"0s An Analysis of The Finite Element Method EDF has since been generalied into a branch of applied mathematics for numerical modeling of physical systems in a wide variety of engineering disciplines, e.g.,electromagnetism, thanks to #eter #. +ilvester and fluid dynamics. 6eshfree methods are a particular class of numerical simulation algorithms for the simulation of physical phenomena. Traditional simulation algorithms relied on a grid or a mesh, meshfree methods in contrast use the geometry of the simulated obGect directly for calculations. 6eshfree methods e"ist for fluid dynamics as well as for solid mechanics. 6eshfree methods eliminate some or all of the traditional mesh$based view of the computational domain and rely on a particle (either 4agrangian or &ulerian) view of the field problem. LAGRANGIAN vs EULERIAN In fluid dynamics and finite$deformation plasticity the 4agrangian specification of the flow field is a way of looking at fluid motion where the observer follows an individual fluid parcel as it moves through space and time. #lotting the position of an individual parcel through time gives the path line of the parcel. This can be visualied as sitting in a boat and drifting down a river. The &ulerian specification of the flow field is a way of looking at fluid motion that focuses on specific locations in the space through which the fluid flows as time passes. This can be visualied by sitting on the bank of a river and watching the water pass the fi"ed location. The 4agrangian and &ulerian specifications of the flow field are sometimes loosely denoted as the 4agrangian and &ulerian frame of reference +moothed particle hydrodynamics (+#5) (2<CC) .iffuse element method (.&6) (2<<>) &lement$free Galerkin method (&1G / &1G6) (2<<=) %eproducing kernel particle method (%)#6) (2<<?) 1inite pointset method (1#6) (2<<H) hp$clouds 3atural element method (3&6) 6aterial #oint 6ethod (6#6) 6eshless local #etrov Galerkin (64#G) 6oving particle semi$implicit (6#+) Generalied finite difference method (G1.6) #article$in$cell (#I:) 6oving particle finite element method (6#1&6) 1inite cloud method (1:6) (oundary node method ((36) (oundary cloud method ((:6) 6ethod of fundamental solution(61+) 6ethod of particular solution (6#+) 6ethod of 1inite +pheres (61+) .iscrete 9orte" 6ethod (.96) 6oving least squares is a method of reconstructing continuous functions from a set of unorganied point samples via the calculation of a weighted least squares measure biased towards the region around the point at which the reconstructed value is requested. Difference equation is an equation that describes how something changes in .I+:%&T& time steps. 3;6&%I:*4 +!4;TI!3+ to I3T&G%*4+ are usually realied as difference equations. It can also be said as a recurrence relation is an equation that recursively defines a sequence' each term of the sequence is defined as a function of the preceding terms. &g. 1ibonacci series.
* fluid flow (both liquid and air) may be described in two different ways' the 4agrangian approach (named after the 1rench mathematician Aoseph 4ouis 4agrange), and the &ulerian approach (named after 4eonhard &uler, a famous +wiss mathematician). In the 4agrangian approach, one particle is chosen and is followed as it moves through space with time. The line traced out by that one particle is called a particle pathline. *n e"ample is a transmitting ocean buoy that observes a set path over regular intervals over a period of time. The path observed is the particle pathline. * &ulerian approach is used to obtain a clearer idea of the airflow at one particular instant. !ne can look at a IphotographJ of the flow of, for instance, surface ocean currents at a particular fi"ed time. The entire flow field is easily visualied. The lines comprising this flow field are called streamlines (see streamlining). Thus, a pathline refers to the trace of a single particle in time and space whereas a streamline presents the line of motion of many particles at a fi"ed time. The question of whether particle pathlines and streamlines are ever the same is considered ne"t. !f basic importance in understanding fluid movements about an obGect is the concept of a steady flow. !n a windy day a person calls the wind steady if, from where she stands, it blows constantly from the same direction at a constant speed. If, however, the speed or direction changes, the wind is IgustyJ or unsteady. In a similar manner the flow of a fluid (both liquid and air) about an obGect is steady if its velocity (speed and direction) at each point in the flow remains constant 8 this does not necessarily require that the velocity be the same at all points in the fluid. This means that for unsteady flows, particle pathlines (the 4angranian point of view) and streamlines (the &ulerian approach) are not equivalent. 1or a steady flow, however, a particle pathline and streamline are equivalent, and the 4agrangian point of view is the same as the &ulerian approach for flow visualiation. There are two main ways of approaching problems that involve the motion of deformable materials $ the 4agrangian way and the &ulerian way. These approaches are distinguished by three important aspects' 2. The mesh description. >. The stress tensor and momentum equation (kinetics). D. The strain measure (kinematics). +ome essential definitions are given below' !atia" or Eu"erian coor#inates ( )' These coordinates are used to locate a point in space with respect to a fi"ed basis. Kou can think of these coordinates as the ones you are familiar with. Materia" or La$ran$ian coor#inates ( )' These coordinates are used to "a%e" material points. If we sit on a material point, the label does not change with time. -e do start with areference "a%e" which we usually choose as the initial spatial coordinates of a material point. Motion or Defor&ation ' * motion or deformation is defined as a mapping between the initial and the current configuration. -e usually write this relationship as The initial configuraton is The displacement is defined as the difference between the reference and the current configuration. -e write The velocity of a material point is the derivative of the motion with fi"ed. The acceleration of a material point is the derivative of the velocity with fi"ed. LAGRANGIAN EULERIAN -e can think of the 4agrangian mesh as being drawn on the body. The mesh deforms with the body. (oth the nodes and the material points change position as the body deforms. 5owever, the position of the material points relative to the nodes remains fi"ed. !n the other hand, the &ulerian mesh is a background mesh. The body flows through the mesh as it deforms. The nodes remain fi"ed and the materials points move through the mesh. The position of a material point relative to the nodes varies with the motion. La$ran$ian &es' 2. 4agrangian coordinates of nodes move with the material. 6aterial coordinates of material points are time invariant. >. 3o material passes between elements. D. &lement quadrature points remain coincident with material points. =. (oundary nodes remain on the boundary. Therefore, boundary conditions and interface conditions are easily applied. ?. +evere mesh distortion can occur because the mesh deforms with the material. Eu"erian &es' 2. &ulerian coordinates of nodes are fi"ed and coincide with spatial points. +patial coordinates of material points vary with time. >. 6aterial flows through the mesh. D. The material point at a given element quadrature point changes with time. This makes dealing with history$dependent materials difficult. =. (oundary nodes and the material boundary may not coincide. Therefore, boundary conditions and interface conditions are hard to apply. ?. There is no mesh distortion because the mesh is fi"ed in space. 5owever, the domain that needs to be modeled is larger because we do not want the body to leave the domain. LO(KING The !atc' test in the finite element method is a simple indicator of the quality of a finite element, developed by (ruce Irons. The patch test uses a partial differential equation on a domain consisting from several elements set up so that the e"act solution is known. Typically, in mechanics, the prescribed e"act solution consists of displacements that vary as linear functions in space (called a constant strain solution). The elements pass the patch test if the finite element solution is the same as the e"act solution. E2F It was long conGectured by engineers that passing the patch test is sufficient for the convergence of the finite element, that is, to ensure that the solutions from the finite element method converge to the e"act solution of the partial differential equation as the finite element mesh is refined. 5owever, this is not the case, and the patch test is neither sufficient nor necessary for convergence. If you consider a beam with thickness t under combined shear and bending deformations, the portion of the internal energy associated with the bending deformation is proportional with tLD, but the portion related to shear deformations is proportional with t. 3ow if we reduce the thickness t, the value of tLD approaches ero much faster than t and as a result, all the strain energy of the beam will come from shear deformation. This is not correct because for a thin beam it is always the bending deformations which provide most part of the energy. +o the shear deformation beam can lead to wrong results for very thin beam. This is called s'ear "oc)in$. 6embrane locking happens when you model a curved surface of with flat (facet) shell elements. In this case because the elements are not in the same plane, bending vector of one element will have a proGection on the ne"t element which acts like an in$plane moment or drilling moment. *gain in$plane deformations energy is proportional to t but bending energy is proportional to tLD and the same problem happens when t becomes very small, i.e. membrane resistance of the ne"t element stops bending deformation on this element. This is called &e&%rane "oc)in$.