LECTURE : SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Basic measurement system

Temperature sensors
Pressure sensors
Speed transducers
Flow sensors
Force sensors
Displacement and Level Sensors
Strain Gauge and Measurement
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A basic instrument system consists of;
1. Input device sensor
2. Signal Processor
3. Receiver Output device
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Sensors may operate as simple ON/OFF switch to
detect either the following
- objects ( proximity switch)
- empty or full ( level switch)
- Hot or cold ( thermostat)
- Pressure high or low ( pressure switch)
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Variables that we commonly measures;
- Temperature - Density
- Speed - Acidity / Alkalinity
- Force - Level / Depth
- Mass - Velocity / Acceleration
- Stress and strain - Temperature
- Volume
When 2 wires with dissimilar electrical
properties at both end and one junction is
made hot and the other one end cold, a
small electric current is produced.
The electric current produced are
proportional to the difference in
temperature.
This is called Seebeck Effect.
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a) Temperature Transducer
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A typical industrial
temperature probe
with flexible extension
And plug.
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a) Temperature Transducer
Most temperature transducer have linear relationship over
certain operating temperature, mostly given by this;
Where;
e = emf voltage
= temperature
, = constant
The actual characteristics and suitable operating temperature
depend upon the metals used in the wires
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Resistance Type Sensor - Thermistor
This instrument work on the principle that the electrical resistance
of a conductor changes with temperature.
The resistivity of the conductor change with temperature. It means
the resistance get bigger as the conductor gets hotter.
This equation relates the law of resistance and temperature;
Where; R = resistance
R
0
= resistance at 0
o
C
= temperature
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A basic temperature sensor is made by winding a thin resistance
wire into a small sensor head.
This has an advantage over a thermocouple coz it is unaffected by
temperature at the gauge end.
Range of measurement 200 to 500
o
C.
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Worked Example 1
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Vapour Pressure Sensors
These are thermometers filled with either a liquid such as mercury
or an evaporating fluid such as being used in refrigerator.
Any rise in temperature produces expansion or evaporation of the
liquid. So the sensor become pressurized.
The pressure is related to the temperature commonly indicated by
a simple pressure gauge.
Nowadays the pressure is converted into electrical signal. This way
the instrument can be used as a switch / alarming signal.
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Pressure transducers either converts the pressure into mechanical
movement or electrical output.
Mechanical movement is produced with the following elements;
1) Bourdon Tube
2) Spring and piston
3) Bellows and capsules
4) Diaphragm
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a) Bourdon Tube
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Bourdon is hollow tube. When a pressure difference exist between
the inside and outside, the tube tends to straighten out and the end
moves.
The movement is coupled to a needle on a dial to make a complete
Gauge.
It can also be connected to a secondary device such as an air nozzle
to control air pressure to convert into an electrical signal.
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b) Piston Type
The pressure acts directly on the piston
and compresses the spring.
A window in the outer case allows the
pressure to be indicated.
Applications : hydraulic system, system to
withstand shock, vibration, sudden pressure
changes.
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c) Capsules and Bellows
A bellow is made of several capsules.
these are hollow flattened structures
made from thin metal plate.
When pressurized the bellows expand
and produce mechanical movement.
Applications : Measuring small pressure.
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d) Diaphragm
The principle is similar to
Bellows type, but the diaphragm
is very thin and made from
rubber.
The diaphragm expands when very
Small pressures are applied.
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e) Electrical Pressure Transducer
There are various ways of converting the mechanical movement
of the earlier types into electrical signal.
- Strain Gauge type
- Piezo electric types
- Other electric effects
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Strain gauges are fixed at a strained surface. The change in length
of strain gauge produces changes in electrical resistance. Thus
this resistance is converted to voltage.
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The element used here is a piece of crystalline material that
produces an electric signal when it is mechanically stressed.
The electric charge will be converted to voltage.
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Other electric effects commonly used is capacitive and inductive
type transducers. The pressure produces a change in the capacitance
or inductance of an electronic component in the transducer.
One example is electronic oscillator to change the frequency of
oscillations. The frequency may be converted to voltage that
represent the pressure measured.
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a) Optical Types Transducer
These use light beam and light sensitive cell. The beam is either
Reflected or interrupted so that pulses is produced for each
Revolution.
The pulses are counted over a fixed time and the speed obtained.
electronic processing is required to time the pulses and
turned the result into analogue / digital signal.
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b) Tachometer
There are 2 types AC and DC tachometer.
AC type generates sinusoidal output.
The frequency of voltage represent
the speed of rotation.
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Flow meters measures the flow of fluids in certain medium. It
is categorized into ;
1) Positive displacement types
2) Inferential types
3) Variable area types
4) Differential pressure types
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a) Positive Displacement Types
These types have mechanical element that
makes the shaft of the meter rotate once for
an exact known quantity of fluids.
The quantity of fluid depends on number of
Revolutions of the meter shaft. The flow rate
depend on speed of rotation. Most common devices;
- rotary piston types
- meshing rotor types
- vane types
- turbine types
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a.1) Meshing Rotor Types
Consist of 2 rotor with lobes. When fluid
is forced in, the rotor turns and operate
the whole measuring system.
a.2) Turbine types
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b) Variable Area Types
There are 2 types commonly used
Float type ( rotameter)
Tapered plug type
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Fluid flows through the annular gap around the edge of the float.
The restriction causes a pressure drop over the float and the
pressures forces the float upwards. The level of the float indicates
The flow rates.
If the flow changes, the float will move up / down accordingly.
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A tapered plug is aligned inside a hole / orifice. A spring holds
it in place. The flow is restricted as it passes through the gap
and a force is produced which moves the plug.
The plug takes up a position where the pressure force just balance
the spring force.
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These are the range of meters that converts flow rate into
Differential pressure.
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The working principle
is that something
makes the velocity
changes and this will
produce changes in
pressure.
So, p = p
2
p
1
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3 main types of force sensor is;
- hydraulic types
- mechanical types
- Electrical strain gauge types
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a) Mechanical Types
Make use of spring such as spring
balance.
The spring deflection is proportional to
the applied force.