lnLroducuon Lo LLhlcs

hllosophy A11
rofessor !ulla nefsky
1
1oday:
1. A d|snncnon: descrlpuve vs. normauve
2. Arguments: whaL Lhey are and how Lo
evaluaLe Lhem.


1hursday: we begln unlL 1.
kead: !ohn SLuarL Mlll, ln uefense of
uullLarlanlsm"
2
normauve !"#$%$ uescrlpuve
A descr|pnve clalm = a clalm abouL whaL &$ Lhe
case.

A normanve clalm = a clalm abouL how Lhlngs
'%()* Lo be.

3
Lxamples of uescrlpuve Clalms
1. Cbama ls Lhe resldenL of Lhe uSA.
2. !ohn SLuarL Mlll ls Lhe resldenL of Lhe uSA.
3. 30 of marrlages end ln dlvorce.
4. Whales are sh.
3. Leafy green vegeLables conLaln Lons of
vlLamlns, mlnerals and anuoxldanLs.
6. Salsa ls Lhe #1 condlmenL ln norLh Amerlca.
4
Lxamples of normauve Clalms
a. lL ls wrong Lo break a promlse.
b. Laung meaL ls morally permlsslble.
c. ?ou should eaL a loL of leafy greens.
d. ?ou should eaL a loL of salsa.
e. Cne oughL noL hold lnconslsLenL bellefs.
f. lf all Lhe evldence supporLs LhaL lL was
rofessor lum ln Lhe llbrary wlLh Lhe
candlesuck, you should belleve LhaL lL was.
3
normauve !"#$%$ uescrlpuve
8oLh descrlpuve and normauve clalms can be
Lrue or false.

1he dlerence ls ln $%,-".* /01"#: lL's a
dlerence ln whaL Lhe clalms are abouL.
6
uescrlpuve Clalms
!ohn SLuarL Mlll ls Lhe resldenL of Lhe uSA."
Whales are sh."
! fa|se
Salsa ls Lhe #1 condlmenL ln norLh Amerlca."
!debatab|e (ls lL salsa or keLchup??)
7
MorallLy ls a 2'#/03!" uomaln
Moral clalms are clalms abouL how people
'%()* Lo acL, raLher Lhan abouL how people 4'
ln facL acL.


- lL ls wrong Lo break a promlse."
- Laung meaL ls morally permlsslble."
8
CLher klnds of normauve Clalms
rudenna| c|a|ms: clalms abouL whaL would be
prudenL, or ln your $"567&8*"#"$*9



?ou should eaL a loL of leafy greens."
?ou should eaL a loL of salsa."
9
CLher klnds of normauve Clalms
Normanve ep|stem|c c|a|ms: clalms abouL whaL
one should belleve, how one oughL Lo reason.


Cne oughL noL hold lnconslsLenL bellefs."

lf all Lhe evldence supporLs LhaL lL was
rofessor lum ln Lhe llbrary wlLh Lhe
candlesuck, you should belleve LhaL lL was."



10
Summary
Moral clalms are:

a) normauve raLher Lhan descrlpuve.

b) 1hey are a parucular klnd of normauve clalm.
noL all normauve clalms concern /'#05&*:.
11
Pow can we lnvesugaLe moral
quesuons?

1he .)&"6 Lool cannoL be experlmenL or
observauon.

Cne cannoL lnfer a 8'#/03!" clalm from a
purely 4"$.#&;3!" clalm.

Is" does noL lmply Cught".
12
sychology, Soclology,
AnLhropology
Can Lell us abouL how people &8 60.* behave.
Can Lell us abouL whaL people ,"5&"!" abouL
how Lhey oughL Lo behave.

Lxamp|e: whlle 90 of Canadlans eaL meaL, only
70 belleve LhaL eaung meaL ls morally okay.*

8uL Lhls cannoL Lell us wheLher eaung meaL &$
morally okay.

*Warnlng: made up sLausuc.
13
Pow can we lnvesugaLe moral
quesuons?

- WhaL we can do ls glve !"#$%&'().

- We can sLarL from clalms LhaL are hlghly
plauslble, and Lry Lo argue from Lhose clalms
Lo concluslons LhaL are less obvlous, or more
conLroverslal.

14
An ArgumenL
A serles of proposluons almed aL esLabllshlng or
[usufylng some polnL.

ConLalns:
a) a conc|us|on = Lhe proposluon Lhe argumenL
ls Lrylng Lo esLabllsh.
b) prem|ses = Lhe $*0#38( ;'&8*$ of Lhe
argumenL.
13
Lxample
Cne should noL cause Lremendous paln [usL for
one's own amusemenL. umng kluens ln bolllng
waLer causes Lhem Lremendous paln. So, one
should noL puL kluens ln bolllng waLer [usL for
one's own amusemenL."

WhaL ls Lhe concluslon? WhaL are Lhe premlses?

16
Answer
1. Cne should noL cause Lremendous paln [usL
for one's own amusemenL.
2. umng kluens ln bolllng waLer causes Lhem
Lremendous paln.
C. Cne should noL puL kluens ln bolllng waLer
[usL for one's own amusemenL.

17
1wo Ways an ArgumenL Can Co
Wrong

1) lL could sLarL from fa|se prem|ses.

2) lL could have fau|ty |nferences: Lhe /'!"$ lL
makes from Lhe premlses *' Lhe concluslon
could be bad moves.
18
An AlrughL ArgumenL

1) 1he premlses are true.

2) 1he lnferences are va||d: Lhe concluslon
6'55'<$ from Lhe premlses.

19
A valld ArgumenL

=6 Lhe premlses are Lrue, Lhen Lhe concluslon
/%$* be Lrue.
1he concluslon 6'55'<$ from Lhe premlses.
20
An AlrughL ArgumenL
1) 1he premlses are true.
2) 1he lnferences are va||d.

1) + 2) " Lhe concluslon ls (%0#08*""4 Lo be
Lrue.

1 and 2: compleLely lndependenL (can have
elLher wlLhouL Lhe oLher).

21
WhaL's Wrong wlLh Lhls ArgumenL?
1) lf Lhe moon ls made of Lofu, Lhen Lhere ls
bean curd ln Lhe sky.
2) 1he moon ls made of Lofu.
C) 1herefore, Lhere ls bean curd ln Lhe sky.
22
WhaL's Wrong wlLh Lhls ArgumenL?
1) lf Lhe moon ls made of Lofu, Lhen Lhere ls
bean curd ln Lhe sky.
2) 1he moon ls made of Lofu.
C) 1herefore, Lhere ls bean curd ln Lhe sky.

2 |s fa|se.

23
ls Lhe lnference valld?
1) lf Lhe moon ls made of Lofu, Lhen Lhere ls
bean curd ln Lhe sky.
2) 1he moon ls made of Lofu.
C) 1herefore, Lhere ls bean curd ln Lhe sky.

24
ls Lhe lnference valld?
1) lf Lhe moon ls made of Lofu, Lhen Lhere ls
bean curd ln Lhe sky.
2) 1he moon ls made of Lofu.
C) 1herefore, Lhere ls bean curd ln Lhe sky.

Ask yourse|f: =6 1 and 2 were boLh Lrue, .'%54
C be false?
lf Lhe answer ls 'no', Lhen Lhe lnference ls valld.
23
ls Lhe lnference valld?
1) lf Lhe moon ls made of Lofu, Lhen Lhere ls
bean curd ln Lhe sky.
2) 1he moon ls made of Lofu.
C) 1herefore, Lhere ls bean curd ln Lhe sky.

es, Lhe lnference ls valld.
26
Any ArgumenL of Lhe lorm
1. lf A Lhen 8
2. A
3. 1herefore, 8

ls va||d.

- Called >'4%$ ?'8"8$".
27
ls Lhls ArgumenL a Cood Cne?
1) lf l play Lennls Loday, l wlll geL some
exerclse.
2) l wlll noL play Lennls Loday.
C) 1herefore, l'm noL golng Lo geL any exerclse.

- 1he prem|ses are true.
- Is the |nference va||d?

28
ls Lhe lnference valld?
1) lf l play Lennls Loday, l wlll geL some
exerclse.
2) l wlll noL play Lennls Loday.
C) 1herefore, l'm noL golng Lo geL any exerclse.

No.
Counterexamp|e to |ts va||d|ty: l go [ogglng.

29
Any ArgumenL of Lhe lorm
1. lf A Lhen 8
2. noL A
3. 1herefore noL 8

ls |nva||d.

30
Lvaluaung Lhe ArgumenLs We 8ead
1. ueLermlne whaL Lhe concluslon ls, whaL Lhe
premlses are, and Lhen ask:

2. Are Lhe premlses p|aus|b|e?
- Pow mlghL one ob[ecL Lo Lhe Lhem?

1. Are Lhe lnferences va||d?
- lf noL, whaL would lL Lake Lo /0@" Lhe
argumenL valld?
31
lmpllclL remlses
Suppose l say: All anlmals are morLal. So, we
need Lo face lL: lldo ls golng Lo dle one day. Pe's
noL golng Lo llve forever."

WhaL l sald "A;5&.&*5::

1. All anlmals are morLal.
C. 1herefore, lldo ls morLal.

32
ls Lhe ArgumenL a Cood Cne?
1. All anlmals are morLal.
C. 1herefore, lldo ls morLal.

- 1 ls Lrue.

- 8uL Lhe lnference ls noL valld.

roof: lmaglne LhaL lldo" ls Lhe name of a #'.@.
1hls would make 1 Lrue and C false.
33
lmpllclL remlse
8uL lL would be a mlsLake Lo conclude LhaL my
argumenL was a bad one.


lf we were lnLerpreung whaL l was saylng
.)0#&*0,5:, lL would be clear LhaL l was maklng
use of an lmpllclL premlse:

I|do |s an an|ma|.


34
1he ArgumenL B"055:
1. All anlmals are morLal.
2. lldo ls an anlmal.
C. 1herefore, lldo ls morLal.

- 1hls ls a valld argumenL.
- And lL has Lrue premlses, assumlng lldo ls
lndeed an anlmal.
33
Lxample
1. urlvlng above Lhe speed llmlL ls lllegal.
C. 1herefore lL ls wrong Lo drlve above Lhe
speed llmlL.

-1he premlse ls Lrue.
-8uL ls Lhe lnference valld?
36
lmpllclL remlse, or underlylng
Assumpuon

lf some acuvlLy ls lllegal, lL ls wrong Lo do lL.

37
now Lhe ArgumenL ls.
1. urlvlng above Lhe speed llmlL ls lllegal.
2. lf some acuvlLy ls lllegal, lL ls wrong Lo do lL.
C. 1herefore lL ls wrong Lo drlve above Lhe
speed llmlL.


- Is the argument a good one?

38