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Types of writing

Chapter 1 TYPES OF WRITING



In this chapter we outline some of the main differences between certain important kinds of
scientific and technical writing. These are

scientific articles
research papers
proposals

1.1 Scientific Articles

Scientific and technical articles and essays are mainly published in journals, magazines and
newspapers. They are normally intended to reach a wider audience than research papers.

Thinking about your audience

How scientific articles are written depends on who the readers are likely to be. A more
scholarly, academic or discipline-specific journal will allow specialised vocabulary, while a
piece in a more popular magazine, for example, will present and explain the data in an
accessible manner for a wider audience. The writer must know what kind of people he or she
is writing for.

The structure of a scientific article

Articles and essays need to be a seamless whole: paragraph flowing into paragraph, ideas
presented smoothly in logical order. Structurally they can be broken down into these three
parts:
The introduction
The main body
The conclusion

Each of these is covered in a section in Chapter 2 on Composition.

Articles and essays need to be well thought out and ordered. How the writer introduces the
piece, builds on the introduction through the body, and concludes will largely determine how
the information is accepted. Step by step, the writer must present main ideas, supporting
evidence, analyses and conclusions in a logical and organised manner. The writing must not
wander, but keep to its task of presenting the writers information in the clearest possible
way.

Style Manuals

Every discipline has its own style standard. These Style Manuals are published and readily
available for each field, science and discipline. Writers are responsible for knowing and
following the standard of their own particular discipline.





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Types of writing
1.2 Research Papers

Research papers are generally written for scientists working in the same field and therefore
have a more limited, and more specialised, readership than articles. Research papers can
appear in specialist journals or be presented at conferences.

The structure of a research paper

A research paper has a more closely defined structure than an article or essay. There are
normally 8 sections in a research paper or scientific report, and these tend to follow each
other in a fixed sequence. Obviously these may vary, depending on the nature of the research
done. Each element is further described and explained in Chapter 2 Composition.

Title
It must precisely describe the reports contents

Abstract
A brief overview of the report

Introduction
Includes the purpose of the research
States the hypothesis
Gives any necessary background information
Provides a review of pertinent literature

Methods and materials
Provides a description of material, equipment and methods used in the research

Results
States the results of the research. Visual materials are included here.

Discussion
Evaluation and interpretation

Was the hypothesis supported? If so, how? If not, why not? Relevant results
are cited in support.

Conclusion
Conclusions to be drawn from the results
Conclusions about the hypothesis
Implications of the research and results
Additional research proposed

References cited
A list of the references cited
Include references to any works cited in the review of literature in the introduction.
Use the documentation style required by your specific field. (See Sections 2.9 on
Referencing and 4.8 on Quoting)



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Types of writing
1.3 Proposals

Proposals may well be the least popular form of writing for researchers but they are
necessary. The purpose of a proposal is to ask for funding in order to make research possible.
As there is only a limited amount of money in the world for research, you need to make the
case for your particular research as effectively as you can.

Purpose of a proposal

A proposal must demonstrate that your research project is worth the time, effort and money to
accomplish it. It must make the need for money and time easily understandable and it must
propose an appropriate recipient for the funding.

A proposal persuades.
A proposal requests.
A proposal promises that the project will be completed.
A proposal states the researchers commitment to doing the work.
A proposal presents a detailed plan to accomplish the research.


Components of a proposal

Although there is variation according to the organisation you are applying to, a proposal will
probably consist of these elements.

A cover letter. This is one page long, separate from the main proposal. It introduces:

* the researchers -- you
* the reason for your research the needs and the problems that the research is to meet.
* the cost of the research
* the length of the research
* the benefits of the research (including to the prospective donors)

A title page. The title page is one sheet of paper. It contains:

* the project title
* the recipient of the proposal, that is, the organisation, and if possible the individual
* the date
* the person or persons submitting the proposal, including signatures
* a contact person (name and title, address, telephone number, and e-mail address)
* the project budget total
* the project time span

A table of contents.

This is only necessary if the proposal is over 15 pages long. It should be on a single page.

A summary

By its very nature this must be written last. It should only be between 150 and 300 words
(2 paragraphs) long, and include points in the cover letter.



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Types of writing
An introduction. Use the introduction to establish the need for the research and the
credibility of the researchers to do it. Include:

* Background on the need to be addressed by the research
* Background on the researchers and their organisation (including degrees, titles and
achievements)

A needs assessment. This section should answer these questions:

* What is the need motivating the research?
* How is the research expected to meet the need?
* Why should you be the one to do the research? What are your qualifications for it?

Objectives. This section should answer these questions:

* What is the goal of the research?
* What are the expected results?
* What are the expected benefits and applications resulting from the research?
* How do the objectives meet the needs?

Methods. This section should answer these questions:

* How will the research specifically be conducted? Justify the methods proposed.
* What is the time-frame for the research project? Justify the schedule proposed.

Pre-evaluation. This section should answer these questions:

* How will the project be evaluated? Internally or externally?
* What data will be gathered? How will it be gathered?
* What is the expected extended length of the project, beyond the scope of the immediate
proposed funding?
* How will the results be disseminated?

Long-term financial plans. The answers in this section should be specific and detailed.
This section should answer these questions:

* If the project extends beyond the length of the grant, how will it be funded?
* Will the project be able to be wholly or partially self-supporting?

Budget. This section should answer these questions:

* What materials are needed for the project and what will they cost? This must be itemised,
specific and detailed.

Personnel. This section should answer these questions:

* Who will be involved in the research, and why? (Be specific)
* What specifically are the duties and responsibilities of the researchers involved?

Appendices. Each appendix should be a separate section. Possible appendices include:
* Rsums of the researchers * References
* Board members of applying organisations, or body of researchers
* Charts of the organisation * Letters of support
* Applicable charts, graphs and tables * Applicable bibliographies
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Composition
Chapter 2 COMPOSITION

2.1 Titles

The purpose of a piece of scientific writing is to present information clearly and concisely so that it
can be easily understood. Clarity therefore begins with the title.

In scientific and technical writing, a poetic or stylized title does not help the reader at all. For
example, the following title
The Kopje Drummers of the Karoo

does not tell the reader that the paper is about birds, woodpeckers to be exact. However, this title

The mating rituals of Geocolaptes olivaceus, South Africas Ground Woodpecker

tells the reader very clearly what the subject of the paper is.

Elements in a title
In technical and scientific writing the title is a precise description of the contents. It should include
specific words to indicate the following:

the topic, that is, the main, general subject you are writing about
the focus, that is, a detailed narrowing down of the topic into the particular, limited area of your
research
optionally, for a scientific article, the purpose of your writing. This means including a word such
as the following, which tells the reader what kind of argumentation to expect:

An analysis of An assessment of A comparison of A description of
A discussion of An evaluation of An explanation of An outline of

Some sample titles:

purpose topic focus
An analysis of carp culture management as a tool for Mexican crayfish conservation.
An overview of nutritional needs before, during and after an endurance event.
A discussion of genetic engineering technology and its effects on the environment.
An evaluation of sewage treatment as a tool in environmental protection.

Punctuation of titles: capital letters
It is clearer to type your title in lower case rather than in capital letters.
Use capital letters for the first letter of all the main words in the title, including nouns,
pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, longer prepositions, conjunctions
Do not use capital letters for short structural words (except when they are the first word of the
title), such as articles (a, an, the), short prepositions (of, in, to ,at), co-ordinating
conjunctions (and, or, nor, but, for)

Points to check in your own writing

Be precise and concise; strive for clarity and avoid terms with multiple meanings which might
lead to misunderstanding
Use key words from the paper to inform readers of the content, but try not to choose too many
technical words as this will not attract a wider audience
Titles stand alone; they are not a part of the opening sentence or paragraph
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Composition



2.10 Plagiarism

All academic, scientific, technical and research writing must document all sources used. If
you purposely use another person's writing as if it was your own, then you are guilty of
plagiarism, the literary form of theft. Not to cite a source used is a most serious offence and
the integrity of the writer and the writers work will be seriously compromised if not
dismissed outright.

What sources must be documented?

Every reference to anothers work, word or ideas must be cited.
Every paraphrase must acknowledge the original source.
Every citation from a book, magazine, journal, the Internet, or speech must be noted.
Every borrowing must be documented.
Every quotation (whole or partial) must be given due credit.

Not all plagiarism is intentional, but that in no way changes the seriousness of the offence
and the consequences suffered in reputation and integrity for the writer, the writers research,
and the writers written results. Plagiarism can and has destroyed careers.

What are the basic ways of avoiding plagiarism?

provide in-text documentation for each idea you have 'borrowed' from someone else (see
Section 4.8 Quoting)
put quotation marks round each item directly quoted (see Section 4.8 Quoting)
make sure that your paraphrased material is written in your own style and language, and
not simply copied from another person, or their sentences just rearranged (see Section 4.7
Paraphrasing)
provide detailed information in your footnotes (or endnotes) and bibliography about all
the sources you have cited (see Section 2.9 Referencing)


2.11 Abstracts

Abstracts are called summaries by some journals, though strictly speaking the terms are not
exactly the same.
A summary restates the main findings and conclusions of a paper and is written for
people who have already read the whole thing. (See section 2.12 Summary Writing)
An abstract is a shortened version of the paper written for people who may never read
the full version. Since abstracts are often reprinted in abstracting journals separated from
the original paper, they need to be self-explanatory.

An abstract normally appears at the top of the page in front of the actual paper it outlines.
The purpose is to inform readers as concisely as possible what is in the article so that they can
decide whether to read it in detail.

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Composition
What types of abstracts are there?

There are two kinds of abstract

Descriptive abstract: this provides a kind of contents list of what will be in the paper;
what the writer will deal with or attempt to prove in the article, rather than a synopsis of
the actual results. Since it contains general statements, it is more appropriate for longer
papers, such as review articles, and can be written before the paper itself is drafted.

Informative abstract: this does not simply describe what will be in the paper, but also
gives a summary of the main factual information, such as your methods and materials,
results and conclusions. This type of abstract is more suited to papers or reports about
original research. It is usually better to write an informative abstract when the writing of
the complete paper is finished.

Should I write a descriptive abstract or an informative abstract?

Your journal editor will guide you on this point. Normally, when writing up research, the
informative abstract is better since you give the reader factual information as well as your
main opinions. In some circumstances, the descriptive abstract is preferred, e.g. if you are
working in a controversial area and have results that you do not want to reveal until the
reader has read the whole paper. Abstracts can also be a mixture of both descriptive and
informative elements.

How long should an abstract be?

There is no fixed length. It is important to write enough for what the reader needs to know
rather than summarising everything in the paper. A typical length is between 100 and 250
words, or between 5% and 10% of the original.

What should an informative abstract contain?

The informative abstract will contain a selection of these elements, depending on how you
perceive the readers needs
an expansion or explanation of the title
the purpose of the research
how the research was conducted
what the main findings were
what the findings mean
what recommendations can be made, e.g. for further research
what the limitations of the research were

Normally you would NOT include in your abstract
any information that is not in the paper itself
tables and diagrams
citations from other peoples work




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Composition
How is an abstract structured?

Rather than following the sequence of sections in the paper itself, it is often a good idea in an
abstract to put the most significant ideas first, whether it be the method, the results, your
recommendations, or whatever. In this way, readers who are short of time will at least know
your main point even if they only read the first sentence.

Is there any difference in style between a descriptive and an informative abstract?

Both types of abstract must communicate ideas effectively, preferably with direct, active
statements in short, simple sentences. There can be a difference in the use of verb tenses:
* use the present tense when you make general statements of fact, or say what your
paper does (as in a descriptive abstract)
* use the past tense when you explain what you actually did or found out in your piece
of research (as in an informative abstract)

The descriptive abstract will make more use of generalised vocabulary and phrases, while the
informative abstract will have more precise, specific language, including numbers.

What are keywords?

These are the most important words in your paper that are specifically related to your topic.
Your editor may want you to identify these so that they can be printed at the end of the
abstract (or sometimes after the title in the journals contents list).

Example abstracts

Abstract A

An Overview of Rotating Stall and Surge Control for Axial Flow Compressors.

Modeling and control for axial flow compression systems have received great attention in recent
years. The objectives are to suppress rotating stall and surge, to extend the stable operating range of
the compressor system, and to enlarge domains of attraction of stable equilibria using feedback
control methods. The success of this research field will significantly improve compressor performance
and thus future aeroengine performance. This paper surveys the research literature and summarizes
the major developments in this active research field, focusing on the modeling and control
perspectives to rotating stall and surge for axial flow compressors.

Keywords: axial flow compressor, rotating stall, surge

Gu G., Sparks A. & Banda S. IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology Vol 7 No 6 November 1999
p. 639-647.

Points to note
Purpose. Abstract A is a descriptive abstract: it tells you what the writers do in the article, but
not their actual ideas.
Structure. A begins with an explanation of the research field, its aims and the potential outcome
of the research; it goes on to state the authors intention of surveying the research literature and
summarising major developments.
Language use.
* It uses only present tenses (including present perfect and will future).
* It contains generalised academic phrases, e.g. have received great attention, the objectives
are to , this paper surveys and summarises ., focusing on .
* Both abstracts use extended sentences in order to condense information. In A we have The
objectives are to , to , and to .
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Composition

Abstract B

CD46 is a Cellular Receptor for Human Herpesvirus 6

Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) is the etiologic agent of exanthum subitum, causes opportunistic
infections in immunocompromised patients, and has been implicated in multiple sclerosis and in the
progression of AIDS. Here, we show that the two major HHV-6 subgroups (A and B) use human
CD46 as a cellular receptor. Downregulation of surface CD46 was documented during the course of
HHV-6 infection. Both acute infection and cell fusion mediated by HHV-6 were specifically inhibited
by a monoclonal antibody to CD46; fusion was also blocked by soluble CD46. Nonhuman cells that
were resistant to HHV-6 fusion and entry became susceptible upon expression of recombinant human
CD46. The use of a ubiquitous immunoregulatory receptor opens novel perspectives for
understanding the tropism and pathogenicity of HHV-6.

Santoro F., Kennedy P., Locatelli G., Maluati M., Berger E., Lusso P. Cell Vol 99 No 7 December 23, 1999

Points to note

Purpose. Abstract B is an informative abstract: it contains details of what was investigated, what
the findings were and what might happen in the future.
Structure. B first defines HHV-6 and explains its importance; it gives the purpose of the
research (we show that ), the method (Downregulation ) and the results; it concludes with a
statement of future prospects as a result of the research.
Language use.
* It uses present tenses for general statements and explanation of what the paper does.
* It uses past tenses to describe the procedure and results of the research.
* It contains a greater density of technical, topic-related terms than the descriptive abstract,
together with specific verbs to describe precisely what happened in the research (inhibited,
blocked, etc.).
* Note the use of the passive when describing the research.
* It also uses extended sentences in order to condense information. For example, the first
sentence is Human Herpesvirus 6 is , causes , and has been .

Points to check in your own writing

Do you need to write an informative or a descriptive abstract?
Does your abstract give the reader a clear, straightforward idea of what your research is
about?
Does it contain the right amount and the right kind of information (depending on what
type it is)?
Is it the right length?

2.12 Summary Writing

A summary is a condensation of the main ideas in an article or in a section of someone else's
writing. A summary may stand alone, for example as a similar piece of writing to an abstract.
Or it may simply form a section within a longer piece of your writing. The aim of a summary
is to give your readers a clear, objective, accurate and balanced account of an article they
may, or may not, have not read, and to put it into the context of your own work.

Summarising therefore is a skill that involves picking out the key ideas in someone else's
writing and linking them up in your own words.


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What is the difference between summarising and paraphrasing?

There are clear similarities between the two since both involve the re-writing of an author's
ideas in your own words. (See Section 4.7 Paraphrasing) However, the main differences are:

a summary is likely to be shorter. Whereas paraphrasing may involve keeping more or
less to the same length as the original, a summary could be the reduction of a long
paragraph to a sentence, an article to a paragraph or a book to a page.

a summary will keep to the structure and content of the original more closely than a
paraphrase. The latter is more likely to include your personal gloss or interpretation of
the original; in a summary you should avoid adding extra information or ideas that are not
actually in the text you have read.

When is summary writing useful?

Apart from the need to summarise other writers' ideas at particular points when writing a
research paper, the skill is valuable in these situations:

when reviewing an article or book
when annotating a bibliography entry
when preparing an abstract

In addition, of course, it is useful to develop the skill by keeping summary 'note cards' on
other works that you read. In particular, this will help you to avoid plagiarism, since by
writing from notes you will be presenting information in your own words.

Are there any guidelines for summary writing?

1. Read the whole of the original text quickly to gain an impression of its content and its
relevance to your work
2. Highlight the main points as you read
3. Make notes of your own on these points
4. Put away the original and rewrite your notes in your own words in complete sentences
5. Begin your summary with a statement of the main idea at the start. Don't forget to
include referencing of your source.
6. Using your notes, write out your subsidiary or supporting points in coherent, well-
connected sentences
7. Re-read your work to check that you have included all the information that you need.

Sample summary
The main points in the text below can be written in a shorter, summary form for inclusion in
your own writing. Points about the summary:
it is about one third of the length of the original (88 words, compared to 273 in the
original
the number of sentences has been reduced from 16 to 4
the information has been compressed into these 4 sentences by
* cutting out less important information, e.g. examples
* reducing a whole clause or sentence to a phrase
* by using more subordinate clauses
* linking ideas by simple use of commas
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Composition

Original text

Solar power is energy generated from the sun. Many electronic devices, such as watches and
calculators, can use the sun's energy directly to provide the power they need. Light energy from the
sun changes the electrical conducting properties of the silicon crystals, and a tiny electric current
starts to flow. This system is called a solar cell. Although solar cells used on earth do not provide
much power, satellites in space run on the same principle. They get many times more energy
because they are closer to the sun. In the future, workers in space may build huge power stations
from solar cells many kilometers wide. The electricity generated could be beamed down as
microwaves and then converted back into electricity. Most of the solar power that we use today is
based on a much simpler principle than the silicon solar cell. Solar panels on the roofs of houses
heat water directly for bathing and central heating systems. The industrial version of the solar panel
is the solar furnace, in which huge, curved solar panels, together with a system of mirrors,
concentrate a large amount of solar energy onto a small area. The heat energy makes steam for
generating electricity. Solar power is clean, renewable, non-polluting and does not damage the
environment. It is potentially one of the more important sources of energy in the world. A major
disadvantage of solar energy is that the amount of energy generated depends on the season, the part
of the world and the weather on a particular day. Another disadvantage is that the raw materials for
solar panels, such as glass and aluminium, are quite expensive.

from Dr Trisha Greenhalgh (1994) Environment Today Harlow, Longman

Sample summary

Dr Greenhalgh explains how solar power works in two ways. Light from the sun can generate a tiny
current in silicon crystals, creating a solar cell, which is used to run space satellites and in the future
could provide electricity from space power stations. Solar panels, or the larger industrial solar
furnace, generate heat directly through concentrating solar energy in a small area. Solar power is
renewable, non-polluting and potentially an important energy source, but its value is limited by
weather, region and the cost of raw materials.

Points to check in your own writing

In my summary, is there a clear thesis statement (with the writer's main idea)?
Does it give a reader who has not read the original a clear idea of what it said?
Does it include the writer's other main supporting points? Have I cut out unnecessary
detail and examples?
Does the finished summary have the same balance of ideas as the original text?
Is it written in simpler language than the original?
Do the ideas in the summary flow logically and in grammatically well-linked sentences?
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Style
Chapter 3 STYLE


When publishing in English you need to take account of the general rules which have become
accepted as the norm in academic communication. In writing technical and scientific papers
in particular, you should aim to achieve objectivity, clarity and precision. In addition, there
are conventions governing the use of formal patterns, though the need to establish rapport
with your audience and to make your writing reader-friendly has an influence on determining
your selection of formal or informal language phrases.

This implies that there still is a certain amount of creative use of language in the
dissemination of research information and that scientific writing does not simply follow a set
of mechanical writing procedures for reporting results. The written text also reflects, though
to a very limited extent, cultural and rhetorical assumptions about what is presented and how
the material is organised.

3.1 Objectivity

Objectivity is generally governed by the research topic although obviously it is individuals
who actually have to select, arrange and present their findings. Thus it is your task, as the
writer, to deal with your topic in a fair, objective and responsible manner, keeping your
personal feelings out of your writing.

From a language point of view, objectivity and a neutral approach (impersonal style) may be
achieved by using the passive voice and by avoiding ambiguous statements. Avoidance of
confusing metaphoric elements, use of precise and well-established technical terms may add
to effective writing and help to produce explicitness of standard academic description.

Using the passive voice in impersonal writing

Scientific writing is usually done in an impersonal style. Information and facts are more
important than personal opinions or attitudes. This style is also used to put a certain distance
between the writer and the arguments proposed and thus makes them more objective.

Personal / informal Impersonal / formal
We can distinguish limits to other technical
systems by
Limits to other technical systems can be distinguished by
In the present article I want to The present article is intended to contribute
We tested thirteen SGS models Thirteen SGS models were tested
and as a result we selected the superior
variants
and as a result, the superior variants were selected
I assume that It is assumed that
The authors consider these results to be These results are considered to be
Because we want to evaluate In order to evaluate
If there aren`t any If there are no

Precise references to data in tables, graphs and diagrams also lead to greater objectivity in
research findings.




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Style
3.2 Clarity

Simplicity of text and of text composition are important prerequisites to readability. You
should always try to write in a plain, clear and straightforward manner. Overlong sentences or
lengthy chains of clauses and groups of words can easily prevent your reader from
understanding what you want to say. As a rule, you should not add more than 2 to 3 clauses
of any sort to form one sentence. Repeating words, signposting and using linking devices
which help the reader to connect and relate information are useful ways of achieving clarity
and readability.

Example paragraphs
1 The following overlong sentence is almost unintelligible:

Axis-boundary conditions for the SGS stresses in case of scale similarity and mixed-type models are
specified in terms of GS velocities at the axis so as to be compatible in the statistical mean with
expressions for the axis values of following from the kinematics of homogeneous axissymmetric
turbulences as well as from the statistically averaged dynamic equations for the GS velocity field
taking into account statistically steady and homogeneous flow conditions.

This can be re-written, as below, in order to make the meaning clearer. The text is divided
into three shorter sentences and linking words and phrases added.

Axis-boundary conditions for the SGS stresses in case of scale similarity and mixed-typemodels are
specified in terms of GS velocities at the axis. This is done so that they are compatible in the
statistical meansfor the GS velocity field. Statistically steady and homogeneous flow conditions are
also taken into account.

2 In the following paragraph, notice the use of the linking phrases, or semantic markers in
italics, which have been used in order to shorten sentences and make them understood
more easily, thus improving readability:

In the first of this two-paper sequence, a highly automated method for generating reduced-order
dynamic macromodels for electrostatically MEMS devices was presented. The approach was to use
selected linear elastic modes of the device as basic functions, and to express the kinetic and potential
energy in terms of basis-function amplitudes and their time derivatives. It was demonstrated that this
procedure could, indeed, be executed nearly automatically, requiring only a few inputs from the
designer to select parameters for the macromodel. However, while the procedure works well for
nonlinearities produced outside the electric body, such as the non-linear electrostatic force between
the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor with one plate being flexible, it fails to capture the correct
mechanical structural stiffness when the deflections become comparable to a typical thickness. This
effect is generally referred to as

Expressing your ideas concisely

Being concise in your writing means expressing your ideas in as few words as possible. This
involves not repeating what you say, cutting out irrelevant details and avoiding redundancy,
that is, the use of unnecessary words. If your sentences are too 'wordy', they are difficult for
the reader to understand.

'wordy' sentences more concise sentences
1 We continued our activities in the development of
new protocols for group communication.
We have developed new protocols for
group communications.
2 The different materials that contribute to an
environmental impact have quantitatively different
potential environmental effects.
Different materials have different
environmental impacts.
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Style

3.3 Formality

Academic writing follows certain rules of formality which non-native writers should not
violate without very good reasons.

Contracted verb forms

These are the representations in writing of verb forms normal in speech; a letter in the verb
has been omitted, as indicated by an apostrophe. These contractions should be avoided in
academic writing.

wrong This is a problem of linear algebra which won`t be discussed here.
correct This is a problem of linear algebra which will not be discussed here.

Ii is true that nowadays contracted verb forms can be found in scientific publications as they
are increasingly regarded as a way of producing informality, thus creating communication
with the audience. However, as a general principle, contractions are still not acceptable in
technical-scientific papers and should be written out in full.

Use of the first person pronoun

It is normal practice to avoid using the personal pronoun I in scientific articles. Instead,
we or the team are preferred. Some kind of switching between the different forms may
nevertheless be appropriate in order to make the reader more involved in the argumentation.
The switch from we or impersonal forms to I may help to establish the sometimes more
desirable informal relationship with the reader.

3.4 Hedging

What is hedging?

Hedging means not making blunt, absolute or categorical statements; it means avoiding over-
generalisations; it means toning down the positiveness of your statements to allow for others
to disagree with them.

Why is hedging important in scientific writing?
Authors of scientific articles generally write in an impersonal style in order to sound more
objective and convincing. They also want to avoid showing their personal attitude to their
subject or an over-strong commitment to a particular conclusion, so hedging what they say is
a way of accomplishing this. It thus involves not expressing the truth of a claim too strongly.
Too direct and straightforward argumentation may give the impression of over-confidence
and this could puzzle some readers, particularly British or Asian ones who may consider it
offensive.

What techniques can I use for hedging?
In order to avoid overgeneralising (especially in experimental descriptions) or to avoid being
too critical or direct, there are a number of hedging phrases and other techniques that can be
used to help establish better communication and rapport with the reader. These hedging
devices are found quite frequently in introductions and conclusions.
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Style

Use of first person pronouns

It is best for writers to avoid describing their findings in the first person I / me / my, since
normally these pronouns would only be used by famous and important researchers or
representatives of schools. In general, structures with we / us / our are preferred. This
also has a rhetorical function: it implies the inclusion of the author as a co-member of a
group. Thus if you want to state whether you are able to present positive, successful
results or not, you can say: We do not yet know .

Using tentative verb forms

Statements that are too direct or over-positive can be softened as in these examples:

Over-positive statement Hedged statement
The investigations of the present work contribute
to the model and filter components of LES
The investigations of the present work are
intended as a contribution to the model and filter
components of LES
We propose a methodological approach We would therefore propose
The use of equivalence factors for ecotoxic effect
should be rejected
It is better for the use of equivalence factors for
ecotoxic effect to be avoided
Different variants of the disposal structures must
be transferred in computer-aided modes
It is recommended that different variants of the
disposal structures be transferred in computer-
aided modes

Particularly useful verbs for hedging are seem to / appear to / tend to , as in these
phrases:

demonstrate that
indicate that
suggest that
Our data seem / appear to
imply that
Our data do not appear to confirm that
Our data tend to support the hypothesis that

Using modal verbs

Many modal verbs indicate tentativeness or a lack of certainty and can therefore be used
to soften what you want to say. Particularly useful modal verbs for this are can / could /
may / might / would.

Direct sentence Hedged sentence
It will be of interest to compose It might be of interest to compose
These findings suggest the following
interpretation
These findings would / might / could suggest the
following interpretation
X is due to Y X might / could be due to Y
Our data are expected to show Our data would be expected to show
From these results we conclude From these results we may conclude
This assumption also explains why This assumption may also help to explain why
The present model is particularly useful .. The present model should be particularly useful
Finally, the insecurities of the evaluation
have to be discussed.
As a final step, the insecurities of the evaluation will
need to be discussed.




30
Style
Using adverbs

Using certain adverbs of degree and attitudinal adverbs can be used to soften what you say.
They are especially useful when making generalisations, circumventing giving exact
numerical data (when necessary) or avoiding making a claim for absolute truth.

Looking for oval pieces from the past, we found a long list but certainly there are more examples

Other modifying expressions:

a little, rather, somewhat, almost, nearly, quite, approximately, about

3.5 Signposting

A good style is characterised as plain, clear and straightforward. Research findings, ideas
and arguments should be connected in such a way that readers may follow and can be
convinced of the given argumentation. Signposting devices or discourse markers are used to
provide the linking of sentences and the relationship between them.

Noun substitution

A synonym, a more general term or a personal pronoun can be used to refer back to a
previously mentioned noun, sentence or fact.

A highly automated method was presented . The approach was to use.
Large-Eddy Simulation has developed . It is gaining

Addition

When you want simply to add a point or idea to reinforce or support what you have
already said, you can use these conjunctions, adverbs and phrases:

* also, again, furthermore, moreover, too, in addition
* equally, likewise, similarly, correspondingly

Example sentences:

In addition, the investigations of the present study provided guidelines
Again, if there are no net forces on internal boundaries, it is possible to make constant terms in We.
A, B and C cancel for these phases
Similarly, from the unit displacement in direction 2 and 3, we can get the corresponding forces.

Sequencing: referring backwards or forwards

Time relationships may be signalled by various phrases and words, such as adjectives,
adverbs and verbs or noun phrases. These can also be used to show the logical
relationship between ideas or to connect what you are saying with something you said
previously. Words and phrases include:
* so far, earlier, previous(ly), before that, until now, already, formerly
* at present, presently, meanwhile, at this point
* first of all, to begin with, to start with
* secondly, then, next
* finally, eventually, afterwards, later, above all, last but not least
31
Language functions

Contrasting

Contrasting is a specific kind of comparison. Whereas in comparing you normally look for at
least one feature that the two or more objects have in common, in contrasting you aim to
identify the differences between them.

Here are some useful sentence structures:

It is common
useful
valuable
to distinguish
to differentiate
to make a distinction
between A and B

differs from
is different from
in a certain respect
in the fact that
in that it is
A
can be distinguished from
B
by its (a certain characteristic)

Unlike
In contrast to
As opposed to
As distinct from
As against
B, A is + adjective
has + noun

Some common conjunctions and sentence linkers for expressing contrast:

While ,
Whereas ,
On the other hand,

Example sentences:

* The RAM differs from the ROM in that it can be written into as well as read from.
* It is useful to differentiate between a blower and a liquid.
* The engine, as distinct from the earlier one, has six cylinders.
* Unlike discrete-component designs, however, the microprocessor is not programmed using
* These differences are ascribed to the fact most fibres have both ends spun in, whereas in the
case of ring-spun yarns one fibre end frequently protrudes from the yarn.
* A hot engine will run on a weak mixture. On the other hand, a cold engine requires a richer
mixture.



4.4 Defining

In science and technology, there are generally two kinds of definitions:

the real definition, that is a definition that explains precisely the essential, intrinsic
characteristics of an object.

the nominal definition, that is one that helps to determine the meaning of a term, such as
a word, sentence or symbol, e.g. in a mathematical language.

39
Language functions
What language can I use for real definitions?

Real definitions include these functions:

Defining an object

A is
is equal to
equals
is equivalent to
corresponds to
is said to be
may be said to be
By A is meant
we mean
B = (noun with attribute)
(noun without attribute)
(noun + genitive)
(noun + preposition + object)


Example sentences:

* Geometry may be said to be a study of the properties of geometric figures.
* By a set of real numbers we mean an aggregate or class of numbers.

Defining an object by assigning it to a category and specifying it

A is
is
may be
called
termed
thought of as
referred to as
defined as
By A is meant
we mean
B + specification:
(relative clause)
(prepositional phrase)
(to + infinitive)
participle clause (-ing / -ed)
participle clause + to infinitive / for + gerund

Example sentences:

* A pyrometer is an instrument for measuring high temperatures.
* Milling is a machining process in which a rotary cutter equipped with a number of teeth is rotated
rapidly while the work is fed under it.
* Roughly speaking, a surface is a configuration of points having a two-dimensional character.
* Brittleness may be defined as the absence of the ability to deform plastically.
* A key is the information required to locate a record within a DASD file declared with the attribute
DIRECT.


What language can I use for nominal definitions?

Here are some of the sentence patterns you can use:

then it is
then it can be
said to be
called
referred to as
expressed as
expressed in the form of
termed
If A satisfies certain conditions
then we call it
Z

40
Language functions
A defined by
determined by
is called
is said to be
is expressed as
is expressed in the form of
is termed
Z

Example sentences:
* A curve is called smooth if two conditions are satisfied: (1) . (2) .
* A function f(s) defined by f(s) = . is called the Laplace transform of the function f(t).
* The term computer normally refers to a general-purpose, high-speed, programmable machine
that is designed to handle a wide range of computer problems.



4.5 Emphasising

In your writing you will be making statements that vary in importance. You will therefore
need to make sure that the most important ones are given more emphasis than the less
important ones. Details in your argument have to be presented in such a way that readers
understand their relative significance.

How can I emphasise points visually?

make use of tables, graphs, charts and other visual forms of illustration in support of your
written text. It is easier for many readers to extract information from a diagram than to
follow the detail of your written argument. However, you should realise that the more
tables you include, the less will be the impact of each.

visually, text that has white space around it stands out more than something that is
surrounded by a lot of other text. Therefore
* make use of headings, separated from the body of writing
* occasionally break up your paragraph into bullet points. (Though this should not be
overused, except perhaps in a report where it is more acceptable)

Gallium arsenide is a remarkable material with a battery of useful qualities:
It moves electrons around three to six times faster than silicon.
It emits light - something silicon cannot do.
It absorbs sunlight more efficiently than silicon, making possible better solar cells
It uses less power than silicon.

* make sure you put the main idea at the start or at the end of your paragraph so that its
importance is not concealed by other sentences around it
* vary the length of your sentences, and of your paragraphs. In particular, sentences or
paragraphs that are shorter than the norm do stand out.

How can I use language to emphasise points?

In spoken English, you can emphasise parts of a sentence simply by using stress on important
words. In writing, of course, we cannot do this. Instead, we can emphasise particular words
or phrases by putting everything into a kind of relative clause except the words we want to
emphasise. These structures are called cleft sentences.


41
Language functions
Points to check in your own writing

Have I made any sweeping or over-generalisations that I need to cut out?
Are all my general statements, e.g. 'topic' sentences in paragraphs or conclusion, backed
up the right evidence and examples?
Have I used the right hedging language to give the tone I want to my general statements?


4.7 Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing means expressing the thought, meaning and attitude of another author in your
own words, in a clear and straightforward way. It is therefore similar to quoting, but it is
done indirectly, without using the original writer's actual words or speech marks. With
paraphrasing, you avoid continuous strings of direct quotations and are able to maintain your
own style and tone of writing. However, as with direct quoting, it is essential that you do
proper referencing for all your paraphrases.

With a paraphrase, your aim is to relate what the author has said to your own piece of work,
and this often requires you to provide an interpretation, or gloss, on their ideas in some way,
to make them fit into your argument. A paraphrase is not just a simple re-wording of the
original.

How long should a paraphrase be?

There is no set length, as it depends on how much of a writer's work you want to refer to,
and in how much detail. In some cases, paraphrasing may simply involve reducing, or
summarising, what the original writer has said into a single sentence:

The first published professional response to ape language studies was an article by Jacob Bronowski
and Ursula Bellugi (1970). They argued that although chimpanzees might be able to use reference,
they could not break grammatical units down to their units and recombine them (a process they called
'reconstitution').

It may give a more detailed description of a writer's argument, consisting of a paragraph
or more:

Levins (1968) used fitness sets to identify the optimal genetic strategy in response to environmental
variation. The optimal genetic strategy is not determined solely by the nature of the environmental
heterogeneity but partly by the perception of that heterogeneity. For example, it is very unlikely that
. The general conclusion of these analyses of fitness sets was that fine-grained species would
evolve a strategy of monomorphism, whereas coarse-grained species would maintain polymorphism.

(Note: for brevity, the dots indicate that 5 sentences are omitted; these provide the detail of the writer's argument.)

You may want to give your opinion, or commentary, on the writer's ideas at the same
time as paraphrasing them:
When Freud begins to discuss 'lapses of memory' in terms of repression, he seems to move on less
firm ground. He does not, of course, claim that all lapses are due to repression. His concern is to
show that at least some are and, to this end, he gives examples in which a name or a word is
unexpectedly forgotten and proceeds to demonstrate that the forgotten item is associated either
directly or indirectly with unpleasant circumstances. Here we may cite two of his most convincing
examples .

45
Language functions
What language changes do I make when paraphrasing?

vocabulary.
* keep the specialised terms that are related to the topic, or those for which there are no
synonyms, e.g calcium, neutron, protein
* do not change proper nouns (e.g. names of countries and organisations), numbers,
formulae
* for the rest of your text, use different vocabulary whenever possible, especially
simpler phrases and more common synonyms and expressions. Using your own
words makes your paraphrase fit in with the style of the rest of your text.

grammar
* the grammar of the original needs to be changed, so that the points you are reporting
on fit in with the grammatical flow of your text
* if your paraphrase is summarising and thus shortening the original, this will involve
reducing perhaps 3 or 4 sentences (or more) down to one. This will require you to use
a variety of subordinate clauses and adverbial or participle phrases.

How do I do in-text referencing?

The same guidelines described in Section 4.8 on Quoting apply to paraphrasing.

Language to use to introduce paraphrases

You can use the same 'reporting' verbs for paraphrasing as are given in Section 4.8 on
Quoting. In particular, verbs that reflect the original writer's purpose or attitude towards
his/her subject are useful when paraphrasing, e.g.

X identifies as
X defends his position by arguing that .
X attacks his opponents with his statement that
X affirms his opinion that

Note that the 'reporting' verb can be followed by that (or this can be omitted).
Punctuation: there is no comma before or after that:

Fred Hein explains that each person's heredity is unique, except for identical twins.

The normal grammatical rules for writing indirect speech apply:
* When the reporting verb is in the past tense, the verb tense in the reported clause,
together with pronouns and time phrases may also have to be changed to indicate the
correct time references.

MacSpratt (6) found that when sheep were deficient in nitrogen, the rate of mitosis in wool follicles
was 63% of normal and concluded that nitrogen is essential to normal growth of wool.

Note that the last verb is is in the present tense: this is because the writer is generalising,
or making a conclusion about what he regards as a general truth. If the writer knows that
later work found this conclusion to be false, he would use was instead.

You can also use the other introductory phrases given in the section on quoting. These in
fact are more commonly used with indirect quotations than with direct ones.
46
Language functions

With indirect quotations, you can also simply put the name of the source at the end of the
paraphrase, without any 'reporting' verb or introductory phrase:

Changes in the surface heating of the earth will result in changes in the heating of the atmosphere
which in turn can affect the climate (Cohen, 1994).

Points to check in your own writing

Are all my paraphrases relevant?
Have I paraphrased the points from my sources accurately?
Are my paraphrases of the right length? (not too short, not too long)
Have I added my own opinion to the paraphrases? If so, have I made it clear what are
the original writer's points and what are mine?
Have I structured my paraphrases grammatically into my text, so as to maintain a natural
and logical flow?
Are they all properly referenced?


4.8 Quoting

When writing a research paper or report, it is normal to include references and quotations
from the work of others. This is for one or more of the following reasons:

to cite evidence or opinions from an authority on the subject in support of your argument
to put forward someone else's viewpoint that you intend to argue against
to show the range of source materials you have used to support or challenge your own
ideas
to acknowledge that your arguments derive from the work of others and thereby put them
into their academic context

What kinds of quotation are there?

Quotations in your text can either be

direct: that is, you use the actual words of the original writer, or
indirect: that is, you paraphrase what the original source says by putting the ideas in
your own words.

In general, it is preferable to use the indirect, or paraphrasing, method since this incorporates
the other author's ideas better into the flow of your own text. However, there are occasions
when direct quotations are better:

when the author expresses an idea in a particularly succinct or memorable way that it is
impossible to improve on it
when the writer is such an important authority on the subject that his/her actual words are
significant
when you want to avoid any ambiguity about the quoted ideas



47
Language functions
How long should direct quotations be?

In principle, you should keep quotations as brief as is necessary for them to make their point.
Avoid using long quotations in case they detract from your own argument; only quote longer
passages if you intend to analyse the writer's argument in detail.

How should I punctuate quotations?

if your quotation is short, maybe only two or three words, try to run it within the
grammatical flow of your sentence. This means single quotation marks are sufficient
(together with appropriate referencing)

The conclusion of their analysis is that commercial nodule mining is unlikely for 'the foreseeable
future' (35).

if your quotation is a little longer and is preceded by an introductory phrase, then you can
use a comma or a colon before the quotation itself.

In one of his many publications concerning the role of science, Freeman wrote: 'Much scientific
research is concerned with the exploration of the unknown. By definition we cannot know the
outcome of such explorations and still less can we know its future impact on technology.' (39)

most importantly, you must make sure you keep grammatical and logical cohesion
between the quotation and your own text. To do this, you may have to
add or delete words from the original, though you should keep these changes as small as
possible. Where you add words, put square brackets round them.

According to popular view of evolution, even after Darwin, 'each [species] could realise its inner
potential, which gradually unfolded.' (Kuper, 1985, p. 4)

if you omit some of the author's original words which are not relevant to your purpose,
use three dots () to show where you have left the words out.

Case argued that the stage concept is valid: ' children go through the same sequence of
substages across a wide variety of content domains, and they do so at the same rate, and
during the same age range.' (Case, 1985, p.231)

if the quotation contains another quotation, then use single quotation marks ('') for your
quotation and double quotation marks for the author's quotation ("").

A New Scientist survey of 1982 concluded that this was 'in accord with the ideas expressed by C.
P. Snow (1964) when he spoke of "the gulf of mutual incomprehension that lies between the
literary and scientific worlds".' (3)

if your quotation is long, say, more than three lines, then it should be indented as a
separate paragraph. In this case, there are no quotation marks at all.

James (1983) devoted a whole chapter to instinct. He began with the following statement:

Instinct is usually defined as the faculty of acting is such a way as to produce certain ends,
without foresight of the ends, and without previous education in the performance . They are
functional correlates of structure. With the presence of a certain organ goes, one may say,
almost always a native aptitude for its use. (p. 1004)

48
Language functions
How do I do in-text referencing?

There are two ways in which an author can be cited, and you will need to check with your
publisher which one to use:

the name and year system: used mainly in biological and earth sciences, as well as the
social sciences, education, linguistics.
the number system: used in the applied sciences, such as chemistry, computer science,
engineering, mathematics, physics and medicine.

The name and year system. Place the year in brackets immediately after the author's name.
Add the page number reference, if needed, at the end of the sentence, again in brackets.

Jones(1992) found that 'these data of psychological development suggest that retarded adolescents
are atypical in maturational growth.' (p.215)

The number system. Place the number in brackets immediately after the author's name
when it occurs, or alone at the end of the sentence. The numbers you give to your citations
refer to your list of references at the end of your work, and these can be arranged either
alphabetically (by author) or consecutively as they appear in the text. You can add a page
number reference too, if you want.

Kanner (1, p. 249) labelled the disorder as 'early infantile autism'.

All in-text citations, either name-and-year or number, must of course refer to your list of
references at the end of your work.

Language to use to introduce quotations

There are a wide variety of 'reporting' verbs and verb phrases that you can use to
introduce a quotation. Here are some of the more common ones

acknowledge admit allege argue
assert assume believe claim
conclude contend demonstrate describe
emphasise explain imply indicate
make the point observe point out postulate
predict propose prove report
say show state suggest
think write

Be careful about the verb tenses of these verbs:

* If you use MLA Style, you should put the verbs in the present tense both for personal
comments and for quotations.
* If you use APA style (more common for the natural sciences), you should put the
verbs in the past tense for citations, and only use the present tense for generalisations
and statements about unchanging facts. (See the example quotations above).




49
Language functions
You can introduce your citation with any of these longer phrases:

According to X,
As X has shown,
For X,
In X's view,
By this, X meant
X was of the opinion that
X distinguished between and
X characterised / considered / defined / recognised / referred to / regarded as
X illustrated his / her argument by saying / stating / showing that
X laid particular emphasis on
X makes the following claim / point / statement:
X put forward the theory that
Referring to , X said / stated / showed

Points to check in your own writing

How many quotations have I used?
Would indirect quotation (paraphrase) be better than direct quotation in some cases?
How long are my quotations?
Are all my quotations relevant?
Are they all well structured grammatically into the sentence?
Is the punctuation accurate?
Are they all properly referenced?

50

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