Heat and mass transfer in par-baked bread during freezing

Abstract
To understand the phenomena governing the heat and mass transfers during the freezing
of par-baked bread, simulation of freezing in an infinite two-layer cylinder was performed. A
fixed grid finite difference method was used in the solution of simultaneous heat and
moisture transfer !H"T# e$uations according to %ees& three-level scheme. The model
accommodates the effects of temperature dependent variables such as apparent specific
heat, enthalpy, thermal conductivity, and water activity, and predicts the temperature profiles
and weight losses. The model was verified by freezing of par-backed breads with cylindrical
shape within an experimental freezer. The '"!( between experimental results and model
predictions is ),*)* +, for surface temperature, and -,. +, for center temperature. The
precision on the loss water is -)/. These results indicate that the method could be
successfully applied to !H"T operations in foods freezing.
0eywords1 2reezing3 4orous media3 Heat and mass transfer3 "odeling and bread
-. 5ntroduction
2reezing is one of the important refrigeration processes widely applied in food preservation.
6ne important type of the frozen breads is the par-baked bread that represents half of the
volume of frozen breads ex-ported by the 2rench industry towards 7orthern (urope "illet
8 9ougin, -::;#. The par-baked bread is a semi-finished product of sufficiently rigid
structure so that its preparation for consumption is easy and rapid. The ob<ective of the
partial baking is to carry out the gelatinization and the coagulation of gluten, without
reaching to the formation of the reactions of coloring on the crust 'oussel 8 ,hiron, =))=#.
"any studies on bread baking are available in the literature. !ablani, "arcotte, >aik, and
,astaigne -::.# reviewed published experimental and mathematical studies on heat and
water transport during baking process. ?hen dough is exposed to a high temperature in an
oven, the temperature of the dough surface rises and water from the outer layer
evaporates.
The moisture content of bread dough will thus change with time during baking and the crust
will contain less water than the interior, i.e. the crumb 'ask, -:.:#. Another characteristic
change is the increase in volume of the product. This occurs in the initial stage of pre-
baking and is mainly due to the expansion of the gas enclosed in the porous dough
structure. As a result, the crust has a more dense structure than the crumb. Accordingly, the
thermal properties and the heat and mass transfer mechanisms are different in the crumb
and the crust, and this should be appreciated when measuring thermal properties of bread
and when modeling its freezing 'ask, -:.:3 @anoni 8 4eri, -::A3 @anoni, 4eri, 8 Bianotti,
-::*#. 9e Cries, !luimer, and >loksma -:..# proposed mathematical models for heat and
mass transfer in dough and crumb during baking. Thorvaldsson and !k<oldebrand -::.#
studied water transport in bread during baking and showed two main mechanisms. 7ear
the surface, where the temperature was high, water evaporated and so it moved towards
the center in the vapour state. ,oming near the centre, where the temperature was lower,
some water vapor condensed. Thus, the water content in the centre is approximately
constant.
Dnderstanding of the simultaneous heat and moisture transfers !H"T# during freezing in
porous media is important to optimize the process of par-baked bread. However, very few
studies on bread chilling are avail-able in the literature. However, Can 9er !luis -::A# and
Brenier, "onteau, %e >ail, and Hayert =))=# can be $uoted. !ince the moisture diffusion
coecients in the frozen zone are significantly smaller than those in the non-frozen zone,
most theoretical models neglect the effect of mass transfer in the frozen regions. 5n the case
of high porosity products, mass transfer can&t be neglected. Heat and moisture transfers in
wet porous solid foods during freezing are coupled in a complicated way. 5n most of the
published works, semi-empiric models were used. !ukhwal and Aguirre 4uente -:.A#
presented a detailed description of the heat and mass balances that characterize the
system, but without solving them numerically. Can 9er !luis -::A# proposed a software for
cooling and freezing simulation of bakery products. The program was able to predict the
temperatures and moisture contents in bakery products during cooling and freezing.
7umerical modeling of meat chilling has been conducted in the past 9avey 8 4ham, -::E#.
Hu and !un =)))# simulated the air-blast cooling of cooked meats using ,29 package. The
theoretical modeling of heat and mass transfer in wet porous media in the presence of
evaporationFcondensation was also conducted by >ouddour, Auriault, "hamdi Alaoui, and
>loch -::.# and !un and Hu =))A#.
This research is part of a study on freezing modeling of the par-baked breads to provide a
better under-standing of the mechanism of freezing and an aid in the improvement of design
and operation. The aims of current work are1 a# to develop the model for par-baked bread
freezing to allow simultaneous prediction of temperature profile and weight loss, and b# to
validate the theoretical model against experimental data.
=.
Theoretical model
The bread sample is modeled as an infinite two-layer cylinder two composites1 crumb and
crust# of radius rcb and rb rcb G rb , rct rcb# 2ig. -#. The radial cross-section of the infinite
cylinder is divided into a fixed grid system with different radial volume elements Hrcb rcbI7-
-#, HrctI 6 7##. The sample, at uniform temperature T) and moisture ?cb,) and ?ct,) is
placed into the air blast freezer with a temperature T
a
and a known relative humidity 'H#.
The sample surface, directly exposed to air, is cooled by convection, radiation and
evaporation or sublimation. The cooling of the surface results in a conductive heat flux in the
product toward the surface of the sample. Heat transfer inside the material can be treated as
heat conduction with phase change. The phase change takes place over a wide range of
temperatures and the food properties change considerably over this temperature range. This
gradual phase change can be incorporated in the heat conduction process by means of the
apparent specific heat formulation 4ham, -:.*#. ?ith the apparent specific heat
formulation, it is easy to miss the latent heat peak when a nodal temperature crosses the
freezing point $uickly to <ump over the latent heat peak#. To avoid this problem, the
temperatureFenthalpy correction method, suggested by 4ham -:.*#, is used1 at each time
step, the conduction e$uation expressed in terms of oT
i
Jot# is solved by one of the finite
difference methods such as %ees&s three-level method %ees, -:KK# in the usual manner.
The heat gained by the node is assumed correct, hence the new nodal enthalpy is
and the resulting nodal temperature array is corrected according to
This correction is illustrated in 2ig. =.
,onduction in the crumb is not the only mechanism for heat transport. (vaporationF
condensation in the crumb seemed to be a significant mechanism for heat transport in bread
in comparison with conductive heat transfer. Thus, an apparent thermal conductivity for
pores conduction and evaporationFcondensation effect# is applied in the estimation of the
total apparent thermal conductivity of crumb 9e Cries et al., -:..#. 7evertheless, this
transport might not to be applied to bread crust, because the formation of crust might restrict
the diffusion of internal vapor in bread to the outside Hamdami, "onteau, 8 %e >ail, =))Aa3
@anoni et al., -::*#.
6n the other hand, when unwrapped bread are frozen, weight losses take place due to1
firstly, evaporation during pre-cooling and then, sublimation during freezing. 9uring freezing,
the food surface has a higher temperature than the circulating air, and thus the surface water
vapor pressure, 4
va
, is also higher than that of air. The lower the freezing speed, the slower
the decrease in surface temperature, and this results in greater difference of vapour
pressure between food and air. 5n addition, the duration of the freezing process will be
longer. >oth factors increase the weight loss. 5ce sublimation has been surveyed by several
authors during the freezing of different products1 lamb 4ham 8 ?illix, -:.;#, tylose and beef
!ukhwal 8 Aguirre 4uente, -:.A#, and beef and pork "endez >ustabad, -:::#. The
evaporation from the surface results in moisture diffusion toward the product surface. 5n
addition, formation of an ice layer creates a water concentration gradient, which is at the
origin of another driving force behind the moisture diffusion process, and causes moisture
and temperature profiles redistribution in both the frozen and non-frozen regions
>ronfenbrener 8 0orin, -::E3 Hoekstra, -::K#.
Thus, there are four ma<or assumptions used in this work1 -# "oisture diffusion li$uid and
vapor# is due to the concentration gradient resulted from evaporationI sublimation on surface
and from ice formation. These effects are strongly dependent of unfreezable water content,
water activity, temperature, and relative humidity in ambient cold air. =# "oisture transport is
continued kept# in frozen zone even in bound water level during freezing. 5ndeed, in porous
media diffusion continues in the frozen zone, even if the coefficient is significantly smaller
than in the non-frozen region >ronfenbrener 8 0orin, -::E#. A# Heat transfer is carried out
by con-duction and evaporationFcondensation mechanisms due to the temperature gradient
resulting from convection, radiation and evaporationIsublimation on surface. ;# The total
apparent volume remains constant during freezing material shrinks is ignored#.
The heat and mass transfer e$uations A#F-E#, with the boundary conditions -.#F==# form
a complete mathematical model for the above-mentioned system.
=.-. Boverning e$uation
Heat balance e$uation
The temperature dependence of apparent specific heat, enthalpy ($. -## and thermal
conductivity are expressed by the following methods1
(a) The method of resolution used re$uires an interpolation table HFTF?#. This table
is ca+,ulated using the apparent specific heat1
with %, latent heat of fusion. 4olynomial expressions for the ,p functions are drawn from
!ingh -::=#. HLT M is then ca+,ulated through integration of ,p between ;) +, reference
temperature# and T, for different moisture contents. H or T is ca+,ulated by interpolation from
the values of this table.
(b) The thermal conductivity used in this model was an effective thermal conductivity
of harmonic type that includes evaporationFcondensation phenomenon. 5t is
described with a "axwell type model in three steps for crumb, which considers a
dispersed phase in a continuous one in each step Hamdami, "onteau, 8 %e >ail,
=))Ab#. The effective thermal conductivity in crumb is written
where c stands for the continuous phase, d for the dispersed, and d for the voluminal ratio of
the dispersed phase.
2our constituents are considered1 ice, li$uid water, dry matter and air. 5n a first stage, ice is
the dispersed phase and water the continuous one. 5n a second stage this system
constitutes the dispersed phase, and the continue one is dry matter. 5n a third and last stage
the continue phase is formed by the previous part, and the dispersed phase is air.
Thermal conductivity for crust was defined by a parallel model that is written as
The volume fraction of each component is given by ($. -)#1
Thermal conductivity expressions for ice, water and solid carbohydrate# are from !ingh
-::=#, and for air from 6zisik -:.*#. Air conductivity is modified to ac-count for
evaporationFcondensation !akiyama, Aku-tsu, "iyawaki, 8 Nano, -:::#1
where
eva con
is the e$uivalent thermal conductivity due to the latent heat transport
evaporationFcondensation#1
where 9
v
T# is the diffusivity of water in air, and %
)
T#, the latent heat of evaporation, are
from 6zisik -:.*#. aw is water activity on surface ca+,ulated according to the sorption
curves Hamdami et al., =))Aa#.
ii# "ass balance e$uation
where
($. -A# is based on the assumption that1 i# the unfrozen water diffusion continues in the
non-frozen and frozen zones throughout freezing and ii# the measured diffusion coecient
at positive temperatures can be used at negative temperatures.
The diffusion coecient of the unfrozen water li$uid and vapor# is considered temperature
dependent, but independent of moisture. The mass diffusivity 9 for crumb and crust were
modeled by the Arrhenius&s e$uations, respectively Hamdami et al., =))Aa#
=.=. >oundary conditions
The heat conducted to the surface is balanced by forced convection, radiation and
evaporation or sublimation1
(missivity was fixed to ).: average value of literature data 'oberts, Tong 8 %und, =))=,
!ablani et al -::.#.
%T# is %)T#, the latent heat of the water vaporization if T OTf, or the latent heat of water
sublimation if TG Tf. This last value is from 4erry and ,hilton -:EA#. Hm is determined using
the transient temperature method ,reed 8 Pames, -:.*#. 0g is ca+,ulated by
6zisik,-:.*#1
4s and 4a are ca+,ulated by 4s aw4satTs# and 4a 'H4sat Ta#.
The water diffusion to the surface can be balanced by evaporation or sublimation1
At the crumb-crust interface1
At the center1
Temperature was supposed constant and uniform in the product but moisture was supposed
different in the two parts crumb and crust# at time zero.
A. 7umerical method
The numerical method used for the differentiation was proposed by 4ham -:.*#. This
method is based on the %ees& three-level scheme %ees, -:KK#. 5t should be noted that the
heat and ass transfer e$uations are coupled by the transport properties that are functions of
both moisture and temperature. At each time step, the values of ? and T were ca+,ulated
at each node. After each time step, the thermal properties were estimated according to the
new local moistures and temperatures. The harmonic means were estimated for iQI- -I=-
value and Di_1=2- value by the following e$uations 4atankar, -:.)#1
The procedure outlined above was implemented using a computer program written in
"AT%A> language.
;. 4arameters used during ca+,ulations

The inputs to the mathematical model are1 temperature, pressure and relative humidity of air,
initial product dimensions, crust emissivity, crumb and crust densities, solid and bound water
mass fractions, freezing temperature, surface heat transfer coecient, initial product
moisture and temperature, number of nodes in the half-thickness space, total time of
freezing.
The thermophysical properties and operation conditions used in the simulation are shown in
Table -.
>ased on these inputs, the model will determine1 values of moisture and temperature at
each node for each time step, water activity variation on surface and total weight loss.
*. "aterials and methods
*.-. 4ar-baked bread preparation
The tests were carried out on par-baked wheat bread of 2rench type. 2lour, of type **, was
purchased from a local milling plant 7antes, 2rance#. The chemical composition of the
wheat flour on a dry basis was -*.A/ moisture, -)../ proteins, and ).K/ ash data given
by the supplier#. The dough ingredients in percent of flour weight were1 K)/ water, A/
yeast, =.=/ salt and ).E/ improving additive. "ixing was done in a spiral mixer C"5,
"ontaigu, 2rance# and comprised two steps1 a low-speed mixing step ; min, -)) rpm#, and
a high-speed mixing step -- min, =)) rpm#. The temperature of the dough after kneading
was =A QI- ).* +,. 9ough was let to rest for A) min at ambient temperature and was then
formed into a =E cm long and A cm radius cylinder. The cylindrical dough were placed on the
steel moulds and placed in a proofing cabinet for :) min at =E +, and a relative humidity
greater than :)/ final proofing#. After the dough scarification, pre baking and chilling were
performed in a forced convection electric oven and in a cabinet with controlled temperature
and humidity baking1 for -= min at -*) +,3 chilling1 -) +,, 'H O .*/#, respectively. ,hilling
of bread was considered finished when the temperature at the bread geometrical center
reached =) +,. The final diameter of the bread cylinder was approximately *E QI- = mm.
2inally, after packaging the par-baked breads in two moisture impermeable films, they were
frozen at A) +, and stored at =) +, for experiments. The packaged samples were thawed at
=) +, for = h before the experiments. This manufacturing method deviates from the industrial
way, but enables to get homogenous sample.
Table -
The estimated sample thermophysical properties and the conditions of the freezing operation
*.=. 2reezing processes and temperature measurements
Air-blast freezing was carried out in a blast air freezer !ervathin, 2rance# at ;) +, with an
air flowed perpendicular to the product surface at a velocity of - mIs. The freezer used was
e$uipped with a 459 temperature controller QI-).- +,#. The cylindrical bread samples after
thawing were used in freezing process. 9imensions height and diameter# and weight of
each roll were measured immediately after thawing. The sample mean diameters were *EQI-
= mm, respectively. Then, 0-type thermocouples with ).A mm diameter 6mega, !tamford,
D!A# were placed in center and right under surface of the sample. Two discs in polystyrene
thickness A cm# and polyethylene were attached to both ends of the cylindrical samples to
prevent heat and moisture exchanges from the ends, and to promote one-dimensional heat
and mass transfer 2ig. -#. Then the sample was placed in the freezer and the temperature
data ac$uisition was started.
The temperature data were collected by a digital recorder 9atalog =), A654, (vry, 2rance#
during freezing. The initial freezing point, Tf , was determined from the tem-perature history
of the sample. The air relative humidity was logged throughout the experiment with an hy-
grometer Hygrolog, 'otronic, !wiss#, and the data were used for the simulations.

*.A. "easurement of weight loss and moisture distribution
The total weight loss of the sample was measured during freezing by weighing the sample
before and immediately after freezing. The determination of bread moisture distribution at
the end of freezing was achieved by sampling according to 2ig. A. The bread samples were
divided in three portions, and their moistures were determined by a gravimetric method
A6A,, -::K#1 the water mass of the samples is ca+,ulated by difference between the mass
before and after desiccation at --) +, during = h.
*.;. Dnfreezable water weight fraction
>ound water weight fraction, xb was determined from 9!, data as the difference between
total water weight fraction and the amount of water detected by the total enthalpy of fusion
Hfw 'oss, -:E.#1 the sample is cooled at #;) +,, the temperature is increased at a constant
rate in the calorimeter. The fusion of ice is detected as an endothermic peak with area
proportional to the amount of ice present.
The total water content of samples was determined in triplicate by drying * g of sample in a
forced convection oven at -)A +, for -K h. The samples were cooled in a dessicator and
weighed by an analytical balance sensitivity ).)- mg#.
K. 'esults and discussion
K.-. Temperature profile
2our experiments of model validation were carried out. The samples and the initial and
environmental conditions were not the same for each test, but the differences
experimentIsimulation were similar. The curves presented are a typical example of the
obtained results. The experimental center and surface temperatures and the values
predicted by the simulation are presented in 2ig. ;. ?hen the bread sample is placed in the
freezer, the surface temperature decreases $uickly, while the temperature decrease in the
centre is slower. 5n the bread sample core, temperature firstly decreases with the freezing
time up to -=)) s and then stays on a plateau at *.; +, Tf3cb# until -;)) s, and finally
decreases up to the cold air temperature. As could be seen, the correlation between
experimental and predicted values on the surface is very well 2igs. * and K#. The root mean
s$uare of errors is ).*)* +, for the surface temperature and -.. +, for center temperature.
However, the prediction of the center temperature agrees with the experimental values only
up to the freezing time of =A)) s. >etween the freezing time of =A))F;*)) s, the predicted
temperatures were underestimated compared with the experimental values max !9 A +,#.
Then, the predicted core temperature approaches the experimental values A..K +, after
*;K) s compared with the experimental temperature of A:.; +, in the same freezing period#.
2inally, the results show good agreement between simulation and experimental data.
K.=. "oisture profile
2ig. E shows the typical graphs of the simulated un-frozen, frozen and total moisture content
in the crumb core, crumbFcrust interface and the crust surface during freezing at #;) +, for
*;K) s.
The moisture content at the crust surface decreases lower than ?b3ct# rapidly a little time
as the temperature decreases due to the evaporation during precooling 2ig. Ea# and c##.
Thus, the frozen water cannot be observed at the surface 2ig. Eb##. Then a balance settles
between the evaporation and diffusion toward the surface from the near layers. The moisture
content conse$uently remains constant between -=)) and =*)) s#. 2inally, it starts to
increase because the diffusion becomes dominant compared to evaporation 2ig. Ea# and
c##.
5n the crumbFcrust interface and crumb core, the simulated unfrozen water content first
remains approximately constant on initial plateau until the freezing front approaches to them
up to A)) and -=)) s, respectively 2ig. Ea##. Then, there is an important fall of the unfrozen
water content to bound water content be-cause the unfrozen water changes to ice 2ig. Ea#
and b##. 2inally, unfrozen water content stays constant on two different plateaus in the
crumbFcrust interface and crumb core 2ig. Ea##. As can be seen, there is a difference
between the simulated frozen water contents in the crumbFcrust interface and crumb core
2ig. Eb##. This difference can be explained by the fact that the freezable water contents at
the interface and in the crumb are different because of the longer time for the diffusion
before freezing in the crumb core compared to the crumbFcrust interface. Another reason is
that the accumulated frozen water content in the crumbFcrust interface due to the ice
formation effect is probably important. The moisture transfer in li$uid and vapor form
continues at the sub-freezing period in the frozen zone. However, since its value is not very
important, the unfrozen water content decreases slowly in the crumbF crust interface and
crumb core 2ig. Ea##.
The weight loss rate and accumulative weight loss obtained from simulation during freezing
are shown in 2ig. .. 5t is clear that the weight loss rate is highest at the beginning of the
freezing process. This is a result of the large temperature gradient in the beginning of the
sim-ulation. The higher the surface temperature, the higher the saturated water vapor
pressure, and this results in greater differences of vapor pressure between bread surface
and cold air. As the surface temperature rapidly decreases with the freezing time, the
saturated water vapor pressure and water activity on the surface of the bread decrease 2ig.
:a##. This results in lower vapor pressure on the surface 2ig. :c##. 5n the other hand,
relative humidity of ambient air increases with the freezing time, and this results in the
increase of partial vapor pressure in the circulating cold air 2ig. :b# and c##. The result of
these two causes is a decrease of the partial vapor pressure difference between the air and
the bread surface. ,onse$uently, the evaporation rate gradually decreases with the freezing
time 2igs. . and :c##.
2or a typical experiment, the experimental and pre-dicted values of the accumulative weight
loss during freezing *;)) s# are shown in Table =. The mean dif-ference
experimentIsimulation of four tests is ).)K;/ 9", for a mean loss of ).K*/ 9". Thus, the
precision of the computed loss water is -)/.
A difference in moisture of A.E/ 9" is observed for the crust. 5t can be explained by
experimental dicul-ties1 the samples are not perfectly cylindrical, and the thickness of the
crust is not exactly A mm. Also, 2ig. :a# shows that the water activity on the bread surface
after the decreasing and balance periods increases, because diffusion becomes dominant
compared to evaporation, and thus the moisture content at the surface increases.
2ig. -) shows the comparison of the simulated moisture content distribution within the bread
after a freezing time of *;K) s with and without considering the ice formation term o? RJoT .
As could be seen, the dif-ference between them is more important about the crumbFcrust
interface. The experimental bread moisture distribution at the end of freezing compared with
the initial one, shows that the moisture content in the crust increases while it decreases in
the inner and outer crumbs at the end of freezing Tables - and =#. As could be seen, the
model with the ice formation effect is able to predict the moisture content distribution in the
porous structure of bread better than the model without this effect. 5t confirms the ice
formation effect during freezing the porous product.
5t can be concluded that the simulated water content and temperatures follow the measured
values well on the validity domain1 #;) to =* +,, and =)F.*/ 9". This shows that the
evaporation and condensation effect with conduction, and ice formation effect with diffusion
de-scribe the heat and mass transfer mechanisms within a porous food well. However, there
are some differences between the simulated and measured values. This is probably due to
the accuracy of the physical properties determination of the partly baked bread. Also, it was
assumed that the geometry of the bread was a regular cylinder with diameter of K) mm in
the developed model, however, the diameter of the bread was actually not always a constant
along its length1 the diameter of sample slightly reduced towards its two ends. Therefore, the
inaccuracy setting of the geometry may result in errors on the predictions, especially in over-
estimation of the temperature. 2urthermore, the initial temperature of the sample was
assumed uniform in the simulation, however it is very dicult to achieve in practice. A few
minutes were needed to insert the thermocouples before the freezing started, to remove the
sample from the freezer, and to take measurement of weight. 9uring this period, natural
convection occurred between the sample and air at room temperature3 hence, some cooling
of the surface occurred, giving a slightly uneven temperature distribution in the sample.
E. ,onclusions
A numerical model was developed to simulate the coupled heat and mass transfer
simultaneously in an infinite two-layer cylinder two composites1 crumb and crust# during
freezing. This approach is based on the introduction of two terms in the energy and mass
balance e$uations1 i# the evaporationFcondensation effect in the effective thermal
conductivity estimation, and ii# the ice formation rate in the mass balance e$uation. The
predicted results showed good agreements with experimental results in terms of temperature
and weight loss1 the '"!( between experimental results and model predictions is ).*)* +,
for surface temperature, and -.. +, for the center temperature, and the precision on the loss
water is -)/. The model used is simple. The porous nature is taken into account with the
thermophysical properties. 5t can be concluded that this approach is appropriate for analysis
of !H"T, in porous media.
?ork will continue on freezing process optimization of the partly baked bread by application
of the developed model.
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements to Pac$ues %aurenceau, %uc Buihard and 6livier 'ioux for technical
support.
'eferences
A6A,. -::K#. 6cial methods of analysis of A6A, international. 5n1 4. ,unniff, K)th ed.
"aryland1 A6A, 5nternational.
>ouddour, A., Auriault, P. %., "hamdi Alaoui, "., 8 >loch, P. 2. -::.#. Heat and mass
transfer in wet porous media in presence of evaporationFcondensation. 5nternational Pournal
of Heat and "ass Transfer, ;--*#, ==KAF==EE.
>ronfenbrener, %., 8 0orina, (. -::E#. 0inetic model for crystalli-zation in porous media.
5nternational Pournal of Heat and "ass Transfer, ;)*#, -)*AF-)*:.
,reed, 4. B., 8 Pames, !. P. -:.*#. Heat transfer during the freezing of liver in a plate
freezer. Pournal of 2ood !cience, *)=#, =.*F =:;.
9avey, %. "., 8 4ham, S. T. -::E#. 4rediction the dynamic product heat load and weight
loss during beef chilling using a multi-region finite difference approach. 5nternational Pournal
of 'efrigeration, =), ;E)F;.=.
9e Cries, D., !luimer, 4., 8 >loksma, A. H. -:..#. A $uantitative model for heat transport in
dough and crumb during baking. 5n
4roceedings of the ,ereal !cience and Technology in !weden pp. -E;F-..#. Nstad,
!weden1 %und Dniversity.
Brenier, A., "onteau, P.-N., %e >ail, A., 8 Hayert, ". =))=#. (ffect of external condition on
the cooling rate of post baking bread chilling. Pournal of 2ood (ngineering, **-#, -:F=;.
Hamdami, 7., "onteau, P.-N., 8 %e >ail, A. =))Aa#. "oisture diffusivity and water activity of
frozen part baked bread. 5nterna-tional Pournal of 2ood !cience and Technology, !ubmitted
for publication.
Hamdami, 7., "onteau, P.-N., 8 %e >ail, A. =))Ab#. Thermophysical properties evolution of
2rench partly baked bread during freezing. 2ood 'esearch 5nternational, in press, doi1
-).-)-KI<.foodres.=));. )=.)-E.
Hoekstra, 4. -::K#. "oisture movement in soil under temperature gradients with the cold-
side temperature below freezing. ?ater 'esources 'eview, =, =;-F=*).
Hu, @., 8 !un, 9.-?. =)))#. ,29 simulation of heat and mass transfer for predicting cooling
rate and weight loss of cooked ham during air-blast chilling process. Pournal of 2ood
(ngineering, ;KA#, -.:F-:E.
%ees, ". -:KK#. A linear three-level difference scheme for $uasilinear parabolic e$uation.
"athematical and ,omputer "odelling, =), *-KF*==.
"Rendez >ustabad, 6. -:::#. ?eight loss during freezing and the storage of frozen meat.
Pournal of 2ood (ngineering, ;-, -F--.
"illet, 4., 8 9ougin, N. -::;#. >oulangerie industrielle francaise %&Tage adulte. 5ndustries
des ,RerReales AprilFPune#, ;*F*).
6zisik, ". 7. -:.*#. Heat transfer F A basic approach. "cBraw-Hill1 !ingapore.
4atankar, !. C. -:.)#. 7umerical heat transfer and fluid flow. ?ashington, 9,1 Hemisphere
4ublishing ,orporation.
4erry, '. H., 8 ,hilton, ,. H. -:EA#. ,hemical engineers& handbook. 7ew Nork1 "cBraw-
Hill.

4ham, S. T. -:.*#. A fast unconditionally stable finite-difference scheme for heat conduction
with phase change. 5nternational Pournal of Heat and "ass Transfer, =.--#, =)E:F=).;.
4ham, S. T., 8 ?illix, P. -:.;#. A model for food desiccation in frozen storage. Pournal of
2ood !cience, ;:, -=E*F-=:;.
'ask, ,. -:.:#. Thermal properties of dough and bakery products1 a review of published
data. Pournal of 2ood (ngineering, :, -KEF-:A.
'oberts, P. !., Tong, ,. H., 8 %und, 9. >. =))=#. 9rying kinetics and time-temperature
distribution of pregelatinized bread. Pournal of 2ood !cience, KEA#, -).)F-).E.
'oss, 0. 9. -:E.#. 9ifferential scanning calorimetry of nonfreezable water in soluteF
macromoleculeFwater systems. Pournal of 2ood !cience, ;AK#, -.-=F-.-*.
'oussel, 4., 8 ,hiron, H. =))=#. %es pains francais1 (volution, $ualitRe, production. Cesoul1
"A(-('T5 (diteurs.
!ablani, !. !., "arcotte, "., >aik, 6. 9., 8 ,astaigne, 2. -::.#. "odeling of simultaneous
heat and water transport in the baking process. %ebensmittel ?issenchaft und Technologie,
A-, =)-F=):.
!akiyama, T., Akutsu, "., "iyawaki, 6., 8 Nano, T. -:::#. (ffective thermal diffusivity of
food gels impregnated with air bubbles.
Pournal of 2ood (ngineering, A:, A=AFA=..

!ingh, '. 4. -::=#. Heating and cooling processes for foods. 5n 9. '. Heldman 8 9. >. %und
(ds.#, Handbook of food engineering pp. =;EF=EK#. 7ew Nork1 "arcel 9ekker.
!ukhwal, '. 7., 8 Aguirre 4uente, P. -:.A#. !ublimation des milieux dispersRes.
,onsidReration thReori$ue et expRerimentation. 'evue BRenRerale de Thermi$ue, =K=,
KKAFKEA.
!un, 9.-?., 8 Hu, @. =))A#. ,29 simulation of coupled heat and mass transfer through
porous foods during vacuum cooling process. 5nternational Pournal of 'efrigeration, =K-#,
-:F=E.
Thorvaldsson, 0., 8 !k<oldebrand,U ,. -::.#. ?ater diffusion in bread during baking.
%ebensmittel ?issenchaft und Technologie, A-, K*.F KKA.
Can 9er !luis, !. ". -::A#. ,ooling and freezing simulation of bakery products. 5n
4roceedings of the 55' "eeting ,omm. >-, >=, 9-, 9=IA. 4almerston 7orth, 7ew @ealand.
@anoni, >., 8 4eri, ,. -::A#. A study of the bread-baking process. 5. A phenomenological
model. Pournal of 2ood (ngineering, -:;#, A.:FA:..
@anoni, >., 4eri, ,., 8 Bianotti, '. -::*#. 9etermination of the thermal diffusivity of bread as
a function of porosity. Pournal of 2ood (ngineering