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PLATE TECTONICS THEORY (PTT)


Plate Tectonics is A modern version of an old idea. The old idea is
Continental Drift Theory. The concepts of Continental Drift and SFS (Sea Floor
Spreading) were combined into a much more encompassing theory called PTT. It
provides a framework from which most other geological processes can be viewed.
The hypothesis of Plate Tectonics Theory emerges from the fact that the
outer, rigid lithosphere of earth consists of several individual segments called Plates.
These plates vary in thickness from 80-100 km in oceans to > 100 km in continents.
At places these may be as thick as 400 km.

PLATES AND THEIR MOTION

Total 12 plates in no.:
- 6 of enormous size called Great Plates
- 6 of comparatively smaller size
Great Plates include:-
1. Pacific Plate: Almost entirely oceanic plus small portion of California. Converging
in North and West. Movement: NW
2. American Plate: continental N & S America plus oceanic west of mid Atlantic
Ridge. For most of western edge, it is converging
3. Eurasian Plate: largely continental plus fringed on east and north by oceanic.
Diverging on west and converging on east.
4. African Plate: continental core plus oceanic periphery.
5. Austral Indian: Mostly Oceanic plus Continental Aust. And peninsular India
6. Antarctic Plate: Antarctica continent surrounded by oceanic lithosphere. Almost
completely spreading all around.



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Other plates: Nazca, Cocos, Philippine, Arabian, Caribbean & Juan De Fuca plate.
Juan De Fuca is diminishing in size & will disappear by subduction under American
Plate. Following Map shows the distribution of Plate Boundaries

The motion of these plates is related to the molten matter below the
earths surface. Below the lithosphere, Asthenosphere consists of a hotter and weaker
zone. Weak nature of rocks in Asthenosphere facilitates motion of rigid outer shell.
Further two places on same plate are not in motion relative to each other e.g. New Delhi
and Chennai. However two places on different plates are in motion relative to each other
e.g. distance between New Delhi and Beijing is reducing due to convergence.

PLATE BOUNDARIES

There are 3 kinds of Plate boundaries:

1. Divergent: plates move apart here create new sea floor (also called Constructive
boundaries)
2. Convergent: plates move towards each other one of the slabs of lithosphere
descends beneath othertherefore one plate is consumed into mantle (also called
Destructive boundaries)
3. Transform: plates slide past each otherno creation or destruction of lithosphere.


A. DIVERGENT BOUNDARY

- Situated at the crests of oceanic ridges e.g. at mid-Atlantic Ridge
- As plates move away from ridge axis, fractures so created are immediately filled with
molten rock that oozes up from hot asthenosphere. Material cools to form new slivers
of sea floor. Atlantic Ocean created 165 my ago by this process.
- When a spreading centre develops within a continent, hot rising plume up-warps
crust directly above it leading to crustal stretching & ultimately tensional cracks


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- As the plates move away, the broken slabs are displaced downward creating down
faulted valleys called Rifts. East African rift valley represents this stage.


- As spreading continues, rift valley lengthens and deepens to become a narrow
linear sea, extending out into the ocean e.g. Red Sea, Gulf of California



- The igneous activity continues, generating new sea floor, resulting into an ever
expanding ocean basin. The site of upwelling takes shape of mid oceanic ridge



- African rift valley and Red sea exemplify best the whole phenomenon





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B. CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES

- Site where lithosphere reabsorbed into mantle.
- Region where an oceanic plate descends into asthenosphere. Also called a subduction
zone because of convergence. A deep ocean trench (8-11 km deep) is formed near
subduction zone.

Oceanic Continental Convergence

- Oceanic crust bends and descends into asthenosphere.
- Soft sediments on sinking plate are scrapped off by overriding continental plate and
deposit along continental margins.
- At 100 km depth, partial melting of water rich ocean crust and overlying mantle
takes place. In the process, less denser than mantle- granitic and andesitic magma is
generated that buoys upwards.
It cools and crystallizes under continental crust; some migrate to surface
resulting into numerous and explosive volcanic eruptions. Volcanic portions of Andes
resultant of Nazca plate under American plate.
- Volcanic arcs are created with such subduction. Mountains like Andes have many
such parts. Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada in USA another examples.









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Oceanic Oceanic Convergence

- Volcanic island arcs form with subduction
- Partial melting of subducting plate and overlying mantle generates magma which
moves upward and forms igneous portion of developing arc system. Aleutian,
Mariana, Tonga are examples.
- Over extended time, numerous episodes of volcanism and buoyancy by intrusive
igneous masses increase its size and elevation. This raises erosion rate and increased
sedimentation added to adjacent sea floor and back arc basin.



- Piling up of sediments in front of overriding plate forms accretionary wedge. It is
folded, faulted and metamorphosed by compressional stresses of converging plates;
similar to igneous arc, it comes above sea level over a period of time. Mature island
Arc with two roughly parallel orogenic belts created e.g. Japan, Philippines and
Alaskan peninsula.

Continental Continental Convergence

- Neither of the two subducts because of low density of rocks and their buoyant nature
- continental crust is buckled, fractured and generally shortened
- Himalayas, Alps, Appalachians, Urals are examples
- Prior to collision, landmasses involved are separated by an ocean basin. Convergence
leads to intervening sea floor subduct under one plate. Partial melting of
subducting plate and mantle results in volcanic arc.

Erosion of newly formed arc discharges large quantities of sediments to
already sediment laden continental margins. When continental plates collide,
squeezing, folding and deforming of sediments takes place. New mountain range
with deformed sedimentary rocks and fragments of volcanic arc are thus formed.
Descending oceanic plate breaks and moves downwards.






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Himalayas formed in this way 45 my ago. India once part of Antarctica
splitted and moved northward to collide with Asia. Himalayan mountains and Tibetan
plateau were thus formed. Sea sediments elevated high above sea level. Spreading
centre propelling India northward is still active. This is the reason for the on-going
growth of Himalayas @ few cm/year. Evidence: severe earthquakes as north as
China and Mongolia.
Urals formed by collision of European plate with Asian plate. Alps formed
by collision b/w Africa and Europe during closing of Tethys Sea.


C. TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES

- No production or destruction of crust
- Transform faults roughly parallel to the direction of plate mvmt.
- Transform faults connect convergent and divergent boundaries, thus enabling
divergence occurring at a spreading centre be transformed into convergence at a
subduction zone.
- Most transform faults: lie within ocean basins. Few cut continental crust also e.g.
Californias San Andreas Fault along which Pacific plate moving northwest past
American plate. It may result into part of California and Baja Peninsula becomes an
island off West Coast of USA.
- Severe Earthquakes are caused along these boundaries.








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EVIDENCES SUPPORTING THE PTT MODEL


1. Continental Drift: Explain (See Topic CDT)
2. Sea Floor Spreading: is one of the most important and tested proof towards the
movement of plates and associated features. It explains well how the plates move
apart and the volcanic activity takes place. Explain (See Topic SFS)
Evidence from Ocean Drilling: Ocean drilling by the ship Glomar
challenger and JOIDES Resolution thereafter, confirms the sea floor spreading.
- Oldest sediments found at max. distance from the ridge. As we move towards the
ridge, the age of sediments is younger i.e. youngest oceanic crest at ridge crest
and oldest at continental margins.
- Rate of spreading determined from age of sediments and from magnetic evidence
are identical.
- No sediment age is beyond 160 my. Ocean basins are youthful while continental
crust is 3.9by old.
- Thickness of sediments increases away from ridge with zero on crest, proving
that ridge crest is younger, and hence the phenomenon of SFS.
- Open ocean sediment accumulation takes place @ 1cm/1000 years. If ocean floor
is an ancient feature, sediments would be many km thick; but these are only a
few hundred meters depth. This proves that ocean basin is a young feature.
3. Earthquakes : These occur around 8000-10000 EQs annually i.e. 1 EQ every hour.
This shows that plates are in continuous motion and wherever friction occurs, energy
is released.
- There is close association b/w plate boundaries and Earthquakes. Divergent
boundaries associated with shallow origin EQs, while convergent boundaries with
all three types
- It explains close association b/w deep fours earthquakes and trench-volcanic arc
systems.
- Absence of deep focus earthquakes along oceanic ridge system
- Cause of intermediate earthquakes

At the divergent boundaries, the movement of plates along the fault
and the associated volcanic activity causes EQs, which are of shallow origin. Mid-
Oceanic Ridges exemplify these.
At the Convergent boundaries, Shallow focus EQs are produced as the
descending plate interacts with the overriding lithosphere. These occur at depths less
than 100 km at the trench system e.g. Japan Trench, western margins of S.
America etc.
Intermediate focus EQs take place away from the trench. At about 300
km depth, brittle fracturing within a cold descending slab causes intermediate
focus EQs, due to release of elastic energy.

Beyond 300 km and upto 700 km (beyond which plates melt down, thus
inhabiting any Earthquake activity), increasing pressure causes some minerals like
olivine to undergo a phase change. A phase change produces a more compact
crystalline structure. When this transformation occurs, it causes a type of high
pressure faulting, producing deep focus EQs e.g. EQs on mainland China, due to
subduction of Indian plate under Eurasian.
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- 90% of earthquakes are of shallow origin
- 95% of EQs are along plate boundaries. Greatest amount of energy released
along circum Pacific belt. Another major concentration is along Mediterranean
Sea, Iran through Himalayan complex.

4. Hot spots: reinforce the existence of plate movements. These are the rising plume
of mantle material originating at core-mantle boundary. Abnormally high temp.
here causes a rising plume of rock that initiates hot spot volcanism at the earths
surface.
Hawaiian Islands present one such hot spot. Away from Hawaii Island (<1
my old) through Northwest Midway Island (27 my) to Suiko Seamount near Aleutian
trench (65 my), the age of rocks increases. It shows Pacific plate moving over
relatively stationary hot spots. A trail of volcanic structures on the surface of
lithospheric plates is left behind.
Hotspots on the floor of Atlantic prove the migration of landmasses
following the breakup of Pangaea. Hotspots beneath Iceland and Yellowstone
National Park are responsible for unusually large accumulation of lava.



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THE DRIVING MECHANISM OF THE PLATES

There are various models that propose the driving mechanism for the
plates. However, none of them provides the complete explanation about the plates and
associated features. Nevertheless, it is clear that the unequal distribution of heat is
the underlying driving force for plate movement.
Arthur Holmes provided one of the first models used to explain the
movements of plates. He suggested that large convection currents drive plate motion.
He says that, in the regions of oceanic ridges, warm and less dense material of the
mantle rises. On reaching the bottom of the plates, it spreads laterally and drags the
lithosphere along. Eventually, the material cools and begins to sink back into the mantle.
Another model says that as a newly formed slab of oceanic crust moves
away from the ridge crest, it cools down gradually and becomes denser. Eventually, this
cold oceanic slab denser than the asthenosphere begins to descend. When this occurs,
the dense sinking slab pulls the trailing lithosphere along.
Another model suggests that relatively narrow, hot plumes of rock (i.e.
Hot Spots) contribute to plate motion. These hot plumes are presumed to extend
upward from the vicinity of the mantle-core boundary. Upon reaching the lithosphere,
they spread laterally and facilitate the plate motion away from the zone of upwelling. A
dozen or so hot spots have been identified along ridge systems where they may
contribute to plate divergence.
In another version of the hot plume model, all upward convection is
confined to a few large cylindrical structures. Embedded in these large zones of
upwelling are most of the earths hot spots. The downward limbs of these convection
cells are the cold, dense subducting lithospheric plates.
Although there is still much to be learned about the mechanisms that
cause plates to move, some facts are clear. The unequal distribution of heat in the earth
generates some of thermal convection in the mantle which ultimately drives plate
motion. Except for hot spots, upwelling beneath ridges appears to be a shallow feature,
responding to the tearing of the lithosphere under the pull of the descending slabs.
Furthermore, the descending lithospheric plates are active components of down-welling,
and they serve to transport cold material into the mantle.

CRITICAL EVALUATION

1. Now-a-days, Scientists explain PT as Global Tectonics (GT) or New Global
Tectonics. This is a unified concept of Sea Floor Spreading, Continental Drift and
Plate Tectonics. The new GT deals with the entire history of earth, but PT has a much
shorter time frame.
2. In 1968 when PTT was propounded, the first assumption was the surface area of
the earth is constant. But we have thousands of km of diverging boundaries while
trenches (Converging Boundaries) are rare. Thus, there is anomaly in divergent
and convergent boundaries. This was not explained in PTT.
Thus, the area of earth is expanding and not constant. Also with
expansion of area, rotation of earth will go down because of conservation of angular
movement. In 1935, J.K.E. Holm talked of expanding earth, but rejected on the basis
that earth is contracting because of cooling. Moreover, there is already evidence of
showing down of earths rotation speed which reinforces the idea of expanding earth.
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3. PT is inadequate to explain why certain boundaries develop and some die
down without fully developing e.g. African Rift valley experiencing no activity
right now. Whether this rift valley will develop into a full fledged ocean or not, is not
explained by this theory.
4. Why the converging or transformed or divergent boundaries are there where they
are. Why convectional currents only there, not anywhere else. Further what will be
effect of changes at one boundary on other boundaries e.g. if Himalayas fuse
with Eurasian plate, the diverging boundary of Austral Indian plate in S. Indian ocean
will be effected. By fusion will the divergent boundary cease to operate? What will be
the effect of this fusion is not being explained by PTT.
5. The most important question mark is on the driving mechanism itself. The theory
will be more complete only if the driving mechanism is also explained.
6. Plate tectonics has been more successful in providing explanation for
phenomenon in ocean areas than in the continents.
7. It has been found that there is bilateral symmetry to the ridge system and ocean
basin in Atlantic & Indian Ocean but none in pacific.
8. The formation of new lithosphere occurs in all oceans where as its consumption
takes place exclusively around the margin of pacific.
9. Many of the trenches are extensional rather than compression in margin.
Moreover in centre of trenches the sediments are flat being (undisturbed) not folded
& faulted as we might expect in active zone of convergence.
10. Structural features like active strike slip fault around the Pacific margin such as Devali
fault in Alaska, Atacama fault in S. America in inadequately explained by plate tectonics.
11. Origin of certain mountain ranges is rather uncertain e.g. the prominent east west
mountain origin of certain mountain ranges that includes Alps & Himalayas appeared
to have formed by North-South convergence of plates during the last 50-60 million
years. But the evidence from geo-magnetic anomalies for that time interval
indicates that the material of plate involved was in east-west direction.
12. According to plate tectonics theory the plate should act as if they were rigid & brittle
but data indicate that plates are capable of large scale bending. If this is true,
then modification is necessary.
13. Also the Benioff zone is not complete in many places.
14. The tectonic situation in a wide band throughout the region of Mediterranean &
Southern eastern Alps is difficult to explain in terms of plate tectonics. The zone
appears to be composed of micro plates.
15. Questions also arise concerning African plate. This plate is bounded on the west and
east by active zone of divergence and one might suppose that it is under
compression & that a linear zone of convergence might turn within it, parallel to zone
of divergence.
16. In fact, the plate is being pulled apart as evidence by deformation, volcanoes
according to theory are restricted to convergent zone yet the andesine comes
occur throughout western USA

A LOOK INTO THE FUTURE

- In USA, Baja Peninsula and portion of California west of San Andreas Fault have slid
past N. American plate. It will make Los Angeles and San Francisco pass each other.
- Africa moving north, initiating perhaps next major mountain building stage.
- Australia on a collision course with Asia
- N and S. America separating once again.
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ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
TRICELLULAR MERIDIONAL CIRCULATION OF ATMOSPHERE


According to the old concept of the mechanism of general circulation of the
atmosphere the movements of air is temperature dependent. In other words,
temperature gradient causes air circulation on the earths surface. According to the
advocates of thermal school of the mechanism of general circulation of the atmosphere
the tropical areas receive maximum amount of solar energy which substantially
decreases pole ward. Thus, there is latitudinal imbalance of solar radiation from lower
to higher latitudes. Consequently, there is transfer of heat through horizontal air
circulation from the areas of high solar radiation (low latitudes) in order to balance the
heat energy so that there does not exist too much heat energy in the low latitudes and
too low heat energy in the high latitudes.
This old school considers only the horizontal component of the
atmospheric circulation and does not consider the potential energy generated by unequal
heating of the earth and its atmosphere and its continuous transformation into kinetic
energy. It may be pointed out that the potential heat energy is continuously transformed
into kinetic energy by the upward movement (ascent) and downward movement
(descent) of heated and cold air respectively. It may be remembered that the kinetic
energy is also dissipated due to friction and small-scale atmospheric disturbances
upward. Thus, it is necessary that there must exist balance between the rate of
generation of kinetic energy and the rate of its dissipation due to friction. The modern
concept of the mechanism of general circulation of the atmosphere, thus, includes both,
the horizontal and vertical components of atmospheric circulation.
The modern school envisages a three-cell model of meridional circulation
of the atmosphere, popularly known as tricellular meridional circulation of the
atmosphere, wherein it is believed that there is cellular circulation of air at each meridian
(longitude). Surface winds blow from high pressure areas to low pressure areas but in
the upper atmosphere the general direction of air circulation is opposite to the direction
of surface winds. Thus each meridian has three cells of air circulation in the northern
hemisphere e.g. (1) tropical cell or Hadley cell, (2) polar front cell or midlatitude cell or
ferrel cell, and (3) polar or subpolar cell.

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1. Tropical cell is also called as Hadley cell because G. Hadley first identified this
thermally induced cell in both the hemispheres in the year 1735. The winds after
being heated due to very high temperature at the equator ascend upward. These
ascending warm and moist winds release latent heat after condensation which causes
further ascent of the winds which after reaching the height of 8 to 12 kilometers in
the troposphere over the equator diverge northward and southward or say poleward.
The surface winds in the name of trade winds blow from subtropical high pressure
belts to equatorial low pressure belt in order to replace the ascending air at the
equator. The upper air moving in opposite direction to surface winds (trade winds) is
called antitrade. These upper air antitrades descend near 30
o
-35
o
latitudes to cause
subtropical high pressure belt. These antitrades after descending near 30
o
-35
o

latitudes again blow towards the equator where they are again heated and ascend.
Thus, one complete meridionla cell or air circulation is formed. This is called tropical
meridional cell which is located between the equator and 30
o
latitudes. It may be
pointed out that the regularity and continuity of the antitrade wind systems in the
upper air has been refuted by a host of meteorologists on the basis of more upper air
data being available during and after Second World War.

2. Polar front cell or mid-latitude cell According to old concept surface winds,
known as westelies, blow from the subtropical high pressure belt to subpolar low
pressure belt (60
o
-65
o
).
The winds ascend near 60
o
-65
o
latitudes because of the rotation of the earth and
after reaching the upper troposphere diverge in opposite directions (poleward and
equator ward).
These winds (which diverge equatorward) again descend near horse latitudes
(30
o
-35
o
latitudes) to reinforce subtropical high pressure belt. After descending
these winds again blow poleward as surface westerlies and thus a complete cell is
formed.
According to new concept of air circulation the pattern between 30
o
-60
o
latitudes
consists of surface westerlies. In fact, winds blow from subtropical high pressure
belt to subpolar low pressure belt but the winds become almost westerly due to
Coriolis force. It may be mentioned that the regularity and continuity of
westerlies are frequently disturbed by temperate cyclones, migratory
extratropical cyclones and anticyclones.
Contrary to the existing view of upper air tropospheric easterly winds in the zones
extending between 30
o
-60
o
latitudes Rossby observed the existence of upper air
westerlies in the middle latitudes due to poleward decrease of air temperature.
According to G.T. Trewartha the middle and upper troposhperic westerlies are
associated with long waves and jet streams. Warm air ascends along the polar
front which is more regular and continuous in the middle troposphere. It may be
pointed that this new concept does not explain the cellular meridional circulation
in the middle latitudes.

3. Polar cell involves the atmospheric circulation prevailing between 60
o
and poles.
Cold winds, known as polar easterlies, blow from polar high pressure areas to sub-
polar or mid-latitude low pressure belt. The general direction of surface polar winds
becomes easterly(east to west) due to coriolis force. These polar cold winds converge
with warm westerlies near 60
o
-65
o
latitudes and form polar front or mid-latitude front
which becomes the centre for the orgin of temperate cyclones. The winds ascend
upward due to the rotation of the earth at the subpolar low pressure belt and after
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reaching middle troposphere they turn poleward and equatorward. The poleward
upper air descends at the poles and reinforce the polar high pressure. Thus, a
complete polar cell is formed.
Numerous objections have been raised against the concept of
tricellular meridional circulation of the atmosphere. The temperature gradient should not
be taken as the only basis for the origin and maintenance of cellular meridional
circulation because not all the high and low pressure belts are thermally induced. For
example, the subtropical high pressure and subpolar low pressure belts are dynamically
induced due to subsidence and spreading of air caused by the rotation of the earth
respectively. Upper air anti-trades are not uniformly found over all the meridians.

If the trade winds are exclusively of thermal origin, then the
thermal gradient must be present boldly throughout the tropics but this is not true. At
the height of 500 to 1000m in the atmosphere the winds become almost parallel to the
isobars which are generally parallel to the latitude. If this is so, the meridional cell of air
circulation may not be possible.

The pressure and winds in most parts of lower atmosphere are
found in cellular form rather than in zonal pattern. These pressure and winds cells are
elliptical, circular or semicircular in shape. These evidences (cellular form of air
circulation) no doubt contradict the old concept of general pattern of atmospheric
circulation but the cellular meridional circulation has not been fully validated.











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TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE BELTS AND
PLANETARY WINDS ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
(EXPLAIN Permanent winds, Jet Steams and EI-Nino)

IMPORTANT NOTE: while explaining each belt, explain everything vis--vis insolation,
winds, cyclones, rainfall, ocean currents, deserts, populations etc.

TEMPERATURE BELTS

Over the globe, the amount of insulation is not homogeneous. A variety of
factors determine spatial distribution of radiating energy coming from the Sun.
Temperature Zones has been identified estimating the total amount of energy received.
The simplest model of temperature belts divides earth into 3 zones: Torrid, Temperate
and Frigid.



The other model which has taken 20
0
C Isotherm for delimitation of Torrid
and Temperate regions and 10
0
C Isotherm for Temperate and Frigid regions is called as
SOUPANs MODEL. This model is based on 3 criteria: Amount of Insolation received
bt land and sea surface 2. The prevailing atmospheric pressure conditions 3. The total
amount of re-radiation from the earth
According to this model the whole globe is divided into following
temperature belts:-
1. Equatorial belt- insulation received is 100%, sun rays are vertical throughout the
year. Bulge of the earth reduces distances from sun thus greater amount of energy is
received. A low pressure belt is found in this belt.
2. Tropical Belt The total amount of insolation is 90% and 20
0
c isotherm is the pole
ward limit. Dynamically induced high pressure pattern prevails and it is a zone of
turbulence.
3. Warm Temperate Belt located between 30-45
o
in both the hemispheres and
amount of insolation is 75% & most of the thermal energy is being redistributed
across the line of 40
0
N, thus making this belt a Zone of Thermal Exchange. The same
line in the southern hemisphere is 38
o
S.
4. Cool Temperate belt Located between 45
0
-60
0
. There occurs horizontal mixing of
cold polar oil mass & warm tropical air masses. Thus it is called as Zone of
Convergence. It has 60% of insolation.
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5. Sub-polar belt Located between 60
0
-75
0
Insolation is 40% and it is zone of
relatively dynamically induced low pressure.
6. Polar belt / caps Insolation < 40%, frigid, ice frozen, cold & dense air.
Temperature never rises above 0
0
. It is region of High pressure.



The distribution of atmosphere pressure across the latitudes in a zonal
fashion is termed as pressure belts. These are 7 in no. as shown- one equatorial low
and two sub-tropical highs, sub-polar lows and polar highs, one each in northern and
southern hemispheres.



The mechanism of their origin and dynamism has been explained below:

Due to intense heating, air gets warm and rises above equatorial region, thereby
producing Equatorial Low Pressure Belt which extends from equator to 10
o

N&S. It has calm conditions since surface winds are generally absent owing to
rise of winds approaching this belt, near its margin.
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Thus only vertical currents are found. This belt is also called a Doldrums
owing to extremely calm air movements. The equatorial low zone has the thermal
origin.

Moving polewards, at around Tropics to about 35
o
N&S is Sub-Tropical Highs.
Here the subsidence and pilling up of air takes place (the air which started
moving polewards from equator in upper atmosphere subsidizes here). Subsidence
happens because of cooling of air as it rises over equator and moves towards
poles. At around 23
1/2 o
N&S onwards, this cooling is sufficient to make wind so heavy
so that it sinks. This zone has calm conditions with variable and feeble winds
called Horse latitudes. Between this zone and Equatorial Low Zone, blow the
Tropical Easterly Winds.
Further polewards, between 45
o
N&S to Arctic and Antarctic circles lay the Sub-
Polar Low Zone. This zone is dynamically produced by the convergence and
rise of winds coming from sub-tropics and polar areas. Due to great contrast
between the temperatures of two winds, cyclonic storms or lows are produced in
the region.
Around the poles, the lowest temperatures are found which cause subsidence of
air and hence, Polar Highs are created. These are small in area around poles and
are thermally produced.




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However, these pressure belts are not fixed and keep changing
position with the apparent movement of sun in summer and winter. During summer in
NH, the thermal equator (belt of highest temperature) is located north of geographical
equator and the pressure belts shift slightly northwards of their annual average location.
Opposite happens in winter.






The zones are also influenced by the variations in heating of land and
sea. The amount of shift is lesser in SH due to predominance of water. Also, the
distribution of continents and oceans greatly influence the distribution of pressure.
In winter, the continents develop high pressure, being cooler and low pressure in
summer. Following gives an explanation to changes brought about in January and July:

In January, when there is summer in southern hemisphere:-

The lowest pressure pockets occur on the landmasses of South America,
South Africa and Australia. Subtropical high-pressure belt of SH is broken and
confined to oceans only, because land is at a lower pressure than oceans. Further, its
development is highest on eastern parts of oceans where the cool ocean currents are
effective (Explain the map further if needed).

In NH, sub-tropical high pressure is well developed over continents
because of cool temperatures. Sub-polar low here exists in two cells of low pressure over
North Atlantic and North Pacific known respectively as Icelandic low and Aleutian
low. The same in SH exists as trough of low pressures.

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In July, when there is summer in northern hemisphere:-

The shift of equatorial low belt is highest in Asia due to huge landmasses.
The subtropical high pressure belt is broken and confined to North Atlantic and
North Pacific whereas it is continuous in SH. Also the sub-polar low is deep and
continuous in SH while it exists as a faint oceanic low in NH (Explain further if needed).



Blowing between these pressure belts are the PLANETARY WINDS on a
gigantic scale. These blow both over oceans and continents. The most significant are the
Trade winds and Westerlies.

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Trade winds blow from Sub-Tropical High Zone to Equatorial Low Belt. These
are extremely steady winds blowing in the same direction and in a constant course.
These have great force, and were highly helpful to the early traders, when
modern ships were not developed. The Coriolis force deflects these winds to the
right in NH and left in SH. Thus these are northeasterly trades in NH and
southeasterly in SH.
Trade winds have contrasting properties in different parts. In the areas of their
origin i.e. at Sub-Tropical Highs, these are descending and stable and therefore
dry. As these move equator-wards, these pick up the moisture and become
warmer. Near the equator, the two trades converge along ITCZ (Inter-Trades
Convergence Zone), rise, become unstable and cause heavy rainfall. The eastern
parts of trades are associated with cold currents are drier and stable, thus causing
aridity in the form of deserts there e.g. Sahara, Kalahari, Atacama, G. Australian
etc. The western parts get heavy rainfall.
Westerlies blow from Sub-Tropical Highs to Sub-Polar Lows. With associated
Coriolis Effect, these become South-Westerlies in NH and North-Westerlies in
SH. In NH, vast landmasses with irregular relief and changing seasonal pressure
patterns make them variable. However, the vast expanse of oceans in SH well
develops Westerlies with greater strength and more constant direction. Thus
these are called Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties and Shrieking Sixties in
different latitudes.
In the NH, these carry warm equatorial waters in temperate zones with ocean
currents like Gulf Stream etc. This results in highly variable temperature in
temperate zones.
The Polar Easterlies blow from Polar high to Sub-Polar Low Belt. These are
extremely cold winds. These are more regular in south than in north.
The regularity and continuity of Westerlies are frequently disturbed by
temperate cyclones, migratory extra-tropical cyclones and anticyclones. Upper
Tropospheric Westerlies are associated with long waves and jet streams.


crackIAS.com 21

CLASSIFICATION & DISTRIBUTION
OF SOILS


Soils are an inseparable component of biosphere, impacting upon human
life most profoundly; having not only economic but also an ecological value for
mankind. A study of soils, their genesis and classification is therefore, important in
understanding the climatic characteristics, food securities and population
distribution of a place.

Soil is the naturally occurring layer of unconsolidated material generated,
through the interplay of various intricately interrelated and interdependent factors
like climate, biota and parent material alongwith the anthropogenic modifications. There
exists a mosaic of soil regions distribution over the surface of earth.

Various agents involved in this complex process of soil formation include
water, wind, ice, plants along with the living organisms through the processes of
weathering and translocation over a period of time.


CLASSIFICATION

Based on the varying extent of humidity and temperature these may be classified as:-




Pedalfers are soils dominated by Iron and Aluminum. These form under
humid climate where leaching dominates because of high precipitation. Pedocals are
calcium rich soils formed under arid, semi-arid and sub-humid climates as a result of
excess evaporation.

crackIAS.com 22

CLASSIFICATION OF MARBUTT

Zonal soil is a soil, which is mature, having a recognizable profile,
reflecting the influences of climate and vegetation. Such soils have been formed under
conditions of prolonged climatic and biological action and good drainage. Zonal soils
occur in zones or belts which may be extensive in both length and breadth.
Intrazonal soils are types of soil found within the belts of zonal soils.
Intrazonal soils are formed under special circumstances and conditions, such as
inadequate drainage producing water-logging or salt accumulation producing
alkalinity, both of which may result in quite distinctive types of soil.
All Azonal soils are of recent origin and, accordingly, they have not had
time to mature into true soils; hence they do not exhibit well-developed characteristics
and well-developed profiles.


DETAILED EXPLANATION OF THESE SOILS IS GIVEN BELOW

1. Tundra Soils: Tundra soils are developed under cold climatic conditions and much
soil water. These are found along Polar margins in Tundra region. These have
following characteristics:
There is little profile differentiation because soil moisture remains frozen for a
greater part of the year.
The chemical and organic changes taking place in the soil are slow because of
restricted biological activity due to cold conditions.
The organic matter decomposes slowly which results in acid humus.
Soil texture is sandy clay due to incomplete weathering.
These have low fertility due to inherent climatic and parental limitations. The
water-logging caused by snowmelt prevents proper aeration of the soil.

2. Podzols: Podzols are developed under cool temperate conditions with moderate
to low rainfall and are closely associated with coniferous forest in North America and
Eurasia. These have following characteristics:
These are heavily leached soils not because of heavy rainfall, but to the sudden
release of water due snow-melt in spring.
Decomposition of forest waste is slow owing to limited bacterial activity due to
unfavourable climatic conditions for bacterial growth. This leads to accumulation
of acidic humus.
The Podzols exhibit fairly clear-cut horizons. A Horizon is eluviated having
silica accumulation. The percolating water enables the organic acids to remove
lime and iron compounds from the A horizon.
B Horizon is illuviated having a hard clayey pan, sesquioxide rich, nodules
and brown colour. The hard pan can hold up the percolating water and cause
waterlogging.
The infertility of podsols restricts agriculture. Productivity is low which may be
increased by addition of lime and fertilizers.
However these support evergreen softwood coniferous with 3-4 varieties e.g.
pine, spruce, and fir etc. in large strands. Thus these regions are dominated by
lumbering as an important activity. This timber for paper used. Further, these
regions are known for trapping of animals for fir.
crackIAS.com 23

3. GreyBrown Forest Soil: these are developed in the mid-latitude broad-leaved
deciduous forest lands, especially in Western Europe, the NE USA and north China,
where more warm, and moist, conditions prevail than in the coniferous forest regions
of higher latitudes. These are less leached, less acidic and have more humus
content compared to Podzols. Dark brown B Horizon contains minerals and organic
colloids. The profile of a grey-brown forest soil resembles that of Podzols. Although
these make good farming soils, manuring and liming are needed to maintain fertility.

4. Prairie Earths: these are found in grass-woodland areas in mid latitudes where
temperate humid climate prevail. These are transitional between the pedocals and
the pedalfers. Thus neither they have lime accumulation nor podsolic characteristics.
Their dark-brown colour is largely due to its high humus content. Prairie earths have
a greater depth, and neutral characteristics, hence are very fertile.

5. Red and Yellow Forest Soils are found in S.E. USA, S.E. China, S.E. Brazil, East
coast of Africa, under climatic conditions of high temperature & abundant rainfall.
These have following characteristics:
There is distinct horizon development.
The plentiful rainfall causes pronounced leaching and most bases and colloids
are washed down into the B horizon.
Humus content is low because of high bacterial activity under warmer climatic
conditions.

6. Red Tropical Soils are found in hot wet Equatorial regions including those of
Asia, Africa, Australia and parts of central and South America. Red colour of these
soils is due to presence of oxides of iron, aluminium and manganese etc. They are
deeply weathered and lack distinct horizon. Despite a very dense vegetation cover,
fertility is not very high. This is because under hot and wet climatic conditions,
bacterial action is so speeded up that it hardly allows humus to form.
4 main groups of red soils are found within the humid tropics. Ferralitic,
ferrisols and ferruginous are all red in colour, the vertisols dark or black soils, are
poorly drained.

7. Laterite Soils/ Latosols occur widely in Brazil, W. Indies, tropical Africa, South
India, and in forested warm temperate and tropical regions. In equatorial regions,
high precipitation (>200cm) and temperature (>27 C) lead to leaching of bases
and silica. In the process, soil becomes acidic. These have following characteristics:
There is accumulation of sesquioxides in top layer, which is responsible for the
hardened layer. When dry, it becomes hard and thus forms a useful building
material.
Also bacterial activity is excessive in these regions due to favourable climatic
conditions for bacterial growth leading to absence of humus (as leaves are
consumed by bacteria and humus is not produced).
These soils are not good for agriculture or timber. However it preserves the rich
biodiversity of nature including plants and animals.

8. Chernozem: In temperate grasslands, lower precipitation (25-50 cm) leads to
incomplete leaching and higher evaporation moves bases from lower to higher levels
thus rendering these soils with Ca rich B-horizon. These occur in the Ukraine and
the steppe belt of Asia, in the southern part of the Canadian prairies, in the wheat
crackIAS.com 24

belt of the United States, in the pampas region of South America and the Murray-
Darling Basin of Australia. These have following characteristics:
Chernozems are also called Black Earth.
These have high water retaining capacity owing to clay presence.
A horizon is thick and black, because of accumulation of humus. B horizon is
brownish/ yellowish while C horizon has Ca and salt accumulating.
Chernozems are inherently fertile and are among the most fertile soils in the
world, cultivated year after year without much fertilizers and irrigation.
Developed as granaries of the world. Commercial agriculture with extensive
mechanized farming is practicized here.
Prairies are found on wetter sides while Chestnut on drier side of Chernozenms.

9. ChestnutBrown and Brown Soils are pedocal soils developed in areas of very
light rainfall. These are found along the drier margins of chernozem belt. They have
less humus content in comparison to chernozem, therefore, they are of lighter
colour. They are rich in lime and other minerals. It is less fertile than black-Earth
but is productive if proper irrigation is available. They support short grass.

10. Grey Desert Soil (Sierozem) occur in mid-latitude continental desert areas;
e.g. in Eurasia and in North America. They are thin soils having poor horizonization.
These have following characteristics:
There is near absence of humus because of sparse desert vegetation.
Since rainfall is very light and there is an excess of evaporation over precipitation,
groundwater moves-up. Thus the soils develop excessive concentrations of
calcium carbonate or calcium sulphate in the form of concretions, or surface
encrustations. These thick lime deposits are sometimes termed caliche.
They are cultivable when fine-textured, are fertile under irrigation since they are
rich in plant nutrients.

11. Red Desert Soils are found in the more arid, hotter tropical deserts. While the
upper horizon is reddish brown, colouring becomes more marked beneath. The
humus content in these soils is at its minimum and often is completely absent due to
sparse vegetation. The horizons characteristically are only faintly developed.
They contain good amounts of nutrient elements other than nitrogen. Thus they
can be made fit for cultivation provided the saline content is not too high and
irrigation is available.
They frequently contain a pan of calcareous matter and may develop saline
surface encrustations.

12. Hydromorphic Soils are found in areas of impaired drainage within the Zonal soil
belt. These have deep layer of peat and under-composed organic matter because of
almost absent bacterial action. Gleyization in sub-surface takes place because of
reduction of iron content. It has 3 sub types (i) bog & peat soil (ii) meadow soils
and (iii) Planosol soil.
Bog and peat soils develop in high, moist moorland areas where there is
inadequate drainage.
Meadow soils develop on river flood plains possessing a thick, dark humus-rich
layer beneath which is a clay-rich gley horizon, a mark of waterlogging.
Planosols occur on upland surfaces which have been subjected to podsolisation
and characterized by a dense clay pan which impedes drainage.
crackIAS.com 25


13. Halomorphic Soils are soils having a high salt content. These soils are found
mainly in arid and semi-arid areas where evaporation rates are high and capillary
action induces movement of salt upwards towards the surface. Saline soils mostly
have an abundance of some of the chlorides, sulphates and carbonates of sodium,
magnesium and calcium. 3 main groups of halomorphic soils are distinguished:
solonchaks, solonetz soils and soloths.

14. Calcimorphic Soils owe their characteristics to the high lime content of their
parent materials. Two variants that develop on limestone are: rendzinas and terra
rossa. Rendzinas develop under humid climatic conditions, thin dark coloured soils.
Terra rossa is a term somewhat loosely used to describe red soils of a residual
nature found in the Mediterraneam region of Europe. It develops under somewhat
drier conditions.

15. Lithosols usually occur on mountain slopes and are typically thin, stony soils
resting directly upon the bedrock. They are of coarser texture and contain little
organic matter. As a rule, lithosols show little real soil development and are of little
or no value agriculturally.

16. Regosols are developed on deep, soft, unconsolidated deposits of mineral matter
such as glacial drifts, outwash deposits, wind-blown deposits and volcanic ash. The
most important regosols are those developed on glacial morainic material and loessal
deposits.

17. Alluvial Soils consist of those materials which have been transported and re-
deposited by running water. Since the mineral matter is very mixed and the
deposits are of recent origin, alluvial soils are usually rich soils. They vary in their
texture, permeability and therefore their drainage. The soils are highly productive
because the mineral matter is thoroughly mixed. Rivers flood plains like Ganga,
Brahmaputra, Nile, Mississippi etc. have these soils.



















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DISTRIBUTION OF SOILS

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WORLD ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT:
MEASUREMENT AND PROBLEMS

WORLD ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The level of economic development is generally determined by the per
capita annual income. The countries having higher per capita incomes have certain
attributes like low population growth, high life expectancy and better overall standards of
living. On the basis of the level of economic developments, the countries of the world
can be divided into the following four types of economies:
1. Developed or industrial-commercial economies,
2. Semi-developed or industrial-agricultural economies,
3. Underdeveloped or predominantly agricultural economies,
4. Centrally planned economies

The first type generally comprises the countries of the Northern
Hemisphere and the rest comprise the countries of the Southern Hemisphere. This gap in
development between the two groups is also referred to as the North-South Divide. The
main features of the four types of economies are discussed below.

I. HIGHLY DEVELOPED INDUSTRIAL COMMERCIAL ECONOMIES: This type of
economy is prevalent in countries of West Europe, U.S.A., Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, Japan and Singapore. These countries are characterized by the following
features:
a. High Per Capita Income: These countries together comprise 25% of world
population, but account for 75% of world income.
b. Very High Rates of Economic Growth: Because of high incomes, these
countries have high savings rates. Thus more reinvestment fuels high growth
rates.
c. Dominance of Industrial-commercial Population In these countries, three
fourths of the population is engaged in manufacturing and tertiary (services)
activities. Agriculture employs less than 20% of the population. Also, an
increasingly large section of the population is engaged in services sector like
banking, insurance, computer software, management, etc. The agricultural sector
is characterized by a high level of mechanization and high yields. There is even a
substantial surplus for exports.
d. Large Share in World Trade: Of the total volume of global imports, these
countries account of 70%, with U.S.A. alone accounting for 12% and, of the total
volume of world exports, the developed countries account for 60%, with U.S.A.
alone contributing 17%.
e. High Level of Urbanization: This is because a large section of the population is
engaged in industry and commerce. Therefore, there are a number of big cities
throughout the developed world.
f. High Living and Health Standards: Because of high rates of life expectancy
and low birth rates, the proportion of population in the working age is more. As a
result, the overall output is also more.
crackIAS.com 28


II. SEMI-DEVELOPED OR INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURAL ECONOMIES: The
countries having this type of economy include south Africa, Argentina, Uruguay,
Venezuela, Puerto Rico, Austria, Finland, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Israel and
the countries of south-east Asia (referred to as Asian Tigers). Some of the erstwhile
communist bloc countries like Ukraine, Belarus, Russia, Cezch Republic, Slovakia,
Poland, Romania, Hungary etc. can also be put in this category on the basis of high
level of industrialisation and a vibrant agricultural sector. These countries are
changing their economies form a planned one to a market-oriented one. This kind of
economy is characterized by the following features.
a. High Per Capita Incomes: Though the levels are lower than those of the
developed countries, the per capita incomes are quite high.
b. Relatively Lower Growth Rates: These rates are commensurate with the lower
per capita incomes, though at some stage, some of these countries have been
able to sustain fairly high growth rates, for instance Japan and Italy during the
1950s. some of these countries have the potential to develop on the lines of
developed countries but could not do so owing to their social structures which
prevented full utilization of their potential. Apartheid in South Africa is one such
example. Similar is the case of Argentina, which could have otherwise developed
on lines of Australia and New Zealand.
c. Dominance of IndustrialAgricultural Population: A large section of
population, between 35% and 55%, is engaged in industrial agricultural sector. In
countries like Argentina and Uruguay, the percentage of labour force in
agriculture is close to that in developed economies, as the predominance of
livestock farming requires less labour force.
d. Relatively Lower Levels of Urbanization This is due to the importance of
agriculture in the economy.

III. UNDER-DEVELOPED ECONOMIES The countries having this type of economy
characterize the whole of Africa except South Africa, the whole of South and Central
America except Argentina, Uruguay, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Venezuela and the whole of
Asia except Russia, Japan and the Asian Tigers. The Central Asian Republics of the
former USSR, viz., Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan etc., can also
be put in this category. These economies are characterized by the following features.
a. Very Low Per Capita Income The income levels are the lowest among the
African countries because of a fast-eroding resource base owing to the problems
of deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, laterisation and prevalent diseases.
In South Asia, the low levels of per capita income are due to low level of
industrialisation and rampant unemployment.
b. Dominance of Agricultural Population Upto 70% to 80% of the population in
developing countries is engaged in agriculture which is characterized by primitive
techniques, uneconomic size of holdings and its subsistence nature marked by
low yields and hardly any marketable surplus. There is a lack of employment
opportunities outside agriculture and the agriculture sector is under pressure.
This explains the lack of capital in these countries for reinvestment.
c. Very Small Share in World Trade The share of these countries in world trade,
especially in exports is very small-around 25% to 30%, because of the
subsistence nature of economic activities and low productivity which lead to a
very small marketable surplus. And since exports pay for imports, these countries
end up having a very small share of world imports as well. The underdeveloped
crackIAS.com 29

nature of these countries is also reflected in the type of exports which consist
mainly of semi-manufactured goods and raw materials.
d. Dominance of Rural Population Less than one-fourth of the population of
these countries lives in cities which indicate the simple and primary nature of
economic activities in these countries.
e. High Population Growth Rates The annual average growth rate of population
in these countries is around 3% due to not only reduced death rates but also very
high birth rates. The demographic structure is characterized by a very high
percentage of children below 15 years in the total population.
f. Low Life Expectancy The life expectancy is nearly half of that prevailing in
developed countries.

Besides the above listed factors, the developing countries also face low
literacy levels, lack of facilities for technical education, primitive and uneconomic modes
of production and underdeveloped modes of communication, especially transportation,
all of which lead to low productivity.

IV. CENTRALLY PLANNED ECONOMIES In such economies, there is full state control
over factors of production. The emphasis is on the core sector comprising iron and
steel, chemicals, nuclear power, electricity generation, fuel resources, etc., in order
to increase the capacity of the system for development. The production of consumer
and luxury goods is limited in scope and whatever there it is mainly for exports, as in
China. The countries having this type of economy include China Cuba, North Korea.
Earlier this type of economy prevailed in USSR, Eastern Bloc countries, North
Vietnam, etc.

MEASURES TO INDICATE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

1. Per Capita Income: It is the average of the distribution of national wealth. It is a
good measure, but not excellent one. It does not take into account inter personal
disparity
2. GDP: Gross domestic product: Its a gross generalization of total production in terms
of monetary value within the domestic territory of a nation or country (India has 4
th

largest in world but not economically developed). GDP cannot be true measurement
of economic development, Its only a rough indicative and suggestive measurement
which points on the total national wealth but never its distribution.
3. GNP: Gross national product: It includes GDP + net income from abroad. It is a
better measurement than GDP but again it cannot show distribution.
4. NNP: Net National Product: its equal to GNP Depreciation. A rough estimate based
on above said four measurement point out to the economic growth. Other measures
include:
5. Per Capita Consumption: It is the most efficient among all economic measures to
show the economic development. If refers to the total consumption quantified in
monetary value per individual.
6. Wage rate: is positively co related with development. Human indicators: Human
indicators are best reflector of development. They are dependent upon the economic
criteria.
7. PerCapita Doctor availability: its a new, but highly rated index. It talks about
social infrastructure, longevity, health & sanitation etc.
crackIAS.com 30

8. Higher employment rate: Fundamental rights for some countries.
9. Positive sex ration: Norway, Canada etc, have the sex ratio. It is denial of female
infanticide, maternity mortality ratio, genocide etc.
10. Low dependency ratio: The average dependency for India is 670; for Canada it is
100 (Full employment)
11. Demographic characters: like low death rate, birth rate, high immigration, mother
mortality ratio, infant mortality rate.
12. Development of Social infrastructure: Health facilities, education unemployment,
rural electrification, degree of urbanization, road and transport linkages ( per capita
road availability)
13. In late 70s earls 80s, some of the composite measures were developed by Overseas
Development Council known as Physical Quality Life Index. It included 3 parameters:
- IMR
- Literacy
- Life Expectancy
14. Human Development Index (HDI): was introduced in 1991. It measures
achievements in terms of
Life Expectancy
Literacy
Adjusted Real Income (Standard of living)
15. Gender Development Index (GDI)
It is same as HDI but adjusted downwards for gender inequalities
HDI- tells us average achievements in a country
GDI- difference between these achievements as between men and women
16. Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)
GDI focuses on capabilities of women in a society
GEM focuses on opportunities available to women in a society in terms of
o Political power
o Economic power
o Command over resources
17. Human Poverty Index (HPI): was introduced in 1996. Shows the extent of
deprivation in a society in terms of
Literacy
Life expectancy
Standard of living
It is the reverse side of HDI
2. Longevity measured as percentage of People expected to die before age
of 40
3. Knowledge as percentage of adults illiterate
4. Standard of living
1. Percentage of people with access to health services
2. Safe drinking water
3. Percentage of malnourished children under age of 5
18. Technology Achievement Index (TAI): was introduced in 2001. It measure the
capability of a nation in creating and diffusion of technology as also in creating a
human skills base



crackIAS.com 31

PROBLEMS IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

1. Historical factors
Colonialism resulting in non availability of resources (robbers
economy)
Tradition /culture- which if against materialism and being rich,
results in slow economic development
2. Economic factors
Low saving by people so leading to low capital formation. Thus low
income, so a vicious circle is formed
Low per capita income of people thus leading to less demand in
market of goods and services
Socio-political stability eg- Pakistan
Poor quality of infrastructure decreases the efficiency of economic
growth.
Unbalanced economic growth hinders the overall economic growth
in country.
International trade if not favorable for a country (eg- agricultural
issues in WTO) then it acts as hindrance to economic growth.
3. Environmental factors
Deterioration of climate due to economic growth e.g. global
warming, ozone depletion. So growth should be balanced with
sustainability of environment.
Unmindful exploitation of natural resources leading to scarcity of
raw materials and energy resources.
4. Socio-demographic factors
Quantity of population an optimum population size is required to
exploit natural resources of a region. Overpopulation and under
population acts as bottlenecks to economic growth.
Quality of population A skilled population is an asset but un killed
population is a liability which comes in way of economic growth.
Population explosion hinders economic development.
Emigration from a region if resulting in brain drain, then it acts as
hindrance to economic grown.
Social attitude of a region if backward, conservative, then growth
will be less.
5. Technological factors
Higher a country is rated on technology achievement index, higher
is the level of development. So low/poor technology acts as a
bottleneck in achieving economic development.

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MIGRATION


Migration is a permanent or semipermanent change of residence of an
individual or a group to a place of better perceived environment. Its magnitude is
proportional to opportunities available at place of destination & reversely to the distance.

Ravenstein's Laws of Migration

Ravenstein came up with his "laws" of migration in the 1880s based on studies
carried out in the UK.
The laws are as follows
The greatest body of migrants travel short distances.
This produces currents directed towards great commercial centers.
Each current has a compensating counter-current in the opposite direction.
Both currents display similar characteristics
Long distance movements are directed towards great commercial centers.
People in urban areas migrate less than people in rural areas.
Males migrate more over long distances and females migrate more over short
distances.

Additions to These Laws

Most migrants are between 20-34 years of age.
People mainly move for economic reasons.
Urban housing development is inadequate for the influx of migrants so
ghettoes/shanties are formed.

Zipf's Inverse Distance Law

The volume of migrants decreases with distance from the origin.

Stouffer's Law of Intervening Distances

The number of migrants moving from one town (i) to another (j) is directly
related to the opportunities available at j but inversely proportional to the number of
intervening opportunities between i and j.
Gravity Model

This theory states that larger towns are more attractive to immigrants
than smaller towns

CAUSES OF MIGRATION

Most of the migrations are based on fulfilling the basic physiological and
economic needs of mankind. It is the result of interplay of various push and pull factors,
so intricately linked, that it is difficult to delineate them.

crackIAS.com 33

Mainly
Economic Entrepreneurial
Push Concerns Pull Push People Pull


Same area experiencing pull & push


Push-Pull Theory

Any migration is as a result of push forces at the origin and pull forces at the destination.

Push Factors

1. Economic Reasons: Poverty, famine, unemployment are important push factors for
migration e.g. People from Bihar migrate to other states in India in search of
employment due to lower employment opportunities there. Similarly large no. of
people migrate to Gulf Countries from India and adjoining parts due to better
economic scenario.
2. Lack of basic amenities of life like power supply, water, health infrastructure
encourage the people to leave such places and move to better places, e.g. people
from villages in India move towards towns in search for a good quality of life. That is
why village people are more migratory than the urban ones leading to what we call
Rural depopulation. This trend has been noticed all over the world e.g. Urban
Population of Japan was 22% in 1925 which increased to 80% now. Similarly for
erstwhile USSR, it increased from 18% (1926) to 70%.
3. Overpopulation pressures lead to Population-Resources imbalances, in the
form of scarcity of various kinds of vital amenities. This pushes the people to places
with better facilities.
4. Social status: People move to metros as it may be considered as the betterment of
ones status e.g. people with ancestral property in villages around Delhi are now
moving to Gurgaon and Noida.
5. EthnoReligious clashes: Migration of Jews from Germany, Spain etc. and that of
Kashmiri Pandits due to terrorism in India also contribute as repelling factors for the
out-migration of people.
6. Wars: in Iraq, Afghanistan, and civil wars in Africa have greatly added to the out-
migration of the people in search for safer places for living.
7. Natural calamities: Tsunami, sea level rise.

Pull Factors

1. Technology: In earlier times, development of technology led the people to invade
new areas e.g. in 14
th
& 15
th
C, Europeans invaded Australia, America etc. However,
now better technology, industry & transport pull people towards these places e.g.
Silicon Valley in USA attracts technocrats from all over the world, especially India.
2. Better Environment: Better quality of life especially old age population e.g. people
from surrounding areas prefer settle in Chandigarh / Panchkula
Village
City
Town
crackIAS.com 34

3. Better avenues of life: urban areas attract from countryside. Better education
facilities like a good university, college etc. and economic conditions also pull adults,
entrepreneurs towards these areas e.g. Delhi, Mumbai, Lavasa in Pune.
4. Half of all international migrants are women, often leaving their children and
families behind, and mostly engaged as domestic labour. Since the beginning of the
1980s, there has been a change in trend; women are in greater demand in certain
sectors in their countries of destination meaning that they are pulled to go abroad to
find a job. Further, females in India migrate after marriage. That is why; females
are more mobile especially in adult group.
5. Government policies: many sparsely populated countries encourage people for in-
migration e.g. Russia till recently; China is reportedly forcing people to migrate to
Tibet to change its demographic profile.
6. Globalisation: has encouraged migration, because of easy flow of people.

Although international migration still captures the greatest
attention in the media, by far the largest flows of people are between places in
the same country, and not from villages to cities, but from economically lagging
to leading rural areas. Although the movement of people to cities is on the rise,
particularly in South and East Asia, the most sustained pattern of internal mobility within
developing countries has been from lagging rural areas, like Western Kenya and Bihar in
India, to leading rural areas in those countries, like the Central Highlands and Punjab,
and a large share of this migration is temporary. And when people move across national
borders, they do not go far. Most international migration takes place within world
regional neighborhoods, particularly between developing countries.
Movements of capital and labor are driven by the benefits of
agglomeration. New theories recognize that migration, when driven by economic
forces, is a positive and selective process. The interactions between agglomeration and
labor migration power places forward.

FROM LEWIS TO LUCAS: THE ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE ON
MIGRATION HAS CHANGED

The insights from economists that have had the greatest
impact on how policy makers view migration share similar origins, in
theories of economic growth. The evolution of economic thought on
migrationand particularly on the growth payoff from clustering labor and
talent in citiesspans the work of two Nobel Laureate economists, W.
Arthur Lewis and Robert E. Lucas, Jr. Lewis laid the foundations for the
study of labor migration with his two-sector model of economic growth in
developing countries. But theorists studying economic growth since Lewis
took a different path from those who used his insights to focus narrowly
on labor migration.
The classical migration models inspired by Lewis assumed an
exogenously determined and constant rate of economic growth. In sharp
contrast, the new growth theorists inspired by Lucass contention that
there are positive external spillovers from clustering human capital
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internalized growth in models that allowed for increasing returns to scale.
The classical theories modeled each additional migrant as lowering the
probability of employment, contributing to urban unemployment, and
raising congestion costs. The new growth theorists and later the
proponents of urban agglomeration economies could imagine in that
migrant an additional source of human capital to drive the agglomeration
engine of growth.
In 2002 Lucas bridged the gaps between these diverging
strands of the development literature, in a theoretical study of migration
from rural to urban areas in low- and middle-income countries. He posited
a transfer of labor from a traditional sector, employing a land-intensive
technology, to a modern human capital- intensive sector, with an
unending potential for economic growth. In Lucass model, cities are
places where new immigrants can accumulate skills required by modern
production technologies. In the conclusion to the paper, referring to the
attraction to cities driven by gains from agglomeration, he writes:
Even in the rapidly growing economies of the post-colonial
world, the passage from a 90 percent agricultural economy to one that is
90 percent urban is a matter of decades. Since everyone has the option to
migrate earlier rather than later, something must occur as time passes
that makes the city a better and better destination.
The new insight from theories that acknowledged spillovers
from clustering human capital is that, while the returns to scale in
agriculture are constant, the returns to scale in manufacturing and
services are increasing. The policy implications of adopting one view or
the other are profoundly different. A policy maker persuaded by the
classical view would restrict the movement of labor, particularly flows of
migrants from villages to towns and cities. In contrast, a policy maker
who recognizes the external benefits of human capital would do exactly
the opposite, facilitating migration and clustering, particularly of workers
with skills.

CONSEQUENCES

1 Migration is responsible for multi cultural and multi ethnic societies of today
through the movement of people since the history of mankind.
2 In earlier times, population pressures were not very high and environment was able
to take additional loads of people. But now, it has far reaching consequences. Sudden
addition of people pressurizes the economy, society and environment of a place, and
many a times, leading to its degradation.
3 Introduction of plurality in society may also lead to conflicts. Cultural revivalism may
come out of perception of cultural imperialism.

crackIAS.com 36

Economic Consequences

1. This depends on the "quality" of the migrants and the economic needs of the
origin and destination. Quality refers to skills, age, educational attainment, health
etc.
2. In overpopulated areas, emigration is beneficial because it reduces the pressure on
the land. In under populated areas, emigration may slow down development.
3. Changes pattern of employment (because native people are forced to take up
other jobs) as e.g. hard working & cheaper labour from Bihar has displaced the
native Punjabis from traditional ways to look for other avenues
4. Lead to economic development of that place as low wages lead to more capital
accumulation.
5. Pressurize both physical and social infrastructure and other basic amenities.
6. Creation of ghettoes in urban areas. It also adds to the process of
urbanization as many people leave the countryside to live in the cities. The graph
shows the trend in Mexico, and it is typical of a developed country:
7. An important economic consequence of migration is the remittances sent by the
migrants. Studies show that remittances constitute a fairly large share of the
income of the family in the migrants place of origin.
8. The economic effects on migration can be seen on rural employment and income.
If the migrant is unemployed prior to bearing the village, unemployment rates may
fall, but if the migrant is a student there would be no observable change in
unemployment levels.




Social Consequences

1. Transformation of cultural & religious values of natives & migrants e.g. French
& English in Canada; Indians, Pakistanis in Arabian countries.
2. Racial discriminations: In UK, France, and USA against Black & Asians; Jews
against Arabs in West Asia.
3. Problems in adaptation & dietary habits.
4. Increased understanding between people of different cultures e.g. Punjabis in
Canada now being an integral part of their society.
5. Increased animosity between people of different cultures e.g. attacks on Indians in
Australia.

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6. Inter-marriages
7. When people leave a community, the social fabric of the community inevitably
change. The social impact of migration at the village of origin can be seen in terms of
the breakdown of formal relationships.
8. Out migration tends to result in a greater integration of the village with outside
communities. The remaining villagers will know more about urban ways and will be
more likely to adopt selected urban behaviors, specially the purchase of urban
consumption goods and the desire education.
9. Other social impact of migration could be changes in the role of children and
women. Many studies show that wage-earning responsibilities undertaken by wives
in case of the absence of husbands.

Demographic Consequences

The migration of people from one place to another brings a tangible
transformation in the demographic characteristics age, sex, literacy fertility,
mortality etc.
1. Adults are more mobile, which lead to increased fertility rate and consequently the
GR in the areas of in-migration. It also imparts youthful characteristics to Age
Structure.
2. Mostly males immigrate, which reduces sex ratio of the population
3. Skilled people emigrate (brain drain). Thus areas of in-migration may have better
qualified people.
4. Population density increases.
5. There is a negative impact from the steady flow of skilled workers from developing
countries to North America, Europe and Japan. This is especially the case in the
health sector.
6. Migration will also affect population growth since fertility in urban areas is often
lower than in rural areas due to member of factors such as higher cost of rearing
children, family planning services etc.

Environmental consequences

Development of Slums & need for more land leads to deforestation, soil
degradation, water pollution, and air pollution

Political consequences

1. Refugees Political concerns for national & international communities. Providing
home place for them is a major area of concern. Form national & religion groups as
urban ghettos.
2. The absence of legal routes for migration has led to a significant expansion in
human trafficking and smuggling networks which are both dangerous and
exploitative in nature.

Does migration hamper the interests of the host-nation?

In a world with increasing returns to scale, will selective, voluntary
migration lead to economic divergence or convergence? A large volume of empirical work
from developed and developing countries bolsters an emerging consensus that
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governments should not see voluntary internal population movements as a threat.
Indeed, internal migration offers societies an opportunity for economic growth and the
convergence of welfare.
In contrast to the emerging consensus on migration within countries,
the benefits and costs of international migration are still the subject of debate. The
preeminence of place in determining the return on an individuals investment in human
capital is most dramatically observed in the difference the simple act of crossing a border
can make to earned income.
But what is not disputed is the growing volume of internationally
remitted earnings, which now outpace all other capital flows to poor and middle-
income countries. In 2007 the flows of remittances to many developing countries
surpassed those of foreign direct investment and equity for the first time. And these are
only the flows of remittances that governments and researchers can observejust a
fraction of what is actually sent through formal and informal channels. Allowing the freer
flow of skilled and unskilled labor across national borders would probably do more to
reduce poverty in developing countries than any other single policy or aid initiative.

MIGRATION TRENDS

Migration before 1500

It was called as unconscious drift to dispersal of people. Migration concept became
prominent after the evolution of nation state and after evolution of means of
transportation to facilitate migration.

Phase I (15001800)

From Europe, around 2 million people migrated to the Americas, mainly Britain.
Germany (around 1 lakh migrants) was the only country without any colony to
significantly participate in early settlements in North America. This seems
miniscule owing to Slave trade from Africa. Around 15 million Africans were shipped to
the Americas with half settled in Caribbean Islands, rest mostly to Central & South
America & only 1 million to the US. In Australia, the early European settlement was of
convicts transported during 1780s.

Phase II (1830s towards WW-I)

Mass migration from Europe, from annual outflow of 1 lakh in 1830s to 1.5 million till
WW-I due to population pressure, repeated crop failure in Europe. Initially the origin was
only in Ireland, Britain, Germany, Sweden, Norway etc. But from 1890s onwards, the
stream started from South and East Europe especially Italy, Austria, Russia etc. No
major out migration from Africa. Major destination of Europeans was mainly to
tropical & Sub Tropical coastlands of the Americas especially for commercial crops. 2
nd

major destination was temperate zones like America, South Africa, Australia, & New
Zealand.




crackIAS.com 39

Between the World Wars

Mainly forced migration with communities as a whole was uprooted. For instance, 1
million Russians got stranded in adjoining Europe due to 1917 revolution. 3 lakh
Americans fled Turkey, 1 million escaped Germany in 1930s from Nazi persecution &
another 6 million Jews got killed by Nazis. Owing to return of political stability, 18 million
Europeans migrated after WW-II. 15 million Indians & Pakistanis exchanged their land
due to Partition. 5 lakh Jews entered Israel. 7 lakh Arabs fled their native place.

Post-1950

(a) Migration with valid documents: Those to stay permanently & those with only
work permit. From India to West Asia, Migration was only for work; while US, Canada,
Australia were more interested in granting citizenship. Recent international laws leave
little scope of illegal migration.
(b) Illegal migration: From neighbouring poorer nations to regional economic power.
To Argentina, it was basically from Uruguay, Chile, and Brazil; and to Venezuela from C.
American nations.
(c) Refugees: They form a major chuck in migrants due to political disturbances.


CASE STUDY: REGIONAL LABOR MOBILITY HAS BEEN FALLING IN SUB-SAHARAN
AFRICA
The rate of labor migration within developing regions is highest in Sub-
Saharan Africa, but it has fallen since the 1960s. More than 60 percent of emigrants from
Sub-Saharan countries move to other countries in the region. The higher rate of labor
movement within the region relative to other developing world regions is partly a
consequence of the large number of land borders, but also of the relative permeability of
these borders and the difficulty of monitoring the flow of people crossing them, despite
numerous legal restrictions.
Migrants represented just over 3.5 percent of the population in Sub-Saharan
Africa in 1960 but only 2.3 percent by 2000. In 1960 the stock of migrants relative to the
population was much higher in Southern Africa than in other corners of the region, but it has
since fallen to about the level of migrants in Western Africa (see the table below). In Eastern
Africa and Central Africa the stock of migrants has fallen significantly.
Voluntary migration across borders in Sub-Saharan Africa is motivated by the
same reasons that prompt people to move within a country: to pursue job opportunities and
to diversify risks to income. Indeed, the economic rationale for movement from a lagging to a
leading area of the same country is virtually indistinguishable from that for moving across a
border in a region like Sub-Saharan Africa, where these movements are over relatively small
distances and for the most part unmonitored. But many migrants also move across borders
within a framework of formal agreements between countries. Since the 1960s, a web of
bilateral and multilateral agreements has grown in an attempt to reap the benefits and
control the costs of labor mobility within sub-regional neighborhoods.
In West Africa governments have attempted to manage population movements
within the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), which has had the most
influence on the flow and composition of migration in Sub- Saharan Africa. Established in
1975, ECOWAS includes a protocol allowing the free movement of people and the right of
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residence and establishment for the citizens of its member countries. The Southern African
Development Community (SADC), a loose alliance of nine countries of Southern Africa
formed in 1980, coordinated development projects to lessen economic dependence on
South Africa during the Apartheid era. Part of this alliance was a provision for the flow of
labor between member countries. The recent anti-immigrant violence in South Africa is a
setback for regional integration and migration.
Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda have formed the East African Community
(EAC), a regional intergovernmental organization for inter-territorial cooperation with roots
extending to 1948 before independence. The EAC, gaining strength as a framework for
economic integration since 1999, recently introduced East African passports and temporary
passes to speed the movement of labor.
The movement of labor across borders in Sub-Saharan Africas neighborhoods
could be encouraged. During economic contractions, policy makers in these neighborhoods
feel the same xenophobic political pressures as governments in rich countries do to favor
native workers and ration public services to inonnatives. Less than one-third of governments
in Sub-Saharan Africa have ratified the International Convention on the Protection of the
Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families. To really reap the benefits
from labor mobility for faster economic growth with convergence across Sub-Saharan
Africas regional neighborhoods, much more can be done to welcome migrants and open
channels for the flow of remittances to their home countries.

Migration Trends: An Abstract

During the mercantile period, from 1500 to 1800, the movement of
people around the world was dominated by Europeans. Agrarian settlers, administrators,
artisans, entrepreneurs, and convicts emigrated out of Europe in large numbers. During
the industrial period that followedsometimes referred to as the first period of
economic globalization, an estimated 48 million emigrants, between 10 and 20 percent
of the population, left Europe. Unlike international migration today, the movement of
people across borders in the first and second periods of labor migration was not driven
by a lack of economic growth or development in the sending countries. Indeed, the first
country to industrialize and the most advanced at the turn of the 20
th
centuryGreat
Britainwas by far the largest sending country. Economic analysis shows a positive
correlation between emigration and the extent of industrialization in the sending country.
A long period of autarky and economic nationalism began in 1910.
Unprecedented restrictions were placed on trade, investment, and immigration, stifling
the international movement of capital and labor. The trickle of international migrants
consisted mainly of refugees and displaced persons, unrelated to economic development.
The post-industrial period of migration began in the 1960s,
characterized by new forms, no longer dominated by flows out of Europe. People began
to move from lower income countries to wealthy countries, with a surge in migrant labor
from Latin America, Africa, and Asia. In the 1970s, countries that had been major
sources of migrating labor to Northern Europe and the Americas such as Italy,
Portugal, and Spainbegan to receive immigrants from Africa and the Middle East. The
growing wealth of oil-rich countries in the late 1970s made economies in the Persian Gulf
new destinations.
And by the 1980s, migration to East Asian countries spread beyond Japan
to Hong Kong, China; the Republic of Korea; Malaysia; Singapore; Taiwan, China; and
Thailand.
crackIAS.com 41

Today, about 200 million people are foreign born, roughly 3 percent of
the world population. There is a strong tendency for labor to move between countries in
the same world neighborhoods, particularly for South- South migration. Migration of
labor is usually from countries with a shared land border. While only 30 percent of
immigrants to the United States, 20 percent to France, and 10 percent to Germany come
from countries with which they share a border, 81 percent of immigrants to Cte
dIvoire, 99 percent to the Islamic Republic of Iran, and 93 percent to India are from
neighboring countries.
International migrants tend to stay within regional neighborhoods,
particularly in developing world regions, most notably in Sub-Saharan Africa. Almost 17
percent of recorded international migration around 2000 occurred within Europe and
Central Asia, though a large part of this resulted from border changes and changes in
the definition of who was foreign born in these countries. The Distance is not the whole
story. Divisions, in the form of language and culture, also determine the pattern of
international migration, with more than half of migrations occurring between countries
with a common language. Of course, a common language and other cultural factors
reinforce the neighborhood effects.

Migration trends in India

- It has misconceived beginning, as 1834 initial years of export of human cargo.
First wave of migration can be traced to spread of Buddhism from India. The South
East Asian Countries like Burma, Thailand, and Indonesia still reflect the Cultural
heritage of India.
- From 15
th
Century to 1834, Indians settled in various colonies on their own
initiatives; these were mainly clerks, technicians etc.
- From 1834 to 1917 indentured labour was taken to Spanish, Portuguese &
British Colonies. These were mainly from Bihar, UP, and Punjab. In 1834
Indentured trade to Mauritius, Fiji, Reunion Island & South Africa also started.
Towards the end of 19
th
century it was to rubber & tea estates of Malaysia & Sri
Lanka. Finally indenture labour was abolished in 1917.
- 1917 to WW-II (Passage Emigration): These were taken to Tanzania, Kenya and
Uganda etc. for railway construction; also taken to Japan & Hong Kong mainly
from Gujarat & Maharashtra.
- After WW II: 15 million Indians crossed border after partition, Indian Jews moved
to Israel.
- After 1950s: Major migration was due to Brain Drain to industrialized nations like
US, Canada, Australia.
- From 1970s onwards, it is towards gulf region after oil boom.
- In 1990s: there were around 7.5 million Indians in Gulf mainly from Kerala. Their
remittances back to India played a critical role in maintaining Indian reserves during
1992. Maximum number of employees was settled in Saudi Arabia, UAE, Kuwait,
Oman etc.
- Mid 1990s onwards: New set of migrants primarily, the IT or software
professionals moved after white collar boom in India; with destinations far & wide
mainly Germany, Italy, Korea, Singapore etc.

Over the past decade, international migration has been growing as a
consequence of the increasing integration of world economies and the changing needs in
crackIAS.com 42

both the countries of destination and the countries of origin. According to the U.N.
Population Division, there are now almost 200 million international migrants.
In October 2005, the Global Commission on International Migration
(GCIM) released its final report Migration in an interconnected world: New
directions for action. The commissioners write that: the international community has
failed to realize the full potential of international migration and has not risen to the many
opportunities and challenges it presents. In response, the UN held its first ever high
level plenary on migration in September 2006, focusing on a report by Kofi Annan titled
"International Migration and Development". The outcome is a new policy advisory
group, The Global Forum on Migration and Development, which will hold its first meeting
in Brussels in July 2007.
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) argues that a rights-
based international regime for migration management must rest on a framework of
principles of good governance, developed and implemented by the international
community and acceptable to all. A similar position is taken by UNESCO, which states
that human rights should be at the core of any approach to human mobility.
In 2000, the United Nations proclaimed 18th December as
International Migrants Day (IMD). This is another important step, offering a rallying
point for everyone across the world who is concerned with the protection of migrants.
The policy challenge is not how to keep households from moving,
but how to keep them from moving for the wrong reasons. Instead of trying to
fight the pull of agglomeration economies on workers and their families, governments
should work to eliminate the factors that push people out of their home areas. By doing
so, they can improve the quality of migration and encourage economic growth. Labor
mobility driven by economic reasons leads to greater concentration of people and talent
in places of choice and adds more to agglomeration benefits in these places than to
congestion costs.

PRACTICAL POLICIES FOR MANAGING MIGRATION

Not everyone chooses to migrate. Moving can be a costly, difficult, and
disruptive decision. Indeed, a generation of research shows that the movements of
laborfrom villages to towns, between towns and cities, across borders in the same
region, and from poor to distant wealthy countries are selective. Migrants are not the
same as people who stay behind. And while many individuals move in search of a better
job or higher education, many othersparticularly those in the rural areas of lowland
middle-income countriesseek basic schooling and health care for their families. But this
migration is economically inefficient. By overlooking the provision of basic social services
in outlying areassuch as schools, primary health centers, and even basic public
infrastructurepolicy makers can unwittingly influence the choice to migrate, motivating
households to move for reasons other than to exploit economic opportunities. While the
move is welfare improving for these families, the economy may end up worse off.

By focusing more attention on providing education, health, and social
services in outlying, economically lagging areas, governments can go a long way toward
eliminating some of the reasons households are pushed to migrate. These efforts can, in
turn, improve the quality of migration. Labor mobility that leads to greater concentration
of people and talent in locations of choice will contribute more to agglomeration benefits
than it adds to congestion. The impact of policies on the welfare of migrants and the
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broader economy should fuel skepticism of attempts to restrict labor mobility.
Encouragingly, there is a growing shift away from restrictions on population mobility and
toward facilitation and encouragement. But other than allowing people to move and
settle where they will earn the highest return on their labor and human capital, can
governments do more to help capture the benefits of agglomeration?

Migration results from forces that pull as well as those that push
individuals to leave. One big pull is the agglomeration economies in cities. But people are
also pushed out by the lack of social services. In Africa disparities in school enrollment
and neonatal care between cities, towns, and villages are attributable to the near
absence of schools and health facilities in outlying areas. Evidence from Central Asia
shows that in the isolated parts of Tajikistan, schools are inadequately heated, drinking
water is scarce, and arrangements to clear garbage and sewage are lacking. In China the
government is emphasizing a more even distribution of basic services to address the
gaps in living standards between the coast and the interior.

By prioritizing education, health, and social services in outlying areas over
other investments, governments can eliminate some of the reasons households are
pushed to migrate. These efforts can shape the composition of migration in a way that
growing concentrations are more likely to add to agglomeration economies, rather than
pile up congestion costs.

By recognizing the selective nature of voluntary labor migration, and the
implications of increasing returns to scale, the economic arguments and empirical
evidence in this chapter support a more positive view of labor mobility than that held by
policy makers in poor and middle-income countries in the past. From this perspective, a
practical policy stance will differ according to the human capital endowment of
prospective migrants and whether the agglomeration spillovers from clustering talent
can be captured and taxed by governments.

All the evidence on the benefits of education suggests that policy makers
should be concerned about the rapid loss of talent to countries far outside their regions.
But the potential costs in forgone human capital from outright restrictions on skilled
emigration are high. A far more practical and sustainable policy stance would operate
along two tracks. First, raise the private, individual costs of acquiring human capital to
match the private individual returns from migration of skilled workers abroad. Second,
reap the benefits from Diaspora communities in the worlds prosperous places, by
encouraging their economic and political participation at home, and by making it easy for
them to retain citizenship, vote, and eventually resettle if they so choose.









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REGIONAL IMBALANCES & DEVELOPMENT/
PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT


Regional imbalances mean a condition in an economy which has failed to
extend its benefits equally to all regions in a country or even classes in society. It is the
disparity in standards of living between different people.

These exist not only in a capitalist country but also in socialistic societies.
Capital concentrated in West Europe and North America i.e. First World. Underdeveloped
countries provide raw material and labour.

ANALYSIS OF REGIONAL DISPARITIES

Following sets of Theories

A. Superficial Theories

1. Climatic theory of development: Climate is most important/ sole factor in
determining level of development. All developed countries are in the temperate
region. All developing in tropical and sub-tropical. No developed country in these
latitudes. Singapore is a city state- not a country in true sense.
However, subscribing to it means neglecting human endeavour, creativity
etc. In extreme cases, climate acts as a deterrent e.g. Tundra, Canadian interiors, NE
USA- 4 months freezing. All homes power heated, human efforts worked against
climate. However climate plays an important role but not sole role.
2. Racial Theory: Discarded not acceptable.
3. Natural Resource theory of Development: Well endowed natural resourced
countries are developed. However exploitation and their efficient use is more
important rather than just presence of them e.g. Japan and UK are developed, while
Russia under-developed.

These themes discount development as time independent and ignore
human efforts. These can at best partially explain some aspects of development.

B. Economic theories

Samuelson theory of interlocking factors explains development as interplay of a variety
of factors, namely:-
1. Population
2. Natural resources
3. Technology
4. Capital Formation




crackIAS.com 45

C. Spatial Content Theories

1. Theory of cumulative causation: Given by Gonnar Myrdal based on how western
countries progressed from subsistence agriculture economy to an advanced industrial
economy; from rural to urban life.



Myrdal describes that as the process begins to happen, some centres
grow faster. They offer certain locational comparative advantages e.g. Bombay,
Calcutta, Madras, Delhi etc. Here Economics of development are better. These act as
Suction pumps and suck in dynamic elements from surrounding regions e.g.
best of raw materials, capital, professionals etc. These become competitively better
as cost of production will be low here because of agglomeration factors.
Transportation cost will be lesser here.
These keep on growing at the expense of other centres and not by their
own merits. Best of skills in village/ smaller areas flow to these urban industrial
centres. Village will be deprived off these skills. These become metros or larger
cities, mega cities and pull all dynamic elements. This process is called backwash
effect.
This process further accelerates; this centre offers economies of scale. It is
unwise to set up industry somewhere else. A stage comes when a threshold arrived
and there are diseconomies of scale. The congestion, scarcity of land etc. put
constraints e.g. Calcutta setting up anymore industry is uneconomical there. Then
starts the Dispersal of economic activity from these regions elsewhere.
This process continues to growing up of backward regions, small villages
etc. Big cities begun to shrunk and there is spread of development to periphery. This
is called as the spread Effect. This is the natural process of development/ spatial
differentiation if there is no intervention of govt.

2. Friedmans core periphery Model: It assumes that development has bias in favour
of some favoured locations at all regional, national & international levels. Regions
that develop rapidly became the core, surrounded by not so developed regions i.e.
periphery/ areas of stagnation. The 4 different stages identified in this model are:-
a) Pre-industrial society with localized economies
b) The development of core and periphery
c) Dispersion of Economic activity and control into certain parts of the periphery
d) Emergence of spatial integration.

Key words Mydrals Model
Stage 1 No Integration (A)
Stage2 Differentiation (B) (C)
Stage3 Dispersal (D)
Stage4 Integration (E)

crackIAS.com 46


Myrdals diagram and model are very much similar to Friedman.

Stage 1 is characterized by undifferentiated development landscape
i.e. Pre-industrial revolution. There is no integration between different aspects of
economy and development. No means of fast communication. The places are too far
away to have any interaction.
Stage 2 starts having differentiation. Level of differentiation goes on
increasing between rural and urban industrial centers. Urban areas have accelerated
growth. India lies on Stage (C) of Myrdal. In India, 4 metropolis account for 5% of
Indian population; 35 metros account for 25% of Indias population.
Stage 3 is identified with dispersal which is same as spread effect of
Myrdal. Dispersal of economic activity to periphery takes place.
Stage 4 starts having spatial Integration
Friedman distinguished between Upward Transitional Area and
Downward Transitional Area. UTA are resource rich & have proximity to the
core; also known as resource frontier areas, while the DTA are declining areas.
Human settlements here start declining due to declining resource base and the
labour & capital move out of these.
Excessive concentration of industry, population, economic activities is
there in stage 2, e.g. six industrial regions in India account for >90% of industrial
activity. Problems in Urban areas are because of unbalanced development of
landscape, and consequent rural migration.

3. Rostows economic development Model identifies 5 stages in the development of
a country:-
Stage 1: Traditional society
Stage 2: Pre conditions for take off
Stage 3: Take off
Stage 4: Drive to maturity
Stage 5: Stage of Mass Consumption

Traditional society is pre-industrial society dominated by agriculture,
religion and security as the main concerns.
Emergence of a small progressive elite class creates Preconditions for
take off for urbanization and industrialization. This class is always on the look out
and goes outside to developed countries, bring new ideas. At this point of time, there
will be government investment into infrastructure development like road, railway etc.
e.g. India during 2
nd
and 3
rd
FYP and even during 10
th
FYP.
Stage III involves setting up of industries at some preferred places. Stage
IV is when diversification of industries takes place. Not only one, but many industries
set up. Stage V is one of economic self reliance.

4. Rostow-Taffe Model: or Island economy Model takes into account the spatial
aspect of Rostows model. Taffe has used Rostows model to explain what kind of
spatial pattern emerges with economic development as per Rostow.
Initially, there is an undifferentiated Island landscape is created. Its a
relatively isolated economy without much interaction. No differentiation at this stage.
crackIAS.com 47

The next stage is when elite class brings in new ideas, looking at the
World outside. They also bring back new products, electronics and others. People
around ask for such products. Some demand is generated for such things.
At this stage, some development of Coastal places and some
connectivity with interiors take place. In return of imported things, raw materials are
exported. Port connectivity is with mining centres to bring such materials & export.
At third stage, some industries setup at certain preferred places- Coastal
locations. Government thinks of setting up rather than importing. These centres
further develop with such economic activity. There will be better connectivity and
earlier mining better develop.
The demand grows gradually with more and more people being connected.
This is the take off stage. People move towards industrial area. National demand for
various products is generated. There is greater variety of products demanded.
The variety results into diversification of industries and products. This is
the drive to maturity stage. Greater distribution of industry inwards and production
started. The integration takes place between different centres over a period of time.
This is the fifth stage of Rostow

D. Export bases & regional Multiplier models

1. Export bases model: A region capable of producing & exporting goods & services
grows much more rapidly than those not having. Export generates surplus which
gives impetus to services sector. This explains growth of dominant regions and the
decline of some others e.g. mining regions.
2. Region Multiplier theory: Explains how economic growth in a region accelerates
further growth e.g. machinery in industry needs greater supply of steel. Greater
demand of steel leads to more production which requires more machinery. Thus
Growth stimulates growth in a complex rising spiral of production.
However this is a western model based on their experience and history.
It means that the process started from a balanced stage consisting of pockets of
economic growth and poverty. With time, the situation got accentuated and then there
was dispersal of development. The sequence involves destroying our natural resources
like water, land etc.
This involves first creating the problems and then deal with them. It
means first polluting the environment and then making efforts to clean it. Both models
take regional imbalances, social degeneration, disparities, poverty etc. as inevitable.
These call it as a Natural Process. Need is to think of a model having balanced
development of all regions together.






crackIAS.com 48

INDICATORS OF LESS LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Per capita income is low and capital is scarce.
2. Primary occupations like farming, forestry, mining and fishing dominate the national
economy.
3. High proportion of population is dependent on agriculture, usually over 70%
4. Farming is subsistence with less efficient methods disguised unemployed, small
holdings, limited mechanic, low productivity.
5. Predominance of rural population, > 70% usually. Exception is Latin America where
> 70% population is urban because harsh conditions have pushed people to cities.
6. Birth and death rate are high, and the Growth Rate is also high. Life Expectancy is
low and there is predominance of youthful population in demographic composition.
7. Inadequate and unbalanced diet resulting from a relatively low consumption of
proteins. Hunger and malnutrition are common.
8. Infections and respiratory diseases common, medical services are poor.
9. Overcrowding, poor housing, few public services, poor sanitation & poor social
conditions.
10. High illiteracy and poor educational infrastructure.
11. Women may be held in inferior position in society. There is better parity in developed
societies. Reproductive health index much better there.
12. Wealth is unevenly distributed (degree very high). Economic inequity is high e.g. in
Gabon 1% population holds 56% of national wealth; in Colombia, 2.6% population
holds 40% of national wealth; while in US, Top 10% population holds 27% national
wealth only.

MEASURES TO INDICATE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

1. Per Capita Income: It is the average of the distribution of national wealth. It is a
good measure, but not excellent one. It does not take into account inter personal
disparity
2. GDP: Gross domestic product: Its a gross generalization of total production in terms
of monetary value within the domestic territory of a nation or country (India has 4
th

largest in world but not economically developed). GDP cannot be true measurement
of economic development, Its only a rough indicative and suggestive measurement
which points on the total national wealth but never its distribution.
3. GNP: Gross national product: It includes GDP + net income from abroad. It is a
better measurement than GDP but again it cannot show distribution.
4. NNP: Net National Product: its equal to GNP Depreciation. A rough estimate based
on above said four measurement point out to the economic growth. Other measures
include:
5. Per Capita Consumption: It is the most efficient among all economic measures to
show the economic development. If refers to the total consumption quantified in
monetary value per individual.
6. Wage rate: is positively co related with development. Human indicators: Human
indicators are best reflector of development. They are dependent upon the economic
criteria.
7. PerCapita Doctor availability: its a new, but highly rated index. It talks about
social infrastructure, longevity, health & sanitation etc.
8. Higher employment rate: Fundamental rights for some countries.
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9. Positive sex ration: Norway, Canada etc, have the sex ratio. It is denial of female
infanticide, maternity mortality ratio, genocide etc.
10. Low dependency ratio: The average dependency for India is 670; for Canada it is
100 (Full employment)
11. Demographic characters: like low death rate, birth rate, high immigration, mother
mortality ratio, infant mortality rate.
12. Development of Social infrastructure: Health facilities, education unemployment,
rural electrification, degree of urbanization, road and transport linkages ( per capita
road availability)
13. In late 70s earls 80s, some of the composite measures were developed by Overseas
Development Council known as Physical Quality Life Index. It included 3 parameters:
- IMR
- Literacy
- Life Expectancy
14. Human Development Index (HDI): was introduced in 1991. It measures
achievements in terms of
Life Expectancy
Literacy
Adjusted Real Income (Standard of living)
15. Gender Development Index (GDI)
It is same as HDI but adjusted downwards for gender inequalities
HDI- tells us average achievements in a country
GDI- difference between these achievements as between men and women
16. Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)
GDI focuses on capabilities of women in a society
GEM focuses on opportunities available to women in a society in terms of
o Political power
o Economic power
o Command over resources
17. Human Poverty Index (HPI): was introduced in 1996. Shows the extent of
deprivation in a society in terms of
Literacy
Life expectancy
Standard of living
It is the reverse side of HDI
5. Longevity measured as percentage of People expected to die before age
of 40
6. Knowledge as percentage of adults illiterate
7. Standard of living
4. Percentage of people with access to health services
5. Safe drinking water
6. Percentage of malnourished children under age of 5
18. Technology Achievement Index (TAI): was introduced in 2001. It measure the
capability of a nation in creating and diffusion of technology as also in creating a
human skills base

WORLD DEVELOPMENTAL REPORT is published every year by World
Bank. Title of the 2007 Report is Development and the Next Generation. WDR
classifies countries on the basis of Gross National Income (GNI) per capita in 2004
as follows:-
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Low income countries : $825 or less
Lower middle income : $826 - $3255
Upper Middle income : $3256 - $10065
Higher income : $10066 or more

Low income countries in terms of population constitute = 40.5%
Middle income countries in terms of population = 44.5%
High income countries in terms of population = 15%

World GNP contribution

Low income contribute = 3.3%
Middle Income = 17%
High Income = 80%
It is evident from here that 85% population of the world contributes just
20% GNP e.g. India houses 16.5% of World Population, while contributes only 1.5% to
World GNP. Per capita income here is $460.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT reveals facts about India

Population below poverty line ($ 2, per day) 79.9%; though as per national
poverty line it is 28.6%.
Annual population growth rate is 1.3%.
Public expenditure on health is 1.2% of GDP.
Public expenditure on education is 3.3% of GDP.
Life expectancy at birth is 63.1 years

COUNTRY RANK
Norway (Top) 1
Iceland 2
Australia 3
Ireland 4
Sweden 5
Japan 7
USA 8
Pakistan 136
Bangladesh 137
Nepal 138
Hong Kong 22
Burkina Faso 176
Guinea Bissau (Last) 177

NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT was prepared by Planning
Commission of India in March 2002. Theme of the report was Poor governance is key
deterrent to attainment and enhancement of Human development. It included the
following Measures:
HDI (Human Development Index)
HPI (Human Poverty Index)
GDI (Gender Disparity Index)
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HDI Ranks GDI Ranks HPI Ranks
2001 1991 1991
1. Kerala
2. Punjab
3. T.N
4. Maharashtra
Last - Bihar
1. H.P
2. A&N Islands
3. Kerala
Bihar most poor. In
2001, Orissa replaced
Bihar as most poor state

CAUSES OF REGIONAL IMBALANCES

1. Historical Factors
2. Physical-Economic factors: (a) Poor resource base, (b) low wage rate, (c) poor
agriculture land, (d) poor land man rations (e) low standard of living. (f) low per
capita income, (g) poor per capita consumption etc.
3. Demographic factors: High dependency ratio, low wage rate, unemployment
negative sex ratio, young age ratio etc.
4. Socio-Cultural factors: Primitive mode of living, the inward outlook of the society,
they hardly accept innovations, poor education poor health facilities, poor
development of economic infrastructure broad railways etc)
5. Political factors: Type of government, government policies, Geopolitics.
6. Religious factors: the religions dogmas. The religions percepts which induces the
cultural values & governs the social ethos.

History of development played a great role in the development of certain
regions e.g. in India, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras are classic examples. The backwash
effect thereafter showed its impact. NW India including Delhi has a long agriculture and
industrial history of development. Further this region remained the seat of power since
medieval times. A sound work culture evolved in this region. The Zamindari system in
Bihar with large suppressed class has its own role in backwardness of this state.
Physical factors play a far penetrating role in the development of a region.
Plains invite civilizations, mountains push them away, deserts deny then and coasts
augment.
Further, the River valleys act as the cradles of civilization. Availability of
ground water, river water, river transport, fertile land or fertile soil have always
attracted mans settlement and development. Vidal de La Blache says that River basins
have functional homogeneity and are the gravity centres of the civilization where nature
is protective and supportive to man
Soil is the most important natural resource. Most river valleys and the
coastal areas have harboured most of the humanity.
The planned period after independence in terms of Government policies
also led to regional imbalances. Green revolution reinforced the disparities to the neglect
of other regions of the country. The policy of development of backward regions of
Chottanagpur and around could not fetch the desired results of development in this part
of India.
The concentration of industry in India in certain regions and consequent
imbalances in development was because of economic factors.
Attitude of people, work ethos, risk bearing capacity etc. played imp role.
Green Revolution in NW India succeeded while in eastern parts latter could not take off.
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Enterprising nature of Gujaratis, marwaris, Jains resulted into development of industry
and business in these regions.

REGIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORLD DEVELOPMENT

A. In 1911 the first regionalization was provided which divided the world into:
Developed
Quasi-developed
Under-developed

Developed world: It included the Anglo America, Western Europe &
Australia where all the measures of economic development have been found to very
high. Quasi developed: They are regions with high resource base & the
development has only intensified in 20
th
century. Eastern Europe, Southern Europe,
South Africa, Brazil, Argentina are considered to order. Under developed: African
countries, India, China, are underdeveloped

B. Classification based on population-resource ratio (given by Aekerman)
1. US type
2. Russian type
3. Egyptian type
4. Polar type

C. After the 2nd world war, the world was divided into worth & south block. Its a geo
political term which explains the developed & underdeveloped or developing. North
is connotative of developed & South-east is of developing. The developing world
invariably had a colonial history & the saga of economic exploitation is common in
each of these nations. The north is characterized by development of secondary &
tertiary activities while south is by primitive and prime activity. North is the net
importer of raw material while south is net importer of processed goods.

D. Another classification is based on present world scenario & physico socio eco
cultural landscape of the present world. On the primary scale, the world has been
divided into- the developed world and the developing world.

On secondary/ meso scale, Developed world has been divided into:
1. New world &
2. Occidental world

In micro scale, it can be further divided into:
- Anglo American
- Latin American
- Austral Asia

And the developing world on meso scale is divided into:
1. Old oriental realm
2. South Asian region or new oriental realm
3. Meso African region

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On micro scale, it can be divided into:
- The far east (excluding Japan)
- South East Asia

Developed region: The development in this region is the by-product of
the industrial revolution and resultant urbanization which took place in the 19
th
century
and the scientific revolution of the 20
th
century. They have high natural resource base
and growth of secondary and tertiary activities which are economically more profitable.
The landman ratio, the employment scenario, the generation of economic
outputs, the productive investment, the trade surplus are very high. They are the
characteristic of developed nation
New World lands were newly discovered lands after Columbus expedition
(Paradigm shift between Pre & Post). They have huge natural resource base.

Occidental world includes Europe and European part of Russia,
Mediterranean countries and part of North America. High population-resources ration but
development can be attributed to history of colonial nation (highly developed industrial
base, but poor land-man ratio). They are moving out of secondary sector & tertiary
activity is becoming hall mark.

Among the Developing regions, Old Oriental includes Western &
Central Asia; Afghanistan is considered the buffer zone. These regions have high
resources mainly Energy. They are high upon economic development indexes but low on
human develop indexes. The governing factor is religion, not science. The per capita
income for countries like Saudi Arabia, UAE, Kuwait are in excess of 20 thousand dollars,
that is much beyond limit of 5000 $ which is one of the criteria for dividing developed
world & developing world. Most of the countries in developing world have per capita
income below 3000$ e.g. India 370$, Bangladesh 278$. The women literacy is 15
25 %. Mother mortality rate, infant mortality rate is moderate.

New Oriental Realm includes South Asia, South-East Asia, East, Far-East
regions. South Asia has enormous populations & supportive capacity is not accordingly.
They are characterized by poor economic & human development both. Religion & faith
governs the social ethos. Poor land man ratio, low wage rate, poor consumption and
high dependency ratio characterize these regions.

South East Asia: Classified as Asian Giant making remarkable
progress. Countries like Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia, and Malaysia have high natural
resources with relatively low population pressure. Portfolio investment & capital
investment by MNCs have been the main reason behind economic boost. Its a multi-
cultural, multi- lingual region where Buddhism, Islam, Hinduism, Tanism seem to
converge. It resulted into human development.

Among the East and Far East countries, China is considered East,
while Japan, Taiwan, and Korea are considered as far east. East is developing & Far East
is developed the East is rural agrarian economy, the Far East is industrialized urban
economy. The population base of east is very high & for Far East, it is low. The economic
indicators are positive for east and human indicators are progressing. The economic &
human development indexes both are very high. East has huge natural resource base,
the Far East has human resource base (skilled human resources).
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Meso-African countries include North Africa, South Africa, West African
countries, the subSaharan & Central African countries. The West African countries &
sub Saharan countries are called land of despairs. Poor natural resources, tribal &
animistic society characterize these with very poor performance in demographic
attributes. Highest mortality rate SierraLeon (40).

The central & east African countries are called land of hopes
Economies are developing countries like Angola, Tanzania, Kenya, Namibia etc.
constitute these.

The regional disparity in economic development has been accelerated by
the present day process. This phase can be easily called the phase of economic
colonization. At present, out of 100 most powerful economies, 52 economies are
MNCs & 48 are nations. The world is turning into a global village & the economic
integration process has intensified but this is leading to much gaping regional disparity.
The poor nations are becoming poorer and rich nations are becoming richer.

WHAT DEVELOPMENT MEANS

Development means different things to different people.
Growth vs. Development Economic growth nearly refers to rise in output.
Economic Development implies changes in technological & institutional organisation
of production as well as distributive pattern of income.
Development is a broader concept Growth easy to realize by mobilizing
resources, raising productivity etc. The process of development is far more extensive.
Not only rise in output, it involves changes in the composition of output & shift in
allocation of productive resources to ensure social justice. While these can be
growth without development, development without growth is
unconceivable.
Development includes reduction in poverty, unemployment & inequality: If it is
growing worse even if per capita income increasing; there would be no development.
Developing during 1960s & 70s in India showed high rates of growth of per capita
income but no actual decline in unemployment, inequalities & poverty.
Development also means redistribution from growth it means material
welfare especially of people with lower incomes & eradication of illiteracy,
diseases & early death.
Development also means changes in the organisation of economy in such a way
that productive employment is general among the working age population rather
than the situation of a privileged minority & corresponding greater participation in
decision making.
World Bank Report 1991 asserted development as improvement of quality of
life which includes better education, higher standards of health & education, cleaner
environment & more equality of opportunities, greater individual freedom & a richer
cultural life.
Development is also conceived as a multidimensional process which involves
major changes in social structures, popular attitudes & national institutions.
It mean whole gamut of change to more away from a condition of life widely
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perceived as unsatisfactory towards a situation as materially & spiritually
better.
Development has 3 basic values which serve as the practical guidelines for
understanding the inner meaning of development. These are
1) Sustenance: i.e. life supporting basic human needs food, shelter, health &
protection, the absence of any one of which means absolute under development.
2) Self esteem: i.e. universal component of good life, a sense of worth & self
respect not being used as a tool by others for their own ends.
3) Freedom: - economic growth must increase the range of human choices. It
includes political freedom, freedom of expression, political participation & equality
of opportunity. Thus the success stories of 1970s & 80s (Saudi Arabia,
Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia & China) didnt score high on the 1991 Human
freedom index complied by UNDP.

UNDP 1994 report focuses on a new paradigm of development i.e. sustainable
human development. It is the one which accelerate economic growth & translates
it into improvement in human life, without destroying the natural capital needed
to protect the opportunities of the future generations. The strongest argument
for protecting the environment is the ethical need to guarantee the future generation
opportunities similar to the ones which the previous generation have enjoyed. This
guarantee is the foundation of sustainable development.

PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The principle objective of regional planning is to maximize resource
development potential by maximizing national output. This can be possible only
through the optimum utilization of resources in the short term and sustainable
utilization of the resources in the long run.
The concept of sustainable development is oriented to the future. The
Brutland Report makes this clear in defining sustainable development as development
that meets the needs of present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs.

Planning for sustainable development involves the following major principles

1. Resources must be exploited in an economical manner. This would help not
only to minimize waste of resources but also to convert the waste products into
economically viable by products. Technological up gradation is needed to achieve
such a goal.
2. Society has to be aware enough to conserve renewable resources and also to
conserve non-renewable resources.
3. Multi-purpose use of resources can prevent loss of resources. With scientific
advancements newer applications of resources (such as evolving new by-products of
coal during 19
th
and 20
th
centuries) have proved to be extremely beneficial for the
human civilization.
4. Integrated planning is important for the development of economy in a sustainable
manner. Examples are found in the in the case of multipurpose river valley projects,
where the same water resource has been used for different purposes- irrigation, -
hydro power generation, pisiculture, etc.
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5. Industrial locations should be planned in economically viable regions. For
example--Iron and steel industries should be located near the source of raw
materials for achieving maximum profit and optimum utilizations of resources.
6. Prevention of environmental hazards such as pollution created by automobiles,
industries is important for the developmental aspect of planning.

Sustainable development seeks to meet the needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. Thus, it is extremely important for planners to consider the ecological aspect for
our future survival.

HOW POLICY MAKING CAN HELP BRING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT

Rural-urban transformations are best facilitated when policy
makers recognize the economic interdependence among settlements. Within a
countrys hierarchy of cities, towns, and villages, each specializes in a different function
and has strong interrelationships with others. So the policy discussion should be framed
not at the extremes of the national level or the individual settlement. Instead, it should
be framed at the level of what is termed an area, usually a state or province. Policy
makers should see themselves as managers of the portfolio of places in such an area. An
area approach can also inform national urbanization strategies. While area-specific urban
shares in the population will determine priorities for all levels of government (central,
provincial, and municipal); a nations urban share can be a good guide to the overall
complexity of its challenges.
Policy challenges become more complex with urbanization. Cities
and towns provide firms and families the benefits of proximity, but the compactness of
activity produces congestion, pollution, and social tension, which can offset those
benefits. Whether a policy is desirable depends on if it addresses the markets failures
and abets concentration. In countries or areas with low urban shares, for example, traffic
congestion and slums may not be the major policy problems. But in rapidly urbanizing
areas, congestion can quickly set in. And metropolitan areas may need, in addition, to
address within-city divisions posed by shantytowns and slums.
Prioritizing and sequencing of policies can help governments
facilitate inclusive urbanization even in the early stages of development. Each
dimension of the integration challenge requires a different family of instruments. For
areas of incipient urbanization, the policy challenge is one-dimensional: build density
with spatially blind institutions. For areas of intermediate urbanization, it is two-
dimensional: build density and reduce economic distance with spatially connective
infrastructure. And for areas of advanced urbanization, it is three dimensional: build
density, overcome distance, and address the economic and social divisionscaused, say,
by slumswith spatially targeted interventions.








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CASE STUDY: HOW TO OVERCOME REGIONAL DISPARITIES

CORRECTING GEOGRAPHIC DISPARITIES IN POSTWAR JAPAN

In 1970, Prime Minister Eisaku Sato and the Cabinet initiated the New
Economic and Social Development Plan and the New Integrated Spatial Development
Plan (Shin-Zenso). The objective was to address disparities in living standards, as a
result of accelerated growth in industrial areas around Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka along
the Pacific Coast during the early postwar years. An excerpt in the Shin-Zenso
summarized the governments vision:
Among many problems concerning spatial disparities, disparities in living
standards are more serious than those in per capita income. From this standpoint, the
construction of the basic services and social institutions must be accelerated in rural
towns, and new policies must be adopted to improve the living conditions of their
surrounding areas above a certain minimum level.
These plans continued to provide public investment in basic services and
social institutions (for example, public utilities, medical facilities, and school buildings)
to industrialized areas. But additional investments were made in the less developed
areas, to achieve at least a minimal level of living standards for all places. The result was
a rapid catch-up in investment in basic services and social institutions in less developed
areas relative to the more industrialized areas.

Both the general account budget of the central government and the Fiscal
Investment and Loan Program were instrumental in mobilizing fi nancial resources. The
general account budget of the central government provided earmarked budget transfers
to local governments in addition to no earmarked transfers. Among the earmarked
budget transfers, a substantial amount was allocated for investments in basic services
(for example, rural roads) and social institutions under cost-sharing arrangements with
the local government.
The Fiscal Investment and Loan Program pooled public funds from such
sources as postal savings and public pension insurance premiums and then channeled
them for investments in housing and social institutions to improve welfare in less
developed areas. These policies were effective in corralling large investments toward
achieving universal attainment of basic living standards. Per capita income converged
between leading and other areas during the 1970s (see the fi gure on the right, below).
Labor migration from rural to large urban areas was pronounced throughout the 1950s
and 1960s, but it tapered off after the mid-1970s.





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WEBERS MODEL OF INDUSTRIAL
LOCATION

Industrial Location is governed by two sets of principles:-

1. why certain industries are attracted to certain locations (new emerging trends in
industrial location)
2. why certain sites are attractive for certain industries (applicable to 19
th
and 20
th

century industrial locations)

Webers model of industrial location refers to the second category of
locations. The pattern of Industrial location is the result of various physical and
socio-economic factors like availability of raw material, labour, transportation
facilities, social customs, government organisation etc.
Alfred Weber tries to explain the location of various industries at the least
cost location taking into account transportation, labour and agglomerating
factors.

INFLUENCE OF TRANSPORT COST

- Most powerful determinant of plant location and the most important variable in the
cost of production
- Total Transport Cost determined by
- Total distance of haul
- Wt of Transported material
- The transport cost however dependent upon the nature of raw material.
- The raw material, according to Weber, may be
- Ubiquitous
- Localized
- Ubiquitous raw materials are those which are found everywhere like air, water,
soil etc.
- Localized raw materials confined to selected places on earth like Coal, iron oxide,
bauxite etc. Further, the localized raw material; could be
- Pure or
- Impure or weight losing
- The pure raw materials are those in which the weight of raw material remains
same even after manufacturing process e.g. cotton, while in impure raw materials,
the weight of final products is less than raw material used e.g. limestone, iron ore.
- For determining whether a raw material is pure or impure, Weber introduced his
famous Material Index which is the ratio of weight of raw material to the weight of
finished product.


M.I. = Wt. of Raw Material
Wt of finished product

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For a pure raw material M.I. = 1
For an impure raw material MI > 1

- Also a product may require one or more raw materials. Depending upon the
relative location pf market and raw material source, we get different geometric
patterns along which industry could be located:
- Linear (when single raw material)
- Triangle (When two raw materials)
- Rectangular in case of three and so on.
- In case of a single raw material, there possible locations of industry are possible
depending upon nature of it.
If the raw material is ubiquitous, favourable location is Market owing to the
saving of Transportation Cost
It the raw material is Localized and Pure, Location would be either market or
raw material source or anywhere along the line joining the two
If the raw material is localized and impure, location would be raw material
source



- In case of 2 raw materials, there are four possible locations with a triangular set up.
- Both raw materials are Ubiquitous: ideal location of plant is market.
- One raw material is Ubiquitous while the other is localized and impure. Location
preferred is impure raw material source.
- Both raw materials localized and pure, preferred site of industry is market.
- Both raw materials localized and impure, Location will depend upon relative
weight losing of raw materials e.g. iron and steel industry (2 tn coal and 2 tn iron
ore produce 1 tn steel).













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INFLUENCE OF LABOUR COST

- The technological developments in transportation made Weber to give greater
importance to labour cost.
- For Weber, if the saving by shifting industry to low labour cost areas offsets the
increase in transport cost, the industry will be shifted there.
- The diagram shows L1 as such location while L2 is one where increase in
transportation cost is more than savings in labour, thus L2 is not preferred.
- The concepts of Isodopanes (lines joining equal additional transportation costs) and
Isotime (lines joining equal transportation costs) were used for the concept.


INFLUENCE OF AGGLOMERATION

- The agglomeration of many industries could reduce the overhead costs by having
common water supply, power generation, banking services etc., thus deviating the
industry from least transport cost to agglomerated area.


CASE STUDY OF IRON & STEEL PLANT OF TISCO, JAMSHEDPUR

Raw material is the most important determinant for the location of TISCO Plant
in Jamshedpur. Besides, the latter development of transportation, easy availability
of labour and facilities of nearby Calcutta Port alongwith market around helped
this plant to grow.
Haematite Iron Ore: Gurumahisani & Noamundi, Singhbhum District within 100 km.
Coal: Jharia (Jharkhand) and Raniganj (West Bengal) within 200 km.
Calcutta: Port and industrialized hinterland for market within 250 km.
Water: Subarnrekha River for cooling purposes.
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Labour: Cheap and abundant: Bihar, Chottanagpur (Tribals), Orissa.
Good transport facilities: NH6 (Mumbai Kolkata) and NH5 (Chennai Kolkata)
passes near to it (part of Golden Quadrilateral)


CRITICISM

1. Many assumptions made were unrealistic- such conditions rarely found in real
world.
2. Role of Transport Cost was over-emphasized. He considered it proportional
distance and weight; but raw material transportation is cheaper than finished goods.
Also with increase in distance, transportation cost decreases.
3. Role of influence of Agglomeration factors ignored space problem, energy crisis etc.
4. Assumed perfect competition which, in long run, is difficult to sustain.
5. Emphasizes too much on cost reduction and not revenue earning. Thus his approach
is an unbalanced one.
6. Ignored social, political and other human considerations. Government policy on
SSIs location in India reverses the trends visualized by Weber. These are intended to
be located at locations, not favoured traditionally by the industry, to achieve the
social-economic targets of balanced regional development. Similar is case with SEZs.
7. Modern means of transport have greatly revised the industrial location. Influence of
other factors has increased in the process.
8. An export oriented unit would prefer a port location to have easy shipment rather
than least transport cost location of Weber.
9. Increased complexity of industrial organization- single product factory of 20
th

century replaced by multi product International Corporation. Thus Weberian Theory is
difficult to apply.
10. Entrepreneurs do not have full knowledge of facts; thus they opt for a range of sub-
optimal locations rather than the optimal ones.

APPLICABILITY

1. 19
TH
and 20
th
C industrial location reflects resemblances with the model.
2. Transportation principle lost significance but relationship between distance,
volume and transportation cost still holds good.
3. Labour principle lost its relevance owing to its high mobility and demand for skilled
labour. However developing countries still attract MNCs for their low labour costs


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4. Agglomeration principle has high validity even today e.g. Cluster Approach, SEZs,
EOUs, EPZs etc. are based on these principles.
5. Post- Liberalization and globalization industry consider both domestic and foreign
market demands. Preferred location has become ports now.
6. Presently raw material is also received from foreign countries. Also the quality of
raw material has attained greater significance e.g. quality iron ore in India is
imported from Australia.
7. Revolution in transportation facilities like refrigerated transportation has
influenced the preferred locations greatly. Now-a-days even the perishable products
can be transported to any distance e.g. milk products from Gujarat are sent as far as
to Kolkata daily.
8. Modern transportation facilities have made the bulk carrying easier and cheaper
even for the longer distances, thereby influencing the industrial location.



















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HIMALAYAS



Himalayas are the loftiest mountain ranges of the world, which emerged as
a cumulative product of various fold mountain orogenies that started around 100
million years (my) ago when Indian peninsula separated from Africa & moved
northward to collide with Asian plate. As both the plates were Continental Plates,
neither of two subducted under the other. The continental crust was buckled, fractured
and shortened.



Prior to collision, both the landmasses were separated by an ocean basin.
Convergence of these two led to an ocean-ocean interaction wherein the oceanic edge
of peninsular plate got subducted under the oceanic edge of Asian Plate. Partial
melting of subducting ocean plate resulted in an andesitic volcanic arc known as Drass
Island Arc.

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Erosion of newly formed arc discharged large quantities of sediments
to already sediment laden continental margins. When continental plates collided,
squeezing, folding and deforming of sediments took place. The anticlockwise rotation
(door slamming shut movement) of peninsula closed the Tethys Sea, existing
between the two, and led to the rise of its sediments.
The Himalayan Range with deformed sedimentary rocks and fragments
of volcanic arc was thus formed. The spreading centre propelling India northward is
still active. This is the reason for the on-going growth of Himalayas @ few cm/year.
Evidence: severe earthquakes as north as China and Mongolia.


SALIENT FEATURES OF STRUCTURE OF HIMALAYAS


Stepped Rise: The door slamming shut movement resulted in younger age &
greater heights of Eastern Himalayas. Further, the consequent gradual release of
pressure on western side caused stepped rise of Himalayas as compared to their
abrupt rise on Eastern side.



Syntaxial Bending: The forceful intrusion of peninsula & consequent compression
created syntaxial bending concaving southwards with transform faults along edges.

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Parallel Ranges: An important feature of Himalayas is the existence of parallel
ranges interspersed by faults. Tethys Himalayas in the north paralleled by Inner,
Middle & Outer Himalayas southward.
Tethys or Tibetan Himalayas are composed of fossilifereous
sedimentary rocks of marine origin with altitudes of 3000-4300 m & 40 km width.
The Inner or Greater Himalayas also called Himadaris form worlds
highest Mountain Ranges with average height of 6000m and 50km width. These are
composed of crystalline & metamorphic rocks like granites, gneiss and schiests.
The Middle Himalayas are characterized by highly complicated & strongly
folded & faulted belt of allochthonous rocks with elevations of 3600-4200m & width of
60 - 80km. It is a belt of thrust sheets & nappes.
The Shiwaliks are exclusively tertiary formations with a Series of
anticlines and synclines.



Width
Height
Rock Types
TETHYS
HIMALAYAS
GREATER
HIMALAYAS
MIDDLE
HIMALAYAS
40 km
3000-4300 m
Fossilifereous
Sedimentary Rocks
50 km
6000 m
Crystalline &
Metamorphic Rocks
60-80 km
3600-4200 m
Allochthonous Rocks


Fault Zones: The compressional forces strained the rocks & crack zones developed.
ITSZ (Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone) is the zone along which the two continental
plates interact. It consists of metamorphosed rocks. MCT (Main Central Thrust) is a
reverse fault with Orthoclinal Structures (90), consisting of extremely crushed
gneiss, Schiest etc. MBF (Main Boundary Fault) is a reverse fault continuous
throughout the Himalayas. The HFF (Himalayan Front Fault) represents the present
belt of crustal deformation.


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MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE HIMALAYAS

Geographically the entire Himalayan region can be divided into:

1 The Himalayas
2 The Trans-Himalayas
3 The Eastern Hills

THE HIMALAYAS

The Himalayas are not a single chain or range of mountains, but a series
of several more or less parallel or converging ranges. These ranges are separated by
deep valleys. A succession of at least 3 parallel ranges from the Indo-Gangetic plain to
be the Tibet Plateau may be recognised in the Himalayas.

1 The Shiwalik Range: the Shiwalik comprises the outermost range of the
Himalayas. This chain of hills runs almost parallel to the lesser Himalayas for a
distance of about 2400 km from the Potwar Plateau to the Brahmaputra valley. The
width of the Shiwalik varies from 50 km in Himachal Pradesh to less than 15 km in
Arunachal Pradesh. Shiwalik are formed of great thickness of Mio-Pleistocene
sands, gravels and conglomerates which have been brought by the rivers flowing
from the higher ranges of the Himalaya. The eastern part of the Shiwalik range up to
Nepal is covered with thick forests but the forest cover becomes thin in the west.



ITSZ
Tethys Himalayas
Inner Himalayas

MCT

Middle Himalayas
MBF

Shiwalik Himalayas

HFF
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2 The Middle or the Lesser Himalayas: In between the Shiwaliks in the south and
the Great Himalayas in the north is the Middle Himalaya running almost parallel to
both the ranges. It has an intricate system of ranges which are 60-80 km wide
having elevations varying from 3500 to 4500 m above sea level. The important
ranges included are the Pir Panjal, the Dhola Dhar, the Mussorie Range, the Nag
Tiba and the Mahabharata Lekh. The best known passes are the Pir Panjal Pass, the
Bidil, Golabghar Pass and Banihal Pass.
Between the Pir Panjal and the Zaskar Range of the main Himalayas, lies
the famous valley of Kashmir. Further east, the Middle Himalayas are marked by
the Mussorie and the Nag Tiba ranges. Majority of the Himalayan hill resorts like
Shimla, Mussorie, Ranikhet, Nainital, Almora and Darjeeling, etc, are located here.

3 The Great Himalayas: This is northernmost or the innermost of all the Himalayan
ranges. With an average elevation of 6100 m above sea level and an average width
of about 25 km, this is the loftiest and the most continuous mountain range of
the world. It is mainly formed of the central crystalline (granites and gneisses)
overlain by metamorphosed sediments. The folds in this range are asymmetrical with
steep south slope and gentle North Slope. This mountain range boasts of the tallest
peaks of the world. There are several peaks over 8000 m in altitude. They are Mount
Everest, Kanchenjunga-I, Dhaulagiri, Nanga Parbat, Annapurna, Nanda Devi, Kamet,
Namcha Barwa, Badrinath. Many important passes pierce through the Great
Himalaya namely, The Burzil pass and the Zoji La in Jammu and Kashmir, the Bara
Lacha La and the Shipki La in Himachal Pradesh, the Thaga La, the Niti Pass and the
Lipu Lekh pass in Uttar Pradesh and the Nathu La and the Jelep La in Sikkim.





THE TRANS HIMALAYAS/ TIBETAN HIMALAYAS


The Himalayan ranges immediately north of the Great Himalayan range
are called the Trans-Himalayas. These are also called the Tibetan Himalayas because
most of it lies in Tibet. The Zaskar, the Ladakh, the Kailas and the Karakoram are the
main ranges of the TransHimalayan system. It stretches for a distance of about 1000
km in east west direction and its average elevation is 3000 m above mean sea level.
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The Zaskar Range branches off from the great Himalayan Range near 80
o
E longitude and runs more or less parallel to it. North of the Zaskar Range and running
parallel to it is the Ladakh Range. The Kailas Range (Gangdise in Chinese) in western
Tibet is an offshoot of the Ladakh range. The highest peak is Mount Kailas (6714 m).
The northern most range of the Trans Himalayan Ranges in India is the Great
Karakoram Range. It forms Indias frontier with Afghanistan and China. The Ladakh
Plateau lies to the north-east of the Karakoram Ranges.

EASTERN HILLS OR THE PURVANCHAL

The ruggedness is more than other parts among these hills with the
extreme of it in Arunachal Pradesh. This region is dominated by many small hills like
Dafla, Miri, Abor, Mishmi, Patkai Bhum, Naga etc. It is characterized by high degree of
soil erosion, due to deforestation.
After crossing the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take a sudden southward
turn and form a series comparatively low hills running in the shape of a crescent with
its convex side pointing towards the west. These hills are collectively called the
Purvanchal because they are located in the eastern part of India. In the north is Patkai
Bum which forms the international boundary between Arunachal Pradesh & Myanmar.
After running for some distance southwards, it merges into Naga Hills
where Saramati (3826 m) is the highest peak Patkai Bum and Naga Hills from the
watershed between India and Myanmar. The Kohima hills to west are made up of
sandstone and slate and have a very rough topography. The Brail range separates
Naga Hills from Manipur Hills. Jaintia, Khasi and Garo Hills are eastward continuation
of the Indian peninsular block and have been separated by the Bengal Basin. South of
the Manipur Hills are the Mizo Hills. The highest point is the Blue Mountain (2157 m)
in the south.
Lohit, Dihang & Dibang are the important rivers of this region. Namcha
Barwa is the place where Brahmaputra takes a southward turn to enter into India.
Bomdila is an important Pass over here facilitating the movement across the ranges.



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RELIEF OF HIMALAYAS


An array of geomorphic process have moulded & chiseled the landscape,
over space & time, thereby generating amazing assemblage of land forms over
Himalayas. Salient features of Himalayan relief are:

Broader in Western Parts: Himalayas are broader in western parts while their
width narrows down in the eastern part. In the E. Part, distinction between parallel
ranges is generally lost.
Further, Inner Himalayas & Shiwaliks are continuous throughout the
longitudinal distance from west to east, while Middle Himalayas are broken into
hills- parallels & oblique. Most of the Hill Stations like Mussorie, Shimla, Dehradun
etc. lie over Middle Himalayas.



Antecedent Rivers: in the geological past, when Himalayas were rising, the rivers
kept on eroding them at the places of their flow, thereby creating deep gorges as in
Indus, Satluj & others. Such a pattern makes the rivers antecedent.

a. Between Indus and Sutlaj :Kashmir Himalayas
b. Between Sutlaj and Kali :Himachal in west + Kumaon in East
c. Between Kali and Tista :Nepal Himalayas
d. Between Tista and Brahmaputra :Assam Himalayas
e. Kashmir + Himachal Himalayas make Punjab Himalayas


1. Kashmir Range a. Ratan Pir Range
2. Pir Panjal b. Mussouri Range
3. Dhola Dhar c. Mahabharata
4. Nag Tiba

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KASHMIR HIMALAYAS

These ranges have a rugged mountainous topography with several
parallel snow covered ranges. Between Pir Panjal & Zaskar ranges lies the Kashmir
valley with alluvial deposits. Kashmir valley is of tectonic origin.
Pir Panjal & Dhaola Dhar Ranges belong to Middle Himalayas. A special
feature here is tilted beds of lake deposits on Pir Panjal Range called Karewas. K
2

(8611 m) and Gasherbrum on Karakoram Range and Nanga Parbat (8126 m) are
important peaks.




Several passes like Pir Panjal, Banihal, Burzil, Baralacha La, Zoji La etc.
have made the connectivity possible. Important Lakes of the region are Wular & Dal on
Jhelum, Tso Morari & Pangong. Worlds highest battlefield Siachen lies over
Karakoram Range.








1. Karakoram a. Pir Panjal Pass
2. Ladakh b. Bara Lacha La
3. Zaskar c. Banihal
4. Pir Panjal
5. Dhaula Dhar

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KUMAON HIMALAYAS

These lie between the Sutlej and the Kali Rivers on the eastern side of
Himachal Himalayas. Its western part is called Garhwal Himalaya while the eastern
part is known as Kumaon Himalaya proper. The Shiwaliks & Inner Himalayas continue
over here with Middle Himalayan ranges of Mussorie and NAG Tiba Ranges. Between
Shiwaliks & Middle Himalayas lie narrow longitudinal valleys called Dunes e.g.
Dehradun, Kothridun, Patlidun. Kedarnath, Nanda Devi, Badrinath, Kamet, Trisul and
Gangotri are important Peaks. The sources of sacred rivers like the Ganga and the
Yamuna are located in the Kumaon Himalayas. Nainital and Bhimtal are important lakes.

NEPAL HIMALAYAS

This section of the Himalayas stretches for a distance of 800 km between
the Kali and the Tista rivers. This is the tallest section of the Himalayas and is crowned
by several peaks of perpetual snow. Mount Everest is the tallest peak of the world. The
other major peaks are Kanchenjunga (8598 m), Dhaula Giri, and Annapurna.


ASSAM HIMALAYAS

The Himalayan ranges from Tista to Brahmaputra Rivers covering a
distance of 750 km are called the Assam Himalayas. This part of the Himalayas spreads
over large parts of Sikkim, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh and has elevation much less
than that of the Nepal Himalayas. The important peaks of this region are Namcha Barwa
(7756 m), Kula Kangri (7539 m) and Chomo Lhari (7327 m)

SIGNIFICANCE OF HIMALAYAS

The Himalayas comprises the most dominating geographical feature on the
surface of earth. They are the body and soul of India. The following few points will bring
out the significance of Himalayan Mountains to India.

1 Himalayas have provided a sub-continental character to the country, both
physically and culturally. Physically, it demarcates India vis--vis climate, land
frontiers, rivers etc. Culturally, it defines India in terms of demography, its culture,
composition of people etc.

2 Climatic Influence: By virtue of their high altitude, length and direction, they
effectively intercept the summer monsoons coming from the Bay of Bengal and
Arabian Sea and cause precipitation in the form of rain or snow. Besides, they
prevent the cold continental air masses of central Asia from entering into India.

3 Defence. The Himalayas have been protecting India from outside invaders since the
early times thus serving as a defence barrier. It acts as a buffer between Indian
subcontinent & other Asian Countries especially China.

4 Source of Rivers. Almost all the great rivers of India have their sources in the
Himalayan ranges. Abundant rainfall and vast snow-fields as well as large glaciers
are feeding grounds of the mighty rivers of India. Himalayan rivers are perennial
and serve the agricultural needs of great Indian plains through a network of canals.
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5 Fertile soils. The great rivers and their tributaries carry enormous amount of
alluvium while descending from the Himalayas. This is deposited in the Great Plains
of North India in the form of fertile soils, making the plains one of the most fertile
lands of the world.

6 Hydroelectricity. The Himalayan region offers several sites which can be used for
producing hydroelectricity. The vast power potential of the Himalayan Rivers still
awaits proper execution. Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), also known as the water
tower of the world, hold potential of 1,48,700 MW of which we have been able to
utilize, 22.4%. National Electricity Policy reiterates that maximum emphasis would be
laid on the development of the feasible hydro power potential in the country and
majority of these projects are located in Himalayan region. Bhakra, Nathpa-Jhakri,
Uri, Chamera, Teesta etc. are the major projects here.

7 Forest Wealth. These ranges are very rich in forest resources and provide fuel
wood and a large variety of raw materials for forest based industries. Besides many
medicinal plants grow in Himalayan regions. They also offer rich pastures for
grazing the animals.

8 Agriculture. Some of the slopes are terraced for cultivation. Rice is the main crop
on the terraced fields. Other crops are wheat, maize, potatoes, tobacco and ginger.
Tea is a unique crop which can be grown on the hill slopes only. Fruits such as
apples, pears, grapes, mulberry, walnut, cherries, peaches, apricot, etc. are also
grown in the Himalayan regions. Further the agriculture of great plains is the
ultimate contribution of Himalayas.

9 Tourism. By virtue of their scenic beauty and healthy environment, the Himalayan
ranges have developed a large number of tourist spots. The hilly areas in the
Himalayas offer cool and comfortable climate and the craze to enjoy the snowfall
have increased the rush of tourists in winters also. Srinagar, Dalhousie,
Dharamshala, Chamba, Shimla, Kulu, Manali, Mussoorie, Nanital, Ranikhet, Almora,
Darjeeling, Mirik, Gangtok, etc. are important tourist centres in the Himalayas.

10 Pilgrimage: Himalayas are proud of being studded with sanctified shrines which
are considered to be the abodes of the Gods. Kailas, Amarnath, Badrinath,
Kedarnath, Vaishnu Devi, Jwalaji, Uttarkashi, Gangotri, Yamunotri, etc, are important
places of pilgrimage.

11 Minerals. Coal is found in Kashmir, copper, lead, Zinc, nickel, cobalt, antimony,
tungsten, gold, silver, limestone, semi-precious and precious stones, gypsum and
Magnesite are known to occur at more than 100 localities in the Himalayas.

12 The Passes in the rugged terrain acted as a gateway to foreign intruders during
the past time. Presently these play an important role in facilitating the movement of
people through roads and the promotion of trade. Some of these routes include: Zoji
La, Banihal, Nathula and Jelepla Passes.

13 Many strategically important roads pass through these mountains and act as a
lifeline to Indian security. Important ones include J&K 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D.

14 Himalayas are the house of many of the worlds highest battlefields. Since 1984,
India and Pakistan have been locked in a bitter battle over the control of Siachen.
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Karakoram highway linking the two countries, soon gave Siachen strategic
importance.

15 Demarcating boundaries between countries: Himalayas and lower Himalayas
form a boundary with countries like Myanmar, Bhutan, Nepal, China, Pakistan and
Afghanistan.

Discussing the structure and relief of Himalayas takes us to logical
conclusion that these are a prominent landmass over the surface of earth. However, the
urge for greater energy, developmental needs & unscientific ways have turned these
delicately balanced ecosystems into Ecological Hot-Spots. Through Deforestation,
soil erosion and unsustainable mining activities, man has threatened his own existence
on this earth. There is still an opportunity with us to review & rethink of what
development and development for whom. It could certainly be sustainable
development for all. Choice is ours.



































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SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE/ NEEDS
OF EVERGREEN REVOLUTION


Agriculture is one of the important economic activities of man. As
agriculture fulfills the basic needs of people, a lot of emphasis has been made to
commercialize agriculture production. Efforts have been made to commercialize
agriculture through the introduction of HYV seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides,
irrigation and mechanization. These components were introduced without taking their
side effects into account. Agricultural planners have made it their only aim to increase
production. While on the one hand commercial agriculture increases the yield; it
damages the environment and increases inequality in the society on the other.

Traditional agriculture through the locally available seeds, organic
fertilizers and the traditional agricultural implements does not harm the environment,
and maintains environmental balance, but gives very low yield. Traditional agriculture
does not fulfill the growing need of people for food. As in commercial agriculture,
traditional agriculture also suffers from drawbacks. There is need to introduce such a
system which will provide sustainability in agriculture.

The declining trend in the carrying capacity of land and other natural
resources has drawn the attention of environmental, agricultural and social scientists in
recent times to look for an alternative approach for sustaining the resources supporting
human life. The main reasons for degradation in the life supporting echo systems,
especially soil and water, are indiscriminate use of pesticides, excessive and improper
irrigation and improper land and water use planning.

This ecological degradation affects the agricultural production to sustain
its growth for future generation. The major ecological problems affecting the
sustainability in agriculture are water logging, soil erosion, soil salinity and
alkalinity and pests and disease problems. it is essential to look for an eco -friendly
approach for evolving and popularizing ecology based low-cost input and economically
sustainable basis.

Sustainable agriculture is an agriculture that can evolve indefinitely
towards greater human utility, greater efficiency of resource use and a balance with
the environment that is favourable to humans and to most other species.
Dr M.S. Swaminathan, the eminent agricultural Scientist, identified 14,
major dimensions of sustainable agriculture covering the social economical,
technological, political and environmental facets of sustainability.
These dimensions are:

1) Technological appropriability: refers to how far agricultural technology, be it a
seed, fertilizer, pesticide, or improved machinery suits the social and infrastructural
situation of the end users.
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2) Economic feasibility: refers to capacity of farmers to afford to incorporate the
technology in his farm within his realm of financial status and position.
3) Economic viability: refers to the returns to investments of very rupee counts.
4) Environmental Soundness: refers to whether the technology results in enriching
the environment or atleast do not harm the existing agro ecological conditions.
5) Temporal Stability: refers to whether the positive aspects of the technology
remain stable over the long run.
6) Resource-use efficiency: refers to how efficiently the technology can utilize the
inputs to convert them into useful, productive and eco friendly outputs.
7) Local adaptability: refers to the extent to which the technology is adaptable to
the existing local conditions of the farmers.
8) Social acceptability and social sustainability: Social acceptability refers to the
extent to which the technology is acceptable by the different sectors of the society,
whereas social sustainability means it has to fulfill the personal needs. Since
farmers will still prefer to grow crops which are needed for their home
consumption, whether or not those crops are desirable from the ecological
standpoint. Even today farmers in the higher altitudes of the Himalayas as well as
the western and Eastern Ghats grow annual crops in highly erodable soil to meet
their domestic requirements.
9) Political testiness: refers to whether the technology can be used unhampered in
the existing intricacies and implications of political set up.
10) Administrative manageability: refers to the extent to which the technology can
be practically implemented under the existing bureaucratic structure.
11) Cultural desirability: refers to the extent to which the technology fits with the
cultural patterns and values of the society.
12) Renewalbility: refers to the extent to which the technology can be used or re
used without much additional efforts and inputs.
13) Equity: is a measure of how evenly the products of the agro eco system are
distributed among the local producers and consumers.
14) Productivity: is a quantitative measure of the rate and the amount of production
per unit of land or input. In ecological terms, production refers to the amount of
yield or end product, and productivity is the process for achieving that end product.
Yield per unit area can be one of the dimensions of sustainable agriculture; it can
also be expressed in other ways such as per unit of labour input or per unit of cash
investment or as energy efficiency ratios.

COMPONENTS

Success in promoting sustainable agriculture can be achieved on seven
fronts, i.e. crop diversification, genetic diversity, integrated nutrient management,
integrated pest management, sustainable water management, post harvest technology
and sound extension programmes.

1. CROP DIVERSIFICATION: Crop diversification methods like crop rotation, mixed
cropping, double cropping -have been found successful in many situations. The major
advantages of these types of diversification include reduced erosion, improved soil
fertility and increased yield. They also reduce the need for nitrogen fertilizer in the
case of legumes grown in crop rotation.

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a) Crop Rotation: is the successive planting of different crops in the same
field. Rotation is the opposite of continuous cropping which entails the successive
planting of the same field with the same crop. Factors which contribute to the
salutary rotational effect are increase in soil moisture, pest control and the
availability of nutrients. Among these, the insect and disease control benefits of
rotation are very prominent. Rotation of crops especially with legumes provides
additional nitrogen fertilizer.

b) Biological Nitrogen Fixation: Is another important and promising area for
practicing sustainable agriculture. Nitrogen can be provided by a leguminous
crop which fixes atmospheric nitrogen into the form absorbed by other crops
Leguminous crops supply substantial amount of nitrogen to the soil, however the
amount of nitrogen fixed is highly variable depending on management system
and climate. Different species and different cultivators also fix different amounts
of nitrogen. Several physical and managerial factors like soil acidity or timing of
harvest influence the amount of nitrogen fixed. A thorough understanding of the
interaction of ecology plant microbe climate soil would facilitate the
capacity to do sustainable agricultural practices.
c) Mixed cropping: Most subsistence farmers in developing countries usually mix
different crops in the same field so as to control or reduce the risk of crop
failure. Through this cultivation technique, the rooting systems of diverse crops
tap different levels in the soil profile, increasing the total root area deployed and
ensuring a greater total nutrient uptake and overall crop yield for the land. It has
been found out that increase in productivity, improvement of soil fertility,
and maximum use of water, sunlight and space are other equally important
reasons for the continued reliance on multiple cropping systems. Attack of pests
and diseases on a single crop may result in its total failure, where as, in a
multiple cropping system, even if one crop is affected, there remain other crops
that withstand, yield a harvest and support the farmer.

d) Soil Microbes on Crops: Numerous free-living plant related micro-organisms
help to facilitate nutrient uptake. The role of the earthworm in improving soil
fertility is commonly known. Similarly, the harmful effects of insects, fungi,
bacteria and nematodes in the soil on crop growth are also well understood.
However, the activities of these microbes are not yet fully understood. Research
is needed to get to know the effect of soil microbe nutrient cycles in relation to
crop nutrient requirements.

2. GENETIC DIVERSITY: Genetic diversity and location specific varieties are
essential for achieving sustainable advances in providing productivity. Traditional
farming system depends heavily on in situ conservation of genetic variability in the
form of numerous landraces. Modern agricultural systems lead to genetic
homogeneity with a greater genetic vulnerability to biotic stresses. Diversity of crop
varieties will result from plant breeding efforts jointly with rural families thus
enhancing stability of yield.

3. INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT (INM): INM is a broad term
encompassing the nutrient cycle among the soil, the crop and livestock, balancing
the fertilizer use cum organic recycling combined use of organic manures and
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chemical fertilizers, exploiting biological nitrogen fixing potential and taking holistic
view of crop management system.

According to the levels of plant nutrition even if single nutrient deficiency
remains uncorrected, obtaining maximum yield or sustaining the present yield level is
difficult. INM also includes a suitable variety, use of optimum cultural management
and soil and water use for efficient and sustainable crop production. Fertilizers,
farmyard manure, compost, crop residues, green manure, green leaf manure,
rhizobium, blue green algae and azolla are the main components of INM besides
management practices. Among biological N fixation (BNF) systems, the legumen,
rhizobium system is of great significance, other systems are blue green algae and
azolla. The major steps in INM are viz.

I. A system approach to INM of particular crops and cropping systems in a
proper manner have been proved to be useful and productive because of the
complementarities of various components influencing the input uses
efficiency.
II. Based on soil test values, correction of nutrient deficiencies will result high
yield. In P deficient soils, application of N would not be of much use, but N + P
would be the package for sustaining growth and yield.
III. Agronomic techniques like split application of fertilizers at different growth
stages, use of coated fertilizers, granulated fertilizers, methods and placement
of fertilizers and organic and inorganic combinations will give better result sin
terms of production per unit area.
IV. Use of green leaf manures is major practice to be adopted in problem soils for
increasing sustainability
V. Conjunctive use of farm waste ensures the long term productivity, stability
and sustainability.
VI. Selected of appropriate variety and optimum cultural practices would keep up
the yield trend and
VII. Adoption of water management techniques including maintenance of farm
drains is also a component of INM.

4. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM): Sustainable pest management is
otherwise known as IPM, i.e. Integration of tactics to control a single pest on one
or more crops, and integration of tactics based on the best compromise of controls of
several pests on one or more crops. IPM as applied in agriculture is ideally the use of
the most effective, economical safest, ecologically sustainable and
sociologically acceptable combination of physical chemical and biological methods
to limit the harmful effects of crop pests.
In practice IPM is developed around the knowledge of ecology of the pest
agent and takes maximum advantage of the natural mechanisms of pest
suppression. IPM is more than scouting for and applying a pest control treatment
after the crop is grown in the field. It involves practices implemented both long
before and when the field is planted and not just after the crop is sown.
The objective of IPM is to optimize and not maximize pest control in
terms of overall economical, social and environmental values. The overall objective of
IPM is to create and to maintain situations in which insects are prevented form
causing significant damage to crops.
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A number of tools or components have been successfully used for IPM in
several crops. These include-use of pest resistant or tolerant varieties, cultural
practices like early or late planting, summer ploughing use of pheromone traps
use of parasites, predators, and pathogens of crop pets, quarantine measures, hard
collection and destruction, judicious use of pesticides, attractants, repellents,
sterilants, growth regulators, male sterile techniques and suppression programmes.
The sustainable pest management (IPM) in India has yet to come to be
well recognized. But it is still more of an aspiration than a reality for the average
farmers.

5. SUSTAINABLE WATER MANAGEMENT: Water is an important input in terms of
its utilization and management to achieve better crop production and productivity.
The distribution of annual prescription varies from less than 50 mm to more than
2000 mm in low to high rainfall areas in the country. Hence, it is necessary to
develop suitable technologies for its localized storage and its application,
particularly in the semi -arid tropics of the country.

Effectiveness in water saving, equity in water sharing, efficiency in water
delivery and use are important for sustainable use of available surface and ground
water resources. There should be an integrated policy for the conjunctive and
appropriate use of river, rain, ground, sea and sewage water. Important steps
involved for sustainable water management are viz.
a. Judicious use of water resources.
b. Supply of irrigation water on volumetric basis so that farmers would use it more
economically. Thus over irrigation and its bad impact on physical, chemical and
biological properties of soil can be checked.
c. Water harvesting in command area.
d. So far as the ground water is concerned, there is need for legislation regarding
spacing, depth, quantity of water pumped through the tube wells which may
be privately constructed and owned and operated as it is a scarce resource.
e. Proper design and management of irrigation system for preventive
salinization.
f. Application of remote sensing for proper ground water.
g. Proper technology is needed for exploiting ground water and recharging it.
h. Proper allocation of funds for drainage, ground water resources development
and electrification to utilize the irrigation potential and
i. Development of environmentally sound low cost and medium scale dam.

6. POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY: Whole plant utilization methods and the
preparation of value added products from the available agricultural biomass are
important both for enhancing income and ensuring good nutritional and consumer
acceptance priorities. Technology should be developed for value added products from
the agricultural products in order to give better returns to farmers.

7. EXTENTION PROGRAMMES: programmes for extension education and
communication of farmers will certainly help in popularizing the sustainable
agricultural practices. Computer application, popular and vernacular press helps
farmers to keep them up-to-date on latest management systems and technology
developments.
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IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY


We must be able to answer
The Localization Factors of Iron and Steel Industry
Distribution of this industry in India and why this pattern of distribution
Its Growth and Development in pre and post-Independence periods
Future prospects of Iron and Steel industry in India

LOCALIZATION FACTORS OF IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

Raw Material
Market
Transportation
Labour
Government Policy
Technology

Raw Material

Iron and Steel industry is a Weight Losing Industry (Material Index, M.I. > 1).
All the raw materials of this industry Coking Coal, Iron Ore, Limestone, Dolamite,
Mn are heavy and bulky
Location is governed by proximity to raw materials particularly coking coal and
Iron ore.
Localization either near coal and Iron ore or in between.
VISW is an exception, located far from main coal producing areas. Earlier it used
locally available charcoal and now using HEP from Sharavati Power Project.






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Market

Finished steel products are quite bulky, and transport cost per tonne km of steel
product is about 3 times more than that of coal and iron ore. Therefore market plays
an important role in localization.
Agglomeration of market forces brings economics in the cost of production, thus
making market favourable location.
One of the major consumers of steel industry is Automobile industry which in itself
prefers a market location. These industries have also raised the importance of
market for iron and steel industry. Further their waste in the form of scrap provides
additional raw material for iron & steel industry.

Transportation

Both raw materials & finished products are bulky and require big transportation
facilities.
Optimum transportation cost of carrying raw materials from source and finished
products to market play important role.
However, setting up of large integrated steel plants boosted the growth of
infrastructure, especially road and rail links in these regions.

Technology

Increasing popularity of Open Hearth Process. It uses scrap as raw material (1/2 of
worlds raw material). It is easier to transport in raw form. Therefore, changed
location of industry from traditional raw material site to market.

Port location

Port locations provide easy and cheap means of transportation. These are also
highly helpful in the import of raw materials and export of finished products.
The Vizag Plant is a glaring example of this kind of location.

Government Policy

Trickle down hypothesis for balanced regional development guided tremendously
the location of I&S industry in the backward regions.
Policy of developing Growth Centres & Growth Poles with I&S industry as their
core also influenced its location in India.
Political lobbying at times influences greatly its location.
VISW Plant was set up to fulfill Defence requirements.

Labour

Cheap and abundant labour is required for this industry. Therefore Chottanagpur,
West Bengal and the nearby regions were favourable locations.



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DISTRIBUTION OF IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY IN INDIA


PLANT IRON ORE COAL HEP/
WATER
REMARKS
TISCO Gurumahisani
(Orissa) Noamundi
(Jharkhand)
Singhbhum
Jharia-
Raniganj
Subarnrekha
River
Calcutta Port NH5,
NH6
IISCO Guna (Jharkhand)
Singhbhum
Jharia DVC,
Damodar
River
Calcutta Port NH2
VISW Kemmangundi
(Chikmaglur,
Karnataka)


Sharavati
Power,
Bhadra River
Mangalore Port NH4
BHILAI Dalli Rajhara Korba-
Kargali

Korba
Thermal
power Plant,
Mahanadi
Basin
Calcutta Nagpur
Rail NH6
ROURKELA Sundargarh
Keonjhar
Jharia
Talcher
Hirukud HEP,
Sankh-South
Koel River
Calcutta Nagpur
Rail NH6
DURGAPUR Bolani,
Mayurbhanj
Jharia,
Raniganj
DVC,
Damodar
River
Calcutta Port
Calcutta Asansol
Rail NH2
SALEM Local Mettur dam Puducherry
Coimbatore by NHs
Exports Stainless
steel
VIZAG Bailadila
(Chattisgarh)
Imported +
Damodar
- II largest producer,
NH5
VIJAYNAGAR Nearby Sringareni Tungabhadra
dam

BOKARO Kiriburu (Orissa)
(Keonjhar)
Jharia DVC, Bokaro
& Damodar
Rivers
Largest I&S plant,
Calcutta port
connected through
NH2


TISCO JAMSHEDPUR

Raw material is the most important determinant for the location of TISCO Plant
in Jamshedpur. Besides, the latter development of transportation, easy availability
of labour and facilities of nearby Calcutta Port alongwith market around helped
this plant to grow.
Haematite Iron Ore: Gurumahisani and Noamundi, Singhbhum District within 100
km.
Coal: Jharia (Jharkhand) and Raniganj (West Bengal) within 200 km.
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Calcutta: Port and industrialized hinterland for market within 250 km.
Water: Subarnrekha River for cooling purposes.
Labour: Cheap and abundant: Bihar, Chottanagpur (Tribals), Orissa.
Good transport facilities: NH6 (Mumbai Kolkata) and NH5 (Chennai Kolkata)
passes near to it (part of Golden Quadrilateral)




IISCO KULTI, HIRAPUR AND BURNPUR

Hirapur (pig iron), Kulti (steel) and Burnpur (rolling)
Iron Ore: Guna mines, Singhbhum district (Jharkhand) within 300 km
Earlier received coal from Jharia, but now power from DVC extensively used.
Kolkata Port: 200 km, provides port as well as Market facilities.
Cheap Labour available from West Bengal and adjoining areas.
Road links with Kolkata Port and other major destinations through NHs provide good
transportation facilities.









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VISW, BHADARAVATI

High grade Haematite iron ore from Kemmangundi Mines in Chikmaglur district
(Karnataka): 40 km away
Coal not available in vicinity; earlier used locally available charcoal, but now HEP
from Sharavati Power Project.
Bhadra (vati) River passes through it. Water easily available. Also its valley 13 km
wide providing enough land for expanding activities.
Well connected to Mangalore Port.
NH4 (part of Golden Quadrilateral) passes near to it. Well connected by transport
linkages. Lies on Biru - Shimoga railway line.
Engaged in producing steel for Defence purposes.




BHILAI STEEL PLANT

Durg happens to be a backward area. Purpose of setting up this plant was to bring
prosperity to this area.
Rich Haematite iron ore from Dalli-Rajhara Range within 100 km.
Coal from Korba and Kargali (Chattisgarh) within 200 km distance.
Power from Korba Thermal Power Station.
Connected with Kolkata-Nagpur railway line. Lies on NH6 (Joining Mumbai with
Kolkata). Well connected network.
Cheap labour available from adjoining areas (Tribal population).
Lies in Chattisgarh basin drained by Mahanadi and its tributaries, therefore water
availability is high.


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ROURKELA STEEL PLANT

Iron Ore from Sundargarh and Keonjhar districts within 100 km
Coal from Jharia field (Jharkhand) and Talcher within 200 km
HEP from Hirakud dam
Water from Sankh South Koel Rivers crossing near to it
Located on main Nagpur-Kolkata railway line and enjoys railway facilities. Well
connected to NH-6 passing south to it
Kolkata provides port facilities and its hinterland serves as a market



DURGAPUR STEEL PLANT

Iron Ore: Bolani mines (Kendujhar district) and Mayurbhanj (Orissa) within 300 km
distance
Coal: Jharia and Raniganj close to it.
Also uses DVC power
Damodar passes near it: it provides the required water supply
Dense Rail Road network. NH-2 (connecting Delhi with Kolkata) passes though it.
Lies on Kolkata-Asansol railway link connecting it to other parts of the country
Cheap labour available due to high population density
Kolkata Port close to it. Rich hinterland for market.



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BOKARO STEEL PLANT

Largest I&S making centre of India. Engaged in manufacturing of rails
Obtains Iron Ore from Kiriburu Mines in Orissa.
Coal from Jharia field, just 65 km from it.
Lies on confluence of Bokaro and Damodar Rivers easy water availability.
HEP from Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).
Kolkata is just 300 km from it provides port facilities. NH2 (connecting Delhi and
Kolkota) passes just north to it.
Cheap labour from adjoining areas (Tribal population)




SALEM STEEL PLANT

Area is rich in Iron Ore. This ore is converted into higher grade and then smelted in
Plant
Uses HEP from nearby Mettur dam.
Well connected to Puduchery and Coimbatore by National Highways.
Major producer of the world class stainless steel. Exports to USA, Mexico,
Australia and SE Asia.
State-of-art technology, and therefore not much labour required


VISHAKHAPATNAM STEEL PLANT

First shore based integrated steel plant of the country
Most sophisticated technology
Second largest producer of Iron & Steel in India
Port location makes import and export easy. Major export-oriented steel plant.
Iron Ore: Bailadila mines of Chattisgarh
Coal: uses imported coke, thus relieving pressure on Indian coal mines. Also well
connected to coal fields of Damodar valley.
Lies on NH-5 connecting Chennai with Kolkata

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VIJAYNAGAR STEEL PLANT

Located near Hospet in Bellary District of Karnataka
Production of mild steel is the special feature
Iron ore from nearby mines in Karnataka
Coal from Sringareni in Andhra Pradesh
HEP from closely located Tungabhadra Dam




MINI STEEL PLANTS

Secondary units using steel scrap and sponge iron as raw material; and
electric arc and induction furnaces for processing
Produce mild and alloy steel especially stainless steel
Located away from integrated plants to meet local demands
Mainly concentrated around urban areas




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GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Indians known for art of smelting iron in early times e.g. Mehrauli Pillar. But first
I&S unit on modern lines was set up in 1830 at Porto-Nova (T.N) - not succeeded.
Other attempts in second half of 19
th
century same fate.
Real beginning in 1907 with setting up of TISCO Plant at Sakchi (now Jamshedpur)
1919 IISCO (Indian Iron and Steel Company) set up at Burnpur
1923 Mysore Steel Works set up at Bhadravati. Now called Vishvesvaraya Iron
and Steel Works (VISW)



Rapid growth after independence

The development of I&S industry was envisaged during first Five Year Plan (FYP), but
it was during Second FYP that three integrated steel projects were started at Bhilai
(with erstwhile USSRs Technical and Financial support), Rourkela (with Germanys
assistance) and Durgapur (with U.Ks assistance)
During Third FYP, Bokaro Steel Plant was started (Production started in 1972).
Three more steel plants planned during IV FYP to meet the requirement of steel.
1. Salem (T.N.)
2. Vizag (A.P.)
3. Vijayanagar (Hospet district in Karnataka)
Coming up of SAIL in 1973 provided an umbrella corporation for managing plants in
public sector.

Slow Growth (1950-60)

New PSUs had yet to start production
Low capital availability
Low installed capacity
Low Demand for the finished products

Exponential growth (1960 mid 90s)

Started with coming up of Bhilai, Durgapur and Rourkela Plants

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Expansion of existing plants
Industrialization took place at a faster rate, therefore higher demand for steel
Increased per capita consumption

Plateau Section (Stagnation) (Mid 90s 2001)

After liberalization, tertiary sector started becoming more important
Losses of PSUs mounted high pressure on the plants themselves
Competition from abroad.

Impact of Liberalisation

After decades of state orchestrated industrial development, the government going by
the experience world over decided to launch the process of liberalization and the
steel sector was also opened to international market and associated competition.
With the start of new millennium, increase in production because of infrastructure
development and exports. Annual GR of Production 2001-02 3.7% and 2002-03
8%.




FUTURE PROSPECTS OF STEEL INDUSTRY

The recent upswing in the international steel market has been a booster dose for
Indian steel industry but the real party can begin only when the domestic market
offers right environment and opens up avenues for long-term sustenance and
growth.
The potential for growth of this sector is enormous. This can be gauged from the fact
that the per capita consumption of steel is still around 29 kg whereas the world
average is 150 kg. Even to equal the world average, with its population over a billion,
will have to touch 150 million tones (present consumption 29 million tones).
Generation of such kind of demand is dependent on health and rate of growth of
other sectors of economy like roads, power, railways, ports, drinking water,
housing and manufacturing.

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New Road Projects estimated to cover around 10,000 kms, four laning of existing
roads is also planned. These will be a good source of new demand for steel.
As the country will need more Greenfield capacities in the coming years, the steel
sector can hope to get the required impetus for steady growth.
Track renewal plans of railways for about 35000 kms. This will boost the demand
for steel in a major way. More high-speed trains, new demand for coaches and
wagons, and building of underground railway system will help boost its demand.

SIGNIFICANCE OF IRON & STEEL INDUSTRY
(Few of these points can be used for other industries)

1 It is the index of modernity; on its development depends the overall development
of a country
2 Backbone for the physical infrastructure development of the country
3 Provides strong forward-backward linkages
4 Important for regional development of the place where these industries are
located
5 Plays major role in development of many other industries like automobile
industry.
6 Generates huge employment especially in backward areas where these industries
are located.
7 Boosts to the transportation sector like road, railways, airways and waterways.
8 Important for growth of research and development sector in India.





















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URBANISATION AND ITS PROBLEMS


One of the most vital concerns of settlement planners today, is to direct
the change toward progress, provide a better quality of life and plan the future in an
environmentally conservative and demographically sustainable manner. The process of
urbanization provides one with deeper in sights for formulating better programmes and
policies. Urbanisation is an age-old process signifying relative change in the socio-
economic conditions of a place where change may be both positive & negative.

What factors involved

The process of urbanization is the outcome of economic characteristics,
demographic attributes and the extent of specialization a place offers besides the
governmental policy and other geographical factors like climate, relief etc.

Trends in Urban in India

The story of urbanization in India in historical times is of spatial and
temporal discontinuities. After starting with Harappan Civilization 5000 year ago, it
reached second high water mark during Mughal period, the first being during
Mauryans. European invasion hastened the process through the establishment of new
port cities like Bombay, Calcutta, Madras etc.

TRENDS

I Phase: Urban decline during 19
th
C: Around 1800, around 11% population was
urbanised with 16 cities having population more than 1 lac. It declined to less than 9%
in 1872. It was due to British policy of keeping industrial development low in India
and introduction of railways which developed many small trading centers, no one
centre could develop.

II Phase (1870-1930s): Slow upward growth with 11% population, 25 cities having
more than 1 lac in 1901. This was due to impact of railways in growth of metropolitan
cities and inland towns. A new class of hill stations in Himalayas and in South emerged.
However this period also saw famines, plague, epidemics etc; thereby restricting rapid
growth of urban population.

III Phase (1930-47): Comparatively rapid growth around 17% urban population, 4
million plus and 76 one lac plus population cities. This was the outcome of growth of
Indian industry and Indian population entering II stage of Demographic Transition.


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IV Phase (post-independence): It saw rapid urbanization, particularly of one lakh and
million cities. Urban population increased around five fold (285 million in 2001) with 35
million plus cities. It was mainly due to
Influx of refugees especially in Delhi and Calcutta regions.
Building of new administrative towns like Chandigarh, Bhubneshwar, and
Ghandinagar.
Construction of new industrial cities like Rourkela, Durgapur, Bhilai, and Noonmati.
Demographic Transition.

DISTRIBUTION

The states of Gujarat, Maharastra, Karnataka, T.N., Punjab and Mizoram are highly
urbanized owing to the higher economic development- industry and Agriculture, while
H.P, Bihar, Orissa, and most of NE are least urbanized either due to physical constrains
or nature of economy.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN URBANIZATION

(i) Demographic attributes: The Age structure of Indian urban areas has domination
of adults, but with low sex ratio e.g. Chandigarh having 773. Urban areas have
very high density of population- Delhi 9294 persons/ sq. km. These places have
high literacy rate especially female literacy.
(ii) Economic structure: Cities in India are characterised by diverse economic
activities (Industry, Services, Trading) etc.
(iii) High development of social and physical infrastructure: Compared to small
towns vis--vis education, health etc.
(iv) Specialized zones: there has been an evolution of specialized zones like Kochi,
Vizag as ports; Delhi, Chennai as health centres; Varanasi for Pilgrimage.
(v) Migration: in India, people are highly mobile, with rural to urban and intra-Urban
migrations taking place due to economic and social causes.
(vi) Defined structure of various settlements: there has been an evolution of
defined areas along these cities e.g. primate city, satellite town (Noida, Gurgaon),
Conuberations (Delhi-Agra-Ambala, Mumbai-Pune-Vadodara)
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(vii) R-U Fringe: it is the special character of Indian population in post-Industrial area.
(viii) Slum Development: there has been a massive development of slums in post-
independence period along these cities. Dharavi (Mumbai) biggest in Asia.
(ix) Changing Character over time: In ancient time, they were seats of
administration and served as trading centers. During European period, urban
places developed around factories. Also many hill stations were developed. Earlier,
these hill areas were European cultural enclaves but now these have become
tourist attraction.
(x) Hierarchical Pattern: Class I - VI cities, each larger one serving the surrounding
smaller.

However, Indian average is far below world average (43%). But Indias
urban population far exceeds total population of countries except China and USA. India
is one of the least urbanized countries. In North America, urban population constitutes
78%, Europe 75%, and Asia 35%.

PROBLEMS OF URBANISATION

The problems of urbanisation can be classified into two categories:-

1. Those arising because of the negative outcome of urbanisation process.
2. Those arising because of the failure of urbanisation process.

The rapid urbanisation has resulted into population resource imbalance
and the over exploitation of natural resources. The Environmental degradation is an
associated feature.
Land, water, noise, and air Pollution are part of urban life today. In
Delhi, water population at places has exceeded many 100 times the permissible limits.
Noise pollution in Calcutta, Air pollution in Kanpur, Lucknow, and other Urban Cities.
Deforestation of adjoining areas because of increasing demand of land for domestic
and industrial uses.
Development of slums is another inseparable feature. These present one
of the most unhygienic, appalling and poor living conditions without the basic life support
system like water, health and educations.
Further, Urban areas are over congested both at living places and on
roads. Delhi population density is 9294 persons/sq. Km. Skyscrapers roads, buildings
have led to the formation of concrete jungles and left little land naked, thus interfering
the natural hydrological and other cycles.
Urbanisation has resulted in isolated family culture with few people
knowing their neighborhood. Even the people within the same family are isolated, thus
impacting a lot on social and family lives especially of children.
Besides these, the failure of the uniform Urbanisation has led to
skewed demographic structures. Lack of basic amenities in rural areas and small towns
led people to move towards urban areas, thus a lot of in Migration aggravating further
the urban problems.
The housing facilities, education and health infrastructure for these newly
urbanised people is a grave problem, thus forcing many of them to end up in slums,
forcing child labour and polluted life. Poor civic amenities, sanitation and high cost of
living are accentuated by crime and social tensions in these areas.
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IMPACT OF LPG ON URBANISATION

Liberalization, Privatization, Globalisation (LPG) addresses negative
process for urbanization in India. Under globalization, survival and existence of the
poor are affected adversely. Liberalization permits cheap import of goods which
ultimately negatively affects rural economy, handicrafts, household industry on which
rural poor survives. The benefits of liberalization generally accrue to only those who
acquire new skills. Privatisation causes retrenchment of workers. All these negative
syndrome forces poverty induced migration of rural poor to urban informal sectors.
Hence migration which is one of the components of urban growth occurs not due to
urban pull but due to rural push.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF URBANISATION

Human settlements are growing tremendously in the country. This has
resulted in environmental degradation in a number of ways, such as:

1. Land encroachment: Encroachment of agricultural and fertile land for housing, industries,
construction of roads and dams, etc.
2. Urban waste: Increasing urbanisation is resulting in the generation of increasing amounts of
solid waste. It is estimated that 20-50% of the solid waste generated remains uncollected. In
New Delhi, 3,880 tons of garbage is produced per day, yet only 2,420 tons is collected for
disposal. Even if collected, municipal solid waste remains a problem in many cities. As the living
standards are rising the organic content in the waste is reducing and non-biodegradable wastes
like metal, plastic and glass are on a rise.
3. Urban water quality: Ever increasing urbanisation and their growing amounts of waste
have over taxed the natural recycling capabilities of local rivers and lakes. Of the many problems
associated with urban effluents, nutrient loading or eutrophication of local waters is one of the
most serious problems. Poor water resource management too contributes to water problems.

4. Urban transportation: Transportation systems are a major contributor to the decay of
urban environment and reduced quality of life in the metropolitan areas due to their
contribution to atmospheric emissions, noise and risk of accidents.
5. Urban air quality: Urban air quality has deteriorated largely on account of growth in industrial
activity, transportation needs and energy production. In India, while suspended particulate
matter (SPM) is consistently critical in many cities, the concentration of nitrogen oxides and
sulphur dioxide is also increasing and is already transiting from moderate to high to critical
levels. As estimated, 2000 metric tones of air pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere
everyday, vehicular sources contributing the maximum.
6. Slums: Emergence of slums takes place around urban cities which deteriorate the surrounding
areas.
7. Energy demand: Urbanization has profound effect on the amount and type of energy consumed.
Although the traditional rural societies rely heavily upon the human and animal energy and on
nearby wood or fuel, today urban societies are characterised by their reliance on fossil fuels and
electricity. These patterns of energy use lead to different environmental impacts.
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8. Water demand: The growing demand of water, along with poor water resource management
and mounting pollution levels contributes to water supply problems in and around cities.
Urbanization is leading to change in lifestyle and consumption pattern, which is leading to
increased demand for water. These pressures can quickly result in demand for water that
surpass local water supply.

GOVERNMENT EFFORTS

India has taken a number of noteworthy initiatives to address problems
and issues of sustainable urbanization:

1. Indias status as signatory to a number of environment-related agreements at international
forums has encouraged better environmental performance in some areas, notably in
management of hazardous wastes, emissions of pollutants and Green House Gases by motor
vehicles, in polluting industrial processes and in CFCs, all of which have significant bearing on the
urban environment.
2. A legislative milestone in governance is the Constitution 74
th
Amendment Act (1992), which
devolves significant functions and powers to Urban Local Bodies, especially in respect of
protection of environment & promotion of ecological aspects.
3. The National Housing and Habitat Policy, 1998, significantly lays down the role of all the
stakeholders in achieving the goal of providing shelter to all.
4. Another important legislative initiative with far-reaching implications, particularly in the area of
habitat and shelter, was the repeal in 1999 of the Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act of
1976.
5. The Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992-97) for the first time explicitly recognized the role and
importance of the urban sector for the national economy.
6. Other initiatives with significant implications for the urban environment consisted of the
notification of rules such as the Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989; the
Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998; the Motor Vehicles Act, 1998 and
the Recycled Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules, 1999.
7. In August, 1996, the Central Government guidelines entitled 'Urban Development Plans
Formulation and Implementation' were circulated to all State Governments for adoption. These
guidelines, apart from other issues, suggest innovative approaches for fiscal resource
mobilisation.
8. The Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) is a project of the central
government. Through this project, the central government funds cities for developing urban
infrastructure and services. The cities will have to carry out mandated reforms in return. The
mission will last for a period of seven years starting December 2005.
9. Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT): From time
to time Government of India provided central assistance through number of centrally sponsored
schemes like Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme, Low Cost Sanitation Programme,
Mega City Scheme, National Slum Development Programme, Swarna Jayanthi Shahari Rozgar
Yojana, Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojna and Scheme for Integrated Development of Small and
Medium Towns.
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10. Funds raised from Tax Free Municipal Bonds are to be used only for capital investments in urban
infrastructure. Ministry of Urban Development has been designated as the nodal agency for
processing applications for issue of tax free bonds.
11. North Eastern Region Urban Development Programme (NERUDP) was started in order to
enable these States to meet their development challenges in the urban sector.

First and Second Five Year Plans- There was massive house
construction for refugees because of the movement of people from Pakistan due to
partition. Ministry of Urban Affairs and Town and Country Planning Organization
were established during this period. Delhi master plan was prepared.
During the third and Fourth FYPs: Master Plans for many cities were
prepared. HUDCO was established. V and VI FYPs: during this period, infrastructure
facilities for small and medium towns were started. VII plan: National Urban
Infrastructure Development Financial Corporation was established to provide Capital.
National Commission on Urbanization was created in 1985.
Urbanization is both inevitable and desirable, but the directions or Urban
growth need to be guided. We need proper planning and management so that the
incoming population is not a burden rather an asset for city life.

SUGGESTIONS/ MEASURES FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT

1. New energy saving technologies should be aggressively promoted in all sectors including the
domestic and commercial, with imaginatively conceived demand side management, pricing and
subsidy mechanisms to make them attractive and viable.
2. Use of private transport should be regulated for optimal capacity utilization.
3. In the urban context in particular, R&D in human waste-based biogas generation to supplement
other commercial fuels must be undertaken, supported by a programme of awareness building,
skill development and education. R&D work should also be targeted at deriving organic manure
from municipal and agricultural waste in order to reduce the quantum of such waste requiring
disposal.
4. New and better methods of reduction of waste, managing demand, harvesting rainwater,
recharging aquifers, and recovery of water from sewage, sullage and industrial effluents should
be seriously explored.
5. The focus of urban transport must shift from private to public modes, and the shift made viable
with effective incentives and disincentives
6. While progressively stringent emission standards for new motor vehicles entering the market
will fulfill part of objective of reducing pollution, this achievement must be reinforced by
enforcing similarly progressive standards for the maintenance of vehicles in use.
7. For large urban agglomerations, the feasibility of providing appropriate mass-transit systems
must be explored and translated into ground reality.
8. Innovative housing finance mechanisms for the urban poor should be evolved, including
affordable loans at concessional interest rates and realistic collaterals.
9. Tree plantation in urban open spaces (common and waste lands, lands subject to inundation,
lands on the margins of roads and railway tracks etc.) should be encouraged.
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10. It is imperative to decentralize and devolve environmental management to the lowest levels of
governance and to capacity-build local government and citizen groups to participate in and take
charge of such management as partners.
11. Last but not the least, the rural development and development of fringe areas must be seen
integrated to urban development so as to have balanced regional development.

WORLD BANKS WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2009

Historical evidence suggests that urbanization in developing countries
will continue to be rapid at early stages of economic growthmuch of the rise in urban
shares takes place before nations get to upper-middle incomes. But the rising density
is to be welcomed if it produces agglomeration economies. The debate should not be
mainly about the pace of urbanization, the amount of rural-urban migration, or the ways
to eradicate slums with targeted interventions. Instead, it should be about the
efficiency and inclusiveness of the processes that transform a rural economy into
an urban one.
And it should be about how policy can best address the coordination
failures that arise at each stage of urbanization. The poor are gravitating to towns and
cities, but more rapid poverty reduction will probably require a faster pace of
urbanization, not a slower oneand development policy makers will need to facilitate
this process, not hinder it. And because a rural-urban transformation involves both the
urban and the rural, urbanization strategies must include measures to improve rural
lives and livelihoods.
The principle: maximize agglomeration economies across the
portfolio of places. Concentration, associated with rising density brings potential
benefits from thick markets. But it also brings congestion and squalor. The main aim of
urban policy is to help settlements deliver agglomeration economies while reducing the
grime, crime, and time costs that come with rising concentration. At different stages
of urbanization, the binding constraints to promoting concentration while controlling
congestion differ, as do the priorities at each stage of urbanization.
Incipient: Areas of incipient urbanization with urban shares of about 25% are
predominantly agricultural or resource based, with low economic density. The priority
is simply to facilitate agglomeration forces and to encourage internal economies of
scale for plants, mills, and factories in towns. Because it is not yet clear which places
will be favored by markets and for what purposes, neutrality between places should
be the watchword for policy makers.
Intermediate: As urbanization progresses, economic alliances strengthen within and
between urbanized areas. Many firms and plants in the same sector co-locate to take
advantage of sharing inputs and knowledge spillovers. In such areaswith urban
population shares of about 50%the promotion of localization economies is the
highest priority. Efficiency in production and transport is the watchword.
Advanced: For highly urbanized areas, productivity and consumption benefits arise
from urbanization economies associated with the diversity and intensity of economic
activity. While functionality is the goal for industrial towns and cities, the watchword
for postindustrial metropolises, with urban shares of about 75%, is livability.




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The policy rule: sequence and calibrate

The spatial dimensions of density, distance, and division spotlight
the policy challenge in each of these types of place. In predominantly rural
neighborhoods, the policy challenge is one dimensional and corresponds to the need to
build density. In areas where urbanization has gathered momentum, the challenge is two
dimensional. It incorporates the need to promote density and overcome problems of
distance caused by congestion. In areas of advanced urbanization, the challenge is
three dimensional. For metropolises, again, there is a need to encourage density and
overcome distance. To this should be added the need to eliminate divisions within cities,
which segregate the poor in informal slums from the rest, in formally settled parts.

Urban areas have good growth potential and if judiciously developed,
can become powerful engines of economic growth. Need is to identify Spatial Priority
Urban Regions (SPURs) and increased investment in these, so that these become
Generators of Economic Momentum (GEMs). This can prevent migrations as it will help
developing people, wherever they are and act as shock absorbers.

IMPLICIT BARRIERS TO MOBILITY: ON INDIAN MIGRATION
Place-based entitlement and divisions in India

Policy barriers to internal mobility in India are imposed by omission rather
than by commission, exemplifying the implicit obstacles to migration in many
developing countries. Current policies do not allow communities to fully capture the
benefits of labor mobility. The costs and risks of migration would be significantly
lowered by greater flexibility in the way households use public services and social
entitlements, and in the deployment of targeted assistance for mobile populations.
Negative attitudes held by government and ignorance of the benefits
of population mobility have caused migration to be overlooked as a force in economic
development. Recent evidence shows that population mobility in Indiahaving stabilized
in the 1970s and 1980sis rising. Indias 1961 census classified 33% of the population
as internal migrantspeople living and working in a place other than where they were
born. The share of migrants is larger in cities (about 40% of the population) than in rural
areas (about 30 percent). But by far the largest flows of migrantswithin districts,
across districts, and across statesare from lagging rural to leading rural areas.
Since the 1960s rural-to-rural migration flows typically have been more
than twice the volume as the next largest flows, from rural areas to cities. Rural-rural
migration accounted for roughly 62% of all movements in 19992000. Workers from
lagging states like Bihar, Orissa, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh routinely travel to the
developed green revolution states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Punjab to work on
farms. In India both distance and division limit labor mobility.
The highest levels of movement are recorded within the same district.
The flow of migrants across state lines is a trickle. Since 2001 there has been a
slowdown in permanent or long-term migration (see the map below). The share of
lifetime (permanent) interstate migrantsat about 4%is much lower than the total
migrant population. Most of these permanent migrants live in cities. In addition to
geographic distance, the strong differences in culture and language can discourage
movement far from a persons home place.
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Although official data sets indicate a slowdown in permanent rural-
urban migration, micro-studies find that circular migration is emerging as a dominant
form of migration among the poor. Short-term migrants have been estimated to number
12.6 million but recent micro-studies suggest that the figure is 30 million and rising. The
economic benefits of migration are not always recognized by policy makers. Two forms
of policy have been attempted to counter migration in India.
The first response has been to increase rural employment, in an
attempt to stem movement out of rural areas. This policy implicitly assumes that
deteriorating agriculture leads to out-migration and that improved employment
opportunities in lagging rural areas can reduce or reverse migration. These measures
include the recently introduced National Rural Employment Guarantee Program,
which promises 100 days of wage labor to one adult member in every rural household
who volunteers for unskilled work, numerous watershed development programs that aim
to improve agricultural productivity, and programs to develop small and medium towns.
The second policy response is implicit. Because of the perceived negative
effects, local governments remain hostile toward migrants, while employers routinely
disregard laws to protect their rights and needs. In many cases welfare policies and
social services are designed for a sedentary population. This is best exemplified by
location-specific entitlements to social services, housing subsidies, food rations, and
other public amenities especially important to working poor people.


























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GROWTH, DISTRIBUTION AND
DENSITY OF POPULATION

The population of India as per the provisional population totals of census
2011, is 1,210,193,422 compared to a total of 1,028,737,436 in 2001. In absolute
terms, the population of India has increased by more than 181 million during the decade
2001-2011 is slightly lower than the population of Brazil, the fifth most populous country
in the world.

INDIA IN WORLD POPULATION

The estimated global population in 2010 was 6908.7 million. The three
most populous ones, namely, China, India and USA, together account of four of every
ten persons of the world. At present, a little more than one out of every six persons in
the world is from India.

The gap between India, the country with the second largest population in
the world and china, the country with the largest population in the world has narrowed
from 238 million in 2001 to nearly 131 million in 2011. On the other hand, the gap
between India and the United States of America, which has the third largest population,
has now widened to about 902 million from 741 million in 2001.

A point that is striking is that while India accounts for a meager 2.4
percent of the world surface area of 135.79 million square kms, it supports and sustains
a whopping 17.5 percent of the world population.

The United Nations has estimated that the world population grew at an
annual rate of 1.23 percent during 2000-2010. China registered a much lower annual
growth rate of population (0.53 percent) during 2000.2010, as compared to India (1.64
percent during 2001-2011). With a definite slowing down of population growth in China,
it is now estimated that by 2030, India will most likely overtake China to become the
most populous country on the earth with 17.9 percent population living here.

World population was transformed in the 20
th
century as technological and
social changes brought steep declines in birth rates and death rates around the world.
The century began with 1.6 billion people and ended with 6.1 billion, mainly because of
unprecedented growth after 1960. The momentum created by this population growth
may carry the world population past 7 billion by 2015. It is almost certain that nearly all
future population growth will occur in the developing regions of the world. Urban areas in
these regions will absorb most of the additional people.




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Population growth rate, India and selected Countries: 2000-2010

Data shows that the poor tend to have larger families. In the developing
countries, a youth bulge ensures that the absolute number of births will rise even as
couples are having fewer children. At the other extreme, most countries in Europe now
have a youth dearth after decades of low fertility. Stagnant growth or even population
decline is challenging more countries as fewer workers must support expanding pension
and social security systems for their aging citizens. Governments have crafted a range of
population policies to address these and other issues over the last half-century.
In developing countries, policies include support for family planning and
reproductive health programs and efforts to improve womens status, to enable women
to have the number of children they want. In developed countries, particularly Japan and
parts of Europe, Governments have implemented policies to promote gender equality in
the workplace and ease the burden of childrearing all to encourage women to have more
children.
The factors that drive childbearing trends such as the economy, education,
gender relations, and access to family planning are numerous and complex, and public
policies and programs to influence population trends must address may issues at once.
Demographic changes often take years to be evident, making it difficult to predict how
todays actions will affect the future size and distribution of populations. Small changes
in childbearing trends today have huge implications for future population size.

POPULATION GROWTH: INDIA 1901 TO 2011

The population of India, at the turn of the twentieth century, was only
around 238.4 million. This has increased by more than four times in a period of one
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hundred and ten years to reach 1210 million in 2011. Interestingly, the population of
India grew by one and half times in the first half of the twentieth century, while in the
later half it recorded a phenomenal three-fold increase. Statement 2 percents the
population of India as recorded in each decadal Census since 1901. Some other
indicators of growth rate such as decadal growth rate, change in decadal growth,
average annual exponential growth rate and progressive growth rate over 1901 during
each decade have also been presented in this statement.

Growth of Population, 2001-2011 (States/Union Territories)

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Population (in millions): 1901-2011

Once of the important features of the present decade is that, 2001-2011 is
the first decade (with the exception of 1911-1921) which has actually added lesser
population compared to the previous decade. This implies that as a result of the
combination of population momentum and somewhat impeded fertility, although India
continues to grow in size, its pace of net addition is one the decrease.

In absolute terms, the population of India has increased by about 181
million during the decade 2001-2011. Although, the net addition in population during
each decade has increased consistently, the changes in net addition has shown a each
decade has increased consistently, the changes in net addition has shown a steady
declining trend over the decades starting from 1961. While 27.9 million more people
were added between the decade 1981-1991 than between 1971-1981, this number
declined to 19.2 million for the decades between 1981-1991 and 1991-2001. This
provisional results of 2011 shows that between 2001 and 2011, the net addition is less
than that of the previous decade by 0.86 million.


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POPULATION GROWTH RATES

It is significant that the percentage decadal growth during 2011-2011 has
registered the sharpest decline since independence. It declined from 23.87 percent for
1981-1991 to 21.54 percent for the period 1991-2001 a decrease of 2.33 percentage
point. For 2001-2011, this decadal growth has become 17.64 percent, a further decrease
of 3.90 percentage points.
Similarly, the average exponential growth rate for 2001-2011 has declined
to 1.64 percent per annum from 1.97 percent per annum during 1991-2001. The
average annual exponential growth rate during 1981-1991 was 2.16.


Percentage decadal growth rates of population, India: 1951-1961 to 2001-2011


POPULATION: STATES AND UNION TERRITORIES

Uttar Pradesh continues to be the most populous State in the county with
almost 200 million people living here, which is more than the population of Brazil, the
fifth most populous country in the world. The combined population of Uttar Pradesh and
Maharashtra (the second most populous State), at 312 million, is substantially greater
than the population of USA, the third most populous country of the world.
Twenty States and Union Territories now have a population of over ten
million. On the other extreme, there are five States and a population of over ten million.
On the other extreme, there are five States and Union Territories in the country that are
yet to reach the one million mark. Statement 3 and Figure 5 show the relative share of
population of the States and Union Territories to the total population of India as per
Census 2011. The statement also provides the ranking of these States and Union
Territories by Population size in 2001 and 2011.
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While Uttar Pradesh (199.6 million), Maharashtra (112.4 million), Bihar
(103.8 million), West Bengal (91.3 million) and Andhra Pradesh (84.7 million) have all
held on to the top five slots in terms of their ranking in 2011 as compared to 2001,
Madhya Pradesh (72.6 million), which has moved on to take the sixth position from its
seventh position, pushing Tamil Nadu (72.1 million) now to the seventh spot. A little
more than six of every ten Indians live in one of these seven States.

POPULATION GROWTH ALL STATES AND UNION TERRITORIES

Exactly half of the twenty most populous states, each with a population of
ten million or more, have added lesser persons in the decade 2001-2011 compared to
the previous one. Had these ten States added the same number of persons during 2001-
2011 as they did in the previous decade, everything else remaining the same, India
would have added another 9.7 million more persons during this decade.

The phenomenon of low growth have started to spread beyond the
boundaries of the Southern States during 2001-11, where in addition to Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the South, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab in the North,
West Bengal and Orissa in the East, and Maharashtra in the West have registered a
growth rate between eleven to sixteen percent in 2001-2011 over the previous decade.

The Provisional Population Totals of Census 2011 predicted this: It is
also obvious that in the contiguous for major States fertility decline appears to have well
established, stretching to neighboring Maharashtra on the west and Orissa and West
Bengal in the east, whereas in other regions it is rather scattered.

Among the smaller States and Union Territories, Dadra and Nagar Haveli
and Daman and Diu registered very high growth rates of more than fifty three
percentage points. In contrast, Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Goa have
registered single digit decadal growth. Nagaland is the only State which has registered a
small negative growth during 2001-2011 after very high growths in all the previous
decades.
The percentage decadal growth of population in the inter-Censal period
2001-2011, among the more populous States and Union Territoires, varied from a low of
4.86 percent, Chhattisgarh with 22.59 and Jharkhand with 22.34 also registered very
high growth rates. The percentage decadal growth has declined during the census
decade 2001-2011 as compared to the previous census decade in all the States and
Union Territories except Chhattigarh, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry, which together
constitute about 8.17 percent of Indias population.

A decline of more than five percentage points in decadal growth rate from
the previous census decade was recorded for fifteen States and Union Territories,
namely, for the States Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Sikkim, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Maharashtra and Goa, and also for the Union
Territoires of Delhi, Chandigarh, Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

These fifteen states and Union Territories together account for more than
thirty nine per cent of the countrys population. Among the larger States and Union
Territories, Delhi has registered the sharpest drop of twenty six percentage points during
the sadi period followed by Haryana (8.53) Rajasthan (6.97) and Maharashtra (6.74).
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The remaining seventeen States and Union Territories have shown a
decline of one to five percentage points in their growth rates during 2001-2011 as
compared to 1991-2001. These seventeen States and Union Territories together account
for more than fifty two per cent of total population. Thus more than nine out of every ten
Indians live in States and Union Territories which have shown a declining trend in
population growth.
The distribution of States and Union Territories by ranges of percentage
decadal growth and the percentage of population of these States/ Union Territories
brings out the major shift in distribution of States and Union Territories by the
ranges of growth rates between 1991-2001 and 2001-2011. The number of States and
Union Territories with percentage decadal growth below eighteen percent, the current
National average, has increased substantially from ten in 1991-2001 to seventeen in
the decade 2001-2011, whereas the number of States/Union Territories with percentage
decadal growth more than eighteen percent has reduced significantly from twenty five to
eighteen.

The sum total of the population of the States and Union Territories that
registered less than the national growth rate has shown an impressive increase from
about thirty four percent of India has grown by less than fifteen percent during 2001-
2011. The relative situation across the States and was only three during 1991-2001.

During the period 1991-2001, fifteen States and Union Territories, with a
share of about forty two percent of Indias population, registered an annual growth rate
of less than two percent. During 2001-2011, as many as twenty five States and Union
Territories with a share of about eighty five percent fall in this category. Fifteen States
and Union Territories have grown by less than 1.5 percent per annum during 2001-2011,
while the number of such States and Union Territories was only four during the previous
decade. Statement 7 presents the absolute increase in population of the States / Union
Territories of India during the Census decades 1991-2011.

It took four decades for Kerala to reach a decadal growth of less than ten
percent from a high growth rate of 26.29 percent during 1961-71 to 9.43 during 1991-
2001. Although Kerala has continued with this impressive show to register a growth rate
of just above 4.9 percent during 2001-2011, the decadal growth rates in Bihar,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh are still above
20 percent, a level where Kerala and Tamil Nadu were forty years ago.

However, the International experience is (European Fertility Project) that
once the fertility transition had been established in a linguistic or cultural area, it spread
rapidly and independently of socio-economic level achieved. Perhaps the policy measures
taken in the decade have prepared the basic ground for a similar situation in India and,
one may expect a faster rate of all in growth rates in the remaining States and Union
Territories with increase in literacy and child care facilities and a reduction in poverty.
The road to a stationary population before 2060 is long and arduous and would require
intense efforts.




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THE WAY FORWARD

Demographic transition is a model that describes population change over
time. There are several expositions of demographic transition theory. The theory mainly
describes and analyses the transition from a stable population with high mortality and
high fertility to a stable population with low mortality and low fertility. The stages of
demographic transition have, however, been differently analyzed by different
demographers. A commonly accepted theory defines four clear stages of population
growth. The four stages are:

Stage 1: Typically seen in less developed countries where birth rates are high but a
large number of people die of preventable causes leading to a stable population.
Stage 2: Death rates fall steeply as deaths from preventable causes are reduced by
better food supply and improved public health, but birth rates remain high due to high
fertility, poor social development and limited access to health and contraceptive services.
This often leads to a spurt in population.
Stage 3: Birth rates fall but population continues to grow because there are a large
number of people in the reproductive age group due to the high fertility of the previous
generations.
Stage 4: Countries achieve a stable population once again with low birth and low death
rates but at a higher level of social and economic development. Population is stable but
higher than in stage one.
This transition from a stable population with high mortality and high fertility to a stable
population with low mortality and low fertility is called demographic transition. India is
currently at the third stage, with some of the States and Union territories already into
stage 4.

The National Population Policy (NPP), 2000 adopted by the Government of
India states that the long-term objective is to achieve a stable population by 2045, at a
level consistent with the requirements of sustainable economic growth, social
development, and environment protection. The crucial question is when this objective
will be achieved. It has been assumed in the policy document that the medium-term
objective of bringing down the Total Fertility rate (TFR) to replacement level of 2.1 by
2010 will be achieved.

It was envisaged that if the NPP is fully implemented, the population of
India should be 1013 million by 2002 and 1107 million by 2010. The time bound
objectives set out for the XIth 5-years plan also envisaged achieving a Total Fertility
Rate of 2.1 by the year 2012. However, in 2001 itself, India exceeded the estimated
population for the year 2002 by about 14 million and, the provisional population in 2011
is higher by about 110 million compared to the target set for the year 2010. It will no
doubt be an uphill task on the part of the Government and the people to achieve the
much cherished goal of a stable population.

Population variables are both determinants and consequences of the
development process. Figure 10 attempts to compare the decadal growth of population,
Gross Domestic product at factor cost at constant prices and food grain production over
time starting from 1950-51. It helps to understand whether countrys economic
development and food grain production has been able to keep pace with its burgeoning
population. On the economic front, the GDP at factor cost at constant prices has grown
crackIAS.com 107

annually by more than 10.2 percent during 2001-10. As a result, the per capita Net
National Product has more than doubled during this period, from Rs 16,172 in 2000-01
to Rs. 33,731 in 2009-10.

During the same period, the food grain production has reached 218.2
million tones in 2009-10 from 196.8 million tones in 2000-01, showing an annual
exponential growth rate of food grain production during 2001-12, is actually achieved for
the two successive years of 2010-11 and 2011-12, the average annual growth in food-
grain production for 2001-12 would touch about 1.5 per cent, making it somewhat
similar to the growth in population during this period. However, a comparison among the
ten most populous countries of the World, in terms of both the Human Development
Index and the per capita GDP in PPP$ shows India has a long way to go.

The provisional population totals of Census 2011 brings a ray of hope with
definite signs that the growth rate of population is tapering off especially in areas where
it had been stagnant for several decades. There is also a marked decline in fertility as
evidenced by the declining proportion of child population in the age group of 0-6 years.
Independent India, urged by the first Census Commissioner Shri R.A. Gopalaswami, who
referred to improvident maternity as the primary cause of the population problem
became the first country in 1952 to establish a policy for population control.

For the world as a whole, demographers are generally confident that by
the second half of this century we will be ending one unique era in history the population
explosion and entering another, in which population will level out or even fall. Population
pessimists have warned the congenital optimists, not to believe that humanity will find
ways to cope and even improve its lot. Still, Malthus noted: The exertions that men find
it necessary to make, in order to support themselves or families, frequently awaken
faculties that might otherwise have lain for ever dormant, and it has been commonly
remarked that new and extraordinary situations generally create minds adequate to
grapple with the difficulties in which they are involved.

A feature of both mortality and fertility transitions has been their
increasingly faster tempo. Targeted programmes like those on female literacy, improving
general health care, improving female employment rates, minimum years of schooling,
advocacy through village groups, etc. is slowly redefining motherhood from childbearing
to child rearing. Census 2011 is perhaps an indication that the country has reached a
point of inflexion.
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Growth of population, GDP and food grain production, India: 1950-1951 to 2010-2011

DENSITY OF POPULATION
Density of Population in defined as the number of persons per square
kilometer. It is an important index of population which shows concentration of population
in a particular area. As per the provisional population totals of Census 2011, the
population density of India has gone up to 382 persons per square kilometer from
325 persons per square kilometer in 2001. On an average, 57 more people inhabit
every square kilometer in the country as compared to a decade ago.
At the beginning of the twentieth century i.e. in 1901 the density of India
was as low as 77 persons per sq. km. This steadily increased in each decade to reach
382 persons per sq. km. in 2011. This constitutes a 1705 per cent increase over 2001.

Census Year Density (Per-sq.km) Absolute Increase %age Increase
1901 77 - -
1911 82 5 65
1921 81 -1 -1.2
1931 90 9 11.1
1941 103 13 14.4
1951 117 14 13.6
1961 142 25 21.4
1971 177 35 24.6
1981 216 39 22
1991 267 51 23.6
2001 325 58 21.7
2011 382 57 17.5
Density of population, India: 1901-2011
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While the absolute increase is indeed a matter of concern, the positive
feature is that the rate of increase has slowed down and has shown a sharp decline in
the last decade. High increase in the density of population is a matter of great concern
as it puts immense pressure on our natural resources and existing infrastructural
facilities and adversely affects the quality of life. Pressures resulting from unrestrained
population growth put demands on the natural world that can overwhelm any efforts to
achieve a sustainable future. If we are to halt the destruction of our environment, we
must accept limits to the growth.

Rank in 2011 States Union Territory Density (per sq.km Rank in 2001
2011 2001
India 382 325
1 NCT of Delhi 11,297 9,340 1
2 Chandigarh 9,252 7,900 2
3 Pondicherry 2,598 2,.34 3
4 Daman & Diu 2,169 1,413 5
5 Lakshadweep 2,013 1,895 4
6 Bihar 1,102 881 7
7 West Bengal 1,029 903 6
8 Kerala 859 819 8
9 Uttar Pradesh 828 690 9
10 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 698 449 13
11 Haryana 573 478 12
12 Tamil Nadu 555 480 11
13 Punjab 550 484 10

RANKING OF STATES

Bihar is at the top pushing West Bengal to second rank. Kerala and Uttar
Pradesh have retained their rankings of third and fourth respectively. Haryana on the
other hand has advanced by two ranks from Rank 7 to Rank 5 replacing Punjab which
has fallen by two ranks from 5 to 7. Jharkhand similarly has risen by two places from
Rank 10 to 8 replacing Goa which has declined from Rank 8 to 10.
Karnataka has moved up by one place while Andhra Pradesh has fallen by
one place from 13 to 14. Meghalaya has moved up by 2 ranks; Nagaland dropped by 4
ranks. Other states namely, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Maharashtra, Tripura, Gujarat, Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Chhattigarh, Manipur, Sikkim, Mizoram and
Arunachal Pradesh have retained their rankings.
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Density of Population, India, States and Union Territories: 2011