General linguistics:

What does i know a language mean?

when you say you know langugae, you mean that you know its sound system which consists
of phonetic inventory, phonotactics and phonology.
+1-phonetic inventory: the set of sound that belong to specific language, those sounds make
us distinguish one langugae from another.
+-phonotactics: also knows as sound se!uences" every language follows specific rules in
which it se!uences its words. these se!uences distinguich one langugae from another.
e#amples:
1-all english words that start with three consonants should sumbit to this rule:
$ $ $ + %owel
s p l
splosh street scream
- all english words which are do not begin with the se!uences: &n '&+n( sht 'sh+t(
+)- *honology: is the study of how sounds are organi&ed and used in natural language.
*honology can be divided into two main fields:
-sounds changes + alternations
-stress and intonation patterns
,- -ound changes+ alternation: the change that accur in the words. we may have a long vowel
in a noun that will end up short vowel in a verb can be attributed to the change in stress.
.#amples:
/irst vowel 0oun + second vowel %erb
produce 1o1 1a1
impact 1e1 1a1
present
received
noun have stres on the first vowel but verbs on the second vowel.
2 this knows as vowel reduction
sound can also be changed in the final 3.d3 of the regular verbs:
.d 2 1t1 2 1d1
4 kissed 1t1
4hummed 1d1
4washed 1t1
5- -tress and intonation patterns:
intonation patterns: the shift from high to lower or from low to high intonation in order to
e#press a certain attitude.
6ight to low: is used for confirmation
low to high: is used for information.
.#: 7ou have been there before, haven3t you?
low 2 hight information + high 2 low confirmation
-tress:
0oun have stress on the first vowel
%erbs have stress on the second vowel.
- if the word ends with two consonants then the stress is put on the second vowel, % $ $
and if the word end with one consonant, then the stress is put on the first vowel, % $
e#amples:
8nspect %$$ 9 inspeect
total %$ 9 toootal
weather %$ weaaaaather
2 we know not the language but we know the sound that belongs to the language.
: :ypical sounds of alternation, marked by plural ;s; ;&;
e#: tips 1s1 tags 1&1 cats 1s1 beds 1&1 knobs 1&1
5: un1conscious1ness
negative prefi#1ad<ective1 nominal prefi#
:each1er1s
%erb1agent1plural marker
92 we have two possibilities in this situation.
=ependant word part: functional morphems
independent part: le#ical morphemes.
.#: 1- 8 never thought 8 would win air ing
- winning has never been my primary goal.
92 when you know knowledge you know which morphemes are le#ical and which are
functional. any substitution of one for the other would result a werid statement like e# number
1.
>orphemes se!uences:
the order of morphemes are morphemes se!uence
when you know a language you know which morpheme se!uece is premissible.
e#:
holiday, the, during, trains, the fall" are. ? units
the trains are full during the holiday. 1 unit.
92 these sentences or se!uences are different because of rules:
the notion of a sentence is based on a set of rules, that is all sentences are word se!uences but
not all word s!uences are sentences.
9 when you know a langugae you know which word constitute a sentence and which one
don3t. in other words we have a set of internali&ed rules to distinguish which word se!uences
constitutes a sentence.
.#:
8 see what 8 eat 9
8 eat what 8 see. 9 word order helps to get the meaning.
92 in part of our knowledge implies that also a change in word order usually bring about a
change in meaning, but there is e#eptions like this e#ample:
the man waterend the flowers
the flowers were watered by the man
-70:,@
chomsky:
1 colorless green ideas sleep furiously
money did he give you she?
synta# A meaning: the knowledge of structure, rules and word order transformation is called
the synta# of language, and meaning are not interpendent
>orphemes:
un intent ion al
mis understand ing ly
un seem ing ly
anti dis establish ment ary'ari( an ism
--
trians during the fall are holidays the '? unites(
the trians are full during the holidays
4 when you know a language you know which word se!uences constitute a sentence and
which onedon3t.
in other words, we have a set of interneli&ed rules to distinguish which word se!uences
constitute a sentence.
-- the boy3s intellegence surprised the teachers
Bules 2 word order:
1 change in meaning . .#: 8 see what 8 eat + 8 eat what 8 see.
no change in meaning. his hand watered the flower + the flower were watered by his hand.
-70:,@:
the knowledge of sentence structure rules.
the set of internali&ed 'mental( rules on what constitutes a gramamatical rules of a sentence.
grammatical sentences might not be necessarily accepteble because of the meaning.
grammatically 2 competence 'rules(
acceptability 2 performance 'using the rules(
.#: $olorless green ideas sleep friendly
gramaticallly the sentence is ok but its not acceptable.
4 meaning and structure are not interdependent
meaning + meaning relation
.#: my toothbrush is pregnant again:
lnaguage divided to two: word meaning + permissible meaning conditions
all of these steps we have already seen are called 1linguistic competece1
92 knowledge of language" you have to use the right variety in right conte#t, sociolinguistic,
conte#tial meaning. thus, one word can mean somthing in one conte#t but in the other conte#t
might ve dufferent..
92 *BCD>8-:8$: is the relation between conte#t and meaning- progmistics studies have
their contec#r can be changed by the origibnal meaning of language.
sociolinguistics: the right variety in the right conte#t.
- conte#tual meaning: words represent a certain meaning but with the change of the conte#t
they may give another meaning.
*ossible meaning collocations.
, language speaker knows the semantics of a language.
part of the knowledge of language.
*erformance: the actual use of linguistic competence
rules of phonitics+ phonology+ morphology+synta#+semantics
+
lge and the sociolinguistic enviroment
4 socioal structure of lge:
Beceived pronounciation: lge of the uper class
-cumes: lge of the lower class
4 conte#tual meaning 'syaE(
conte#t give the word meaning
$orrect pronounciation
-:F=7 C/ -CF0=-:
4,costic: the study of grophic representation of sounds
+ syllabucity. cons A vowels
+ soncrity: soncrity scale:
4 ,rticulatory + phonetics : detals of sound production
2 knowledge 'details( 2 pronounciation.
Guestion 1: where is the vocal tract do we pronounce the sound?
Guestion : how do we pronounce it?
*6C.0:8$-: 'from the greek: phone ;sound, voice(
phonetics is mainly defined as a brancg of linguistics that partly tends to study the
sounds of human speech. 8t is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds
'phone(:
their physiologicak production, acoustic property and auditory perception.
-ound system of english.
:he study of sound system includes the study of articulation 'articulatory phonetics(
and the study of listening 'auditory phonetic(.
,B:8$FH,:8C0: articulatory phonetics + acoustic phonetics.
1- acoustic phonetics: is dealth with the acoustic of speech. the properties of the sound
waves produced by speech, such as their fre!uency, amptitude, and formanic structure,
it3s a kind of laboratory, in that it studies the graphic of representation of sound,
representation of sylibicy, sonority of sounds, graphic different of consonants and
vowels and stridency.
-tridency: it is characteri&ed by its clearlyy audible sounds.
the most stridable 'audible( sound is 1s1
-sonority scale:
vowels: e- i - a - u
glides: y I w
consonants 92
nasals: m - n
fricatives: & - s - f - v
stops: p - t - k-d
-,B:8$FH,:CB7 *6C0.:8$-:
has to go with the articulation of speech, the movement of articulatory or speech
organs, the position and slope. furthermore, the movment lips, tangue....
details of sound production 92 details knowledge 92 pronounciation.
1-W6.B. 80 :6. %C$,H :B,$: =C W. *BC0CF0$. :6. -CF0=?
-6CW =C W. *BC0CF0$. 8:?
*H,$. C/ ,B:8$FH,:8C0:
H,58,Hs: are sounds which are produced with one or both lips.
2 bilabial: 'p-b-m( these are pronoounced with two lips
2 Habio-dental: the lower pil and the upper teeth: 'v-f(
=.0:H,-: tongue against the upper teeth 'without teeth we can3t produce 's-&(
+dentals: 's - &(
+interdentals: ? as in bath - J as in with( we put tongue between the upper teeth
,H%.CH,B-: 'alveolar sounds( 92 ':-=-H-0-B-(
tongue tip at the alveolar ridge, behind the top teeth
tongue against the alveolar ridge - the tongue should not touch teeth.
*,H,:,Hs : the tongue front articulates against the hard palate.
's as in -ugar, & as in lie&ure(
%.H,Bs: the tongue back articulates against the soft palate.
the tongue is against the velar &one.
'g - k - n as in king(
*6,B70D.,Hs: produced with the pharyn# ' 6 (
the lips are rounded simultaneously with velar articulation.
DHC::,Hs: the vocal folds are rge place of articulation '?( e as in .
p voiceless bilabial stop
b voiced bilabial stop
t voiceless alveolar stop
d voiced alveolar stop
k voiceless velar stop
g voiced velar stop
voiceless glottal stop
f voiceless labiodental fricative
v voiced labiodental fricative
K 'thin( voiceless interdental fricative
J 'th( voiced interdental fricative
s voiceless alveolar fricative
& '<a&&( voiced alveolar fricative
'sharp( voiceless alveopalatal fricative
'vision( voiced alveopalatal fricative
h 'happy( voiceless glottal fricative
t 'match(voiceless alveopalatal affricate
d 'badge( voiced alveopalatal affricate
m voiced bilabial nasal 'stop(
n voiced alveolar nasal 'stop(
L 'king( voiced velar nasal 'stop(
r 'room( voiced alveolar glide
l voiced alveolar lateral appro#imant
'run( voiced alveolar retrofle# appro#imant
< voiced palatal appro#imant
w voiced labiovelar appro#imant
>,00.B- C/ ,B:8$FH,:8C0:
6ow do we articulate:
:he glottis: 'almond shape(
tight: high pitch noise. + loose: low pitch noise
>en: 1MM vibrate per second + women: )MMM v+s
vocal chords produce vibration.
%ibration: voiced sounds.
5 = D N H > 0 ?'ng( B % O J'th in the( and all vowels
0o vibration , voiceless sounds.
ch - f - h - k - p - s - sh - t - ?'th in think(
the following set of sounds have same place
of articulation, they only divorse in voicing.
&2s v2f b2t d2t g'god( 2k
--*ast marker + plural marker
rule: if the last sound in the verb is voiced
we prounce it as 'd( hug + hugged
if the last sound in the verb is voiceless we
prononouce it as 't( stop + stopped
plural marker: head: head& + cat: cats
depends in the last sound in words.
:he air flow:
lungs: spongy substance, e#pands + inhale and
shrinks+e#hale
s!uee&e ait out 2 sound.
air is the reason behind our ability to speak,
air is language.
,ir 5lockage:
$ompletely blocked air flow: stop the air
*-k--p-b-t-d-g
p- voicless, bilabial, stop
b: voiced bilabial stop
t: voicless alveolar stop
d: voiced alveolar stop
k: voicelss velar stop
g: voiced velar stop
--*artially: air pressure + small outlet which lead to
friction 'sound(
-f : voiceless labiodental fricative
-v : voiced labio dental fricative
-s : voiceless dental fricative
-& : voiced dental fricative
-P?Q 'sh( as in ship: voiceless palatal fricative
-P&?1 as in measure : voiced palatal fricative fricative
-? : th as in bath:a voiceless interdental fricative
: th as in the: voiced interdental fricative.
--no air blocking:
free air flow: li!uids air flow:
H-r 'alveolars(
m-n- n 'as in king(9 nasals bcs air flows through nose
4 for H-r we can not say they are voiced or voiceless,
bcs they change from a situation to another
pHay9 voiceless bHack9 voiced depends on the previous sound
pBice9 voiceless bBow9 voiced depends on the previous sound
we distinguish them by calling them either
l 9 lateral or r9 non-lateral.
*6C0.:8$ 80/BC>,:8C0 is necessary to e#plain
phonological alternation 'sound change(
'and( 'end( 'en( 'd( 2 dropped
e#: black and white: d is drooped
1n1 : alveolar: alveolar nasal + alveolar stop
1d1 : alveolar: black and white 2 black an white.
handbag 92 hambag
1in1 negative prefi#. in 9 im 2 impossible
in 9 in : incoherent. in 9 il : illegal
in 9 ir : irregalar.
WCB= ,0,H7-8-: 'morphology(
relation between sound and meaning
2 word is a combination btw sound and meaning.
1bread1 1pae1 1#ub&1 1aghrul1 these words have
the same meaning 2
there is no systematic principled relationship between
the sound and the meaning.
92the relationship is arbitrary
92general linguistics 92 basic principles:
the arbitrariness of the sing
sign 2 signified 'reference( meaning.
2 signifier :'sound word(
92 mis1treat1ment: one word 92 ) morphems
prefi#: mis root:treat suffi#: ment
-1 word: 1 morpheme: industry + desire
- words: morphemes: industrial + desirable
-) words: ) morphemes: industriali&e + undesirable
-R words: R morphemes: industriali&ation + undesirbility
.@:
the boy3s intelegence surprised the teachers.
the: article + boy: noun + 3s: possessive + intellege: root" ad<
ence: suffi# + surprise: root, verb ed: past marker
+ the: article + teach: root + er: agent + s: plural marker
anti - dis - establ - ish - ment - ari - an - ism
prieumon 1 ultra 1 micro 1 scop 1 ic 1sitco 1 volcano1 conisis
there are free and bound morphemes:
-free morphemes can stand by themselves
not attached to anything.
-bound morphemes are not independent such as 1ed1 1er1
always attached to somthing, you can3t have it alone.
-free morphemes: the, all, same , boy, sleep, fast..
-bound morphemes: suffi#, s" ed" ness, ment, dis, un, re..
*B./8@.-:
pre, neo, inter, intra, ir, il, post, im, mono,
bi, tri, poly, proto, un, e#tra, co, pre, re, ab, en, sub,
hypo, micro, macro, super..
-F//8@.-: able" ful, ness, er, en, ing, ion, ible, ly,
4free morphemes: le#ical and functional.
-le#ical: boy, sleep: because it has a meaning, and refers to it.
-functional: the -a - some : because it doesn3t refer to anything,
no meaning.
4bound morphemes: derivational+ inflectional
-=erivational: if a morpheme changes the grammatical category
of a word,
it becomes a derivational morpheme.
-8nflectional: is a change from singular to plural 'plural s(
simple to perfect 'eat" eaten(,
from present to past 'hug, hugged(
sub<ective to genitive '8, me(
4free:
-functional: the, a, some, if
-le#ical: nouns boy, verbs eat, ad<, adverbs.
45ound:
-derivational: able, it, tion, y
-inflectional: ed, s, or..
.:7>CHCD7: :6. -:F=7 C/ WCB=-:
morphemes identification, morphological analysis.
language will be analy&ed through many steps:
step1: comparing form and meaning:
e#: nipali: 8 eat ++ kalut: 8 sleep
step : spot recurrent forms with their recurrent corresponding
meaning.
malisuka he did not go
manisuka 8 did not go
likupaka you walked away
nikupaka 8 walked away.
8: ni + he: li + go: su + past marker: ka + kupa: walk + negotive form : ma.
step): search for allomorphs: morphemes that take two forms"
one and two:
e#" frencg definet article: le garcon, le patron" l3arbre.
the friend deffenit article loses its vowel when the noun associated
with it" begins with a vowel.
.@: :,$6H68::
tamgart inu my wife
arga& inu my husband
agayunu my head
afusinu my hand
tawadanu my walk
it3s like the case of the e#ample of the french article"
,gayunu .. the 8 and C are dropped, and changed to F
tawadanu same case.
-W,68H8:
ni-38 'sub<ect(3, u-3you 'sub<ect(3, wa-3they 'sub<ect(3
li-3past3, ta-3future3, ki-3it 'ob<ect(3, ku-3you 'ob<ect(3, tu-3us 'ob<ect(3,
wa-3them 'ob<ect(3
pata 3get3 piga 3hit3.
affi#es: prefi#es + infe#es + suffi#es
prefi#: when the verb start with a vowel 'the start(
infi#: when the verb starts with a consonant. 'the inside(
--anul&imukumoha
a:terrogative marker nu: we l&m: oblige
kum: you 'ob<ect( + ha: pronoun 'it(
--fasatakfikahum:
fa: con<uction sa: future marker ya:progressive
kfi:root ka:you 'ob<ect( hum:they 'ob<ect(
-uddanese arabic:
my: 8+y you 'masc( : ak+k you 'fem(: ik+ki
their ''masc(: um+hum their 'fem( :in+hin
his: u+hu her: a+ha you 'plural, masc( :kum
you 'plural, fim( kun.
if the world ends with a vowel, we use the first set
if the word ends with a consonant, we use the second set
tone language are: when the morphemes is a tone:
e#: horse: maa: 1maaaa.a1tone falling . mother maa: 1ma.aaa1tone rising
-yllable: we reduplicate the first syllable
$% to -%$ at - $%$ sit - $$%$ slip - $%$$ hugs
$$%$$ stink - $$$%$ - strip -$$$%$$ spring
/usional+inflectional language:
use morphemes to mark grammatical funcion:
Bussian:
/or each of the following pairs of sounds, state whether
the place of articulation is the same or different.
:hen identify the place of articulation for each sound.
a. PsQ : PlQ same" alveolar
b. PkQ : PLQ same" velar
c. PpQ : PgQ different" bilabial, velar
d. PlQ : PQ same" alveolar
e. PmQ : PnQ different" bilabial, alveolar
f. PdQ : PQ same" alveopalatal
g. PfQ : PhQ different" labiodental,glottal
h. PwQ : P<Q different" labio-velar, palatal
i. PbQ : PfQ different" bilabial, labiodental
<. PtQ : PdQ same" alveopalatal
k. PsQ : PvQ different" alveolar, labiodental
l. PKQ : PtQ different" interdental, alveolar
). /or each of the following pairs of sounds, state whether
the manner of articulations is the same or different. :hen
identify the manner of articulation for each sound.
a. PsQ : PKQ same" fricative
b. PkQ : PgQ same" stop
c. PwQ : P<Q same" glide
d. PfQ : PQ same" fricative
e. PlQ : PtQ different" li!uid, stop
f. PdQ : PvQ same" fricative
g. PtQ : PsQ different" affricate, fricative
h. PmQ : PLQ same" nasal stop
i. PQ : PwQ different" li!uid, glide
<. PtQ : PdQ same" affricate
k. PhQ : PQ different" fricative, stop
l. P&Q : PdQ different" fricative, affricate
,fter each of the following articulatory descriptions,
write the sound described in phonetic brackets.
a. voiced velar stop PgQ
b. voiceless labiodental fricative PfQ
c. voiced alveopalatal affricate PdQ
d. voiced palatal glide P<Q
e. voiced alveolar nasal PnQ
f. voiceless interdental fricative PKQ
g. voiceless alveopalatal fricative PQ
h. voiced bilabial stop PbQ
R. $onsider the sounds in each set below. 8n each set,
all but one sound belong to a particular group.
i. /or each group, identify the sound that does not
belong to that group.
ii. Dive the articulatory description that characteri&es
each set of remaining sounds.
a. Pp t g s Q s: stops
b. Pb & k m Q k: voiceless
c. P l Q : li!uids
d. Pn f m LQ f: nasal
e. P K f d sQ d: voiced
f. Pi u S e Q u: unrounded
g. Pu o i Q /reebie 'answer would be , tense if we did tense+la#. -orryT(
h. P u iQ /reebie 'answer would be , high(
i. Po u eQ e: rounded CB u: mid
<. Pa< ow Q : diphthongs
.vidence of grammatical categories:
,phasia: it is the case where there is a shift between
:he ob<ect and the word 'tooth brush 2 hammer(
:he shift only involves the same category ' v-v(
$oordinate:
.lipsis:
, mission of repeated Drammatical categories
petter will get married and bill too.
petter will get married and bill will get married too.
8f we take the whole category the sentence will remain safe.
:sentence + 0*: noun phrase
0: noun + %* :verb phrase
% :verb + ** :prepositional phrase
* :preposition + =et : determiner
, :ad<ective + $on< :con<unction
:he kid ate the sandwish in the library
-where did the kids ate the sandwish?
-which sandwish did the kids ate?
Which+where+how?T
8 like >oroccans with preservation
6ow do 8 like >oroccans?
which kind of >oroccans do 8 like?