Lecture 1 To 6

Slide 1
Lecture 1: Introduction to
HVAC Systems & Industry
History
Overview of Regulations
Indoor Air Quality
Industry Organizations
Terminologies (in supplement)
2009 Stevens Institute of Technology
Original PME647course by Vi Van Trieu, PE, MBA

Slide 2

Lecture 1: Environmental Systems in Healthcare
2009 Stevens Institute of Technology 2
Course Introduction
This course is designed to teach students the comprehensive, practical,
experienced-based approach of initiating, conceptualizing, designing,
constructing an HVAC system serving the healthcare industry, focusing
on pharmaceutical manufacturing.
It also explores the currently important subject matters of great concerns
and applicable to healthcare industry such as Pharmaceutical GMP
requirements, sustainability design, energy conservation, new trends
and developments in HVAC technology.
This course assumes the students have not been exposed to the
engineering and construction business or familiar with basic facility
systems such as Architectural, Civil, Structural, Plumbing, Piping
(process and mechanical) and Electrical. We will not discuss these
basic systems in details except for the aspects of their design that
could consider pertinent to the HVAC subjects in this course.
If, at any time, certain terminology or phrases in this course lectures that
are not familiar or readily understood the students should investigate or
ask instructor for help.
While its not absolutely necessary, Students are strongly recommended to
do the followings:
Learn a computer graphic or drawing program like Visio, Autocad
Buy a laminated Psychrometric chart
Buy a Ductilator (TRANE Company) for sizing ductwork

As expected we will learn the required underpinning theories, key concepts, and terminologies
for the needed topics but most of the times it will be the practical experience and real world
practices being used by professionals in the field to deliver a functional HVAC design that will
be discussed in the class room lectures. Text book readings and assigned homeworks will further
enhance the experience with more in-depth treatment of concepts and theories.

Slide 3

History of HVAC
Willis Haviland Carrier
He is known as Father of modern air conditioning
Graduated in 1901 with BSME from Cornell University
First job, designing heating system for Buffalo Forge Company
Received patent for first invention at age 25 system to control heat and humidity
Completed design for the worlds first mechanical air conditioning system
James Trane
Opened plumbing shop in La Crosse, WI in 1885,
Together with son established The Trane Company incorporated in 1913.
The idea of using technology to give people relief from summer heat was a radical
and unproven idea when Trane became an air conditioning pioneer in 1931.
An innovator of large commercial air conditioning systems

In 1895 Mr Carrier received a scholarship to Cornell University and graduated in 1901 with a degree in
Mechanical Engineering.
At the age of 25, he devised his first important invention, a system to control heat and humidity for the
Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing and Publishing Company in Brooklyn. In 1906 Carrier received a patent
for his method. He went on to work on other cooling.
While directing the Department of Experimental Engineering for Buffalo Forge, Willis Carrier completes
drawings for the world's first mechanical air conditioning system, designed to reduce the humidity in the
air and hold moisture content to a specified level. A new industry had been born.

James Trane - a Norwegian immigrant who opened his own plumbing shop in La Crosse, WI, in 1885.
James Trane invented a new low-pressure heating system he proudly called the Trane Vapor Heating
System. With son, Reuben incorporated as The Trane Company in 1913. Reuben's invention of the
convector radiator in 1923 established the company's reputation as an innovator.
Trane fundamentally changed the concept of air conditioning large buildings with the 1938 launch of
Turbovac, the industry's first hermetic, centrifugal refrigeration machine. This was the beginning of a
long chain of innovations leading to Trane's current CenTraVac
, it has earned Trane the "Best of the

Best" Award from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Slide 4

History of HVAC
The art of HVAC is based on many scientific discoveries and inventions
in:
Thermodynamics
Fluid Mechanics
Heat Transfer
Significant Contributors
Michael Faraday - electromagnetic induction and of the laws of electrolysis.
Willis Carrier - invented modern air conditioning
Reuben Trane - founded Trane, the heating and air conditioning company
James Joule - electricity and thermodynamics
William Rankine _ Rankin cycle, Steam engine, thermodynamics
Sadi Carnot Carnot engine, thermodynamics

The invention of the components of HVAC systems goes hand-in-hand with the industrial revolution, and
new methods of modernization, higher efficiency, and system control are constantly introduced by
companies and inventors all over the world.
Recent innovations and new technologies such as the Internet, Cloud Computing and Advanced Controls
has and will no doubt continue to introduce and fuel future HVAC innovations.

Slide 5

HVAC
HVAC - Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning
HVACR - Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning &
Refrigeration
The three functions of heating, ventilating, and air-
conditioning are closely interrelated and often work
simultaneously to provide thermal comfort, and
acceptable indoor air quality to occupants in a space.
HVAC systems can also provide air cleaning (filtration),
and maintain room pressure relationships between
spaces.
How air is delivered to, and removed from spaces is
known as air distribution system.

HVAC (pronounced either "H-V-A-C" or, occasionally, "H-vak") is an initialism or acronym that
stands for "heating, ventilating, and air conditioning. Refrigeration is sometimes added to the
field's abbreviation as HVAC&R or HVACR.

Slide 6

Indoor Air Quality
Indoor Air Quality or Indoor Environmental Quality is a concept
that deals with the health effects of the occupants in an enclosed
environment like a building.
ASHRAE 2004 def. IAQ: air in which there are no known contaminants
at harmful concentrations and with which 80% or more occupants do
not express dissatisfaction.
Indoor pollutants and exposure levels
Common indoor contaminants are CO2 (max continuous exposure
1000ppm); Radon (decay radium) (exposure 4 pico curies per liter of
air continuous); VOC e.g. formaldehyde (exposure 1ppm TWA);
Mycotoxins (mold) can cause asthma, allergies, change of
personality, damage immune system, and infections; Particulate
matters (aerosols) smoke, soots, dust pollens, plants, animals.

Indoor Air Quality
In the process of digesting materials mold releases enzymes to break down complex
hydrocarbons into glucose which it can absorb. During this process it produces metabolites
which in turn produce Microbiological Volatile Organic Compounds (MVOCs). MVOCs from
mold can produce a musty odor; those from bacteria can produce a putrid odor. In addition
microbiological growth can introduce spores and cellular debris into the building environment.
As such, microbiological growth in buildings can adversely affect indoor air quality, lead to
health complaints, and cause disease. This generally occurs when there is an abnormal amount of
moisture in building components allowing the development of growing colonies of mold or
bacteria. As mold and bacteria are ubiquitous in the environment this situation is referred to as
amplification.
Mold Gives Off Spores, Cellular Debris and MVOCs
Spores and Cellular Debris: Mold releases spores into the air as a means of reproduction. In
addition cellular debris, such as cell wall material, can be released into the building environment
from amplification sites. Spores and cellular debris are micro-particulates and, as such, can
remain airborne for considerable periods of time traveling freely through tiny cracks, crevices,
and holes in building walls, and roofs. Spores, and cellular debris from mold, are allergens and
result in reports of symptoms, i.e. itchy eyes, runny noses, headaches, and fatigue. The responses
to these allergens differ from person to person so that neighboring building occupants may report
very different reactions to mold amplification. Cellular debris from bacteria contains endotoxins
which can produce allergic symptoms. At high levels, this material is an irritant and can produce
flu-like symptoms. Spores and cellular debris can remain an indoor air quality problem even
after active growth of an amplification site is corrected.

Slide 7

Mold Gives Off Spores, Cellular Debris and MVOCs
MVOC = Microbiological Volatile Organic Compounds
Lecture 1: Biopharm Facilities Design

Microbiological Volatile Organic Compounds (MVOCs): During metabolism mold and bacteria
create microbiological volatile organic compounds (MVOCs). These are organic compounds that
are in a gaseous state within the air of a building. Because they are in this gaseous state they can
quickly disseminate throughout a building, even through building components such as wall
assemblies. Many of these compounds have a low odor threshold and produce a musty or putrid
odor that is quickly detected by occupants. MVOCs from mold and bacteria are obnoxious and
can cause complaints about indoor air quality even in low concentrations. However, these appear
to be mostly nuisance compounds and are not well linked to actual health effects.
Toxins: Mold and bacteria both produce toxins as by products of metabolism. Some molds, under
some circumstances, produce mycotoxins. Bacteria can produce Exotoxins, which are secreted in
the environment and endotoxins, as part of cell walls. Some of these are powerful toxins. In
general, these compounds consist of large organic molecules that do not diffuse through the air in
the same manner as MVOCs. They are found in the air when carried by contaminated dust,
debris, spores, or cellular material. This means that exposure to these toxins are most likely when
an amplification site is disturbed. Adverse health reactions to mycotoxins from molds such as
Stachybotrys Chartarum, have been suspected in buildings with extensive mold growth, but so
far have not been documented as a health problem in buildings.

Slide 8

Indoor Air Quality
Source of pollutants and impacts
Man-made indoor pollutants Examples: Asbestos, second-hand smoke,
anthrax (bioterrorist), building materials
Processing activities Examples: machining, pharmaceutical ingredients,
reactors, compressed air system, HVAC system
Accidents versus Air pollutions
Environmental catastrophes such as Union Carbide released toxic gas
in India Bhopal 1984 is an industrial accident not an air pollution.
Air pollution is due to normal industrial operations
First two known air pollutions killed people
Donora, PA 1948 20 people died from SO
2
accumulation in
Monongahela river in 5 days.
London 1952 Several thousands were believed to die due to SO
2
accumulation over one week.

Slide 9

Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
IAQ is an extremely complicated issue
The IAQ conundrum.
Where should we spend whose money to undertake what programs to
save which lives with what probability? Nichols and Zeckhauser,
1985.
Voluntary Risk versus Involuntary Risk
Risk associated with indoor air pollution is involuntary risk
My voluntary risk becomes your involuntary risk : where to draw the
line? Legal implications?
Example 1 - second-hand smoke is an involuntary risk to a non-
smoker
Example 2 - emission or the neighbors wood burning stove
migrating into your home via windows or doors is an involuntary risk
to you

Data for illness and death due to exposure to indoor pollutants are far less accurate than other
causes due to less focus in National Safety Council survey (2000 for 1997 population of 200
million). Other words, we dont yet really know how to solve the IAQ problem.

Slide 10

Indoor Air Quality
The following conditions made IAQ a real problem:
As society advances with modern conveniences and creates a
service-based economy, people are spending more time indoors
Energy cost since 1974 energy embargo, new HVAC systems are
designed to bring in less outdoor air to save energy
Proliferation of indoor contaminants due to increase in a number of
products that contain potential chemical pollutions
Future pharmaceutical products will tend to be biologic, high potent
and cytotoxic compounds and (cancer drugs) new vaccines.
Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) defined as having more than
20% of occupants complaint about SBS symptoms- headaches,
upper respiratory issues, eye irritations, etc
Loss of productivity and increased sick leave due to SBS cause
greater economic costs in service economy.

Slide 11

Indoor Air Quality
Historical perspectives on IAQ regulations
1708 Sailors hospital established in Boston
1780-1798 Marine Hospital Service Bill established US Public Health
1802 Health and Morals of Apprentices Act in UK
1833 Factory Act 1833 in UK (Industrial Revolution)
1852 1877 Various industrial safety laws passed in Massachusetts
1881 American Public Health Association founded
1908 Workmans Compensation Act passed
1936 Walsh-Healey Public Contracts Act enforces occupational
safety and health standards
1947 Taft-Hartley Act permits workers to leave if abnormally
dangerous conditions exist.
1970 OSHA was created that will protect worker from Occupational
Hazards such as SBS

Important regulatory milestones leading up to modern day IAQ regulations

Slide 12

Indoor Air Quality
IAQ became a real problem and must be controlled by companies
IAQ Working definitions
Hazards: potential of an undesire-able event
Risks: hazards with a probable occurrence and damaging
consequence
Obnoxious: unpleasant and repulsive but not injurious
Hazardous: jeopardize to human and properties and injurious to
health
Toxic or noxious: cause illness or death
Ways to control indoor air contaminations
Risk assessments
Administrative procedures
Engineering controls
Protective equipment

Slide 13

Indoor Air Quality
Indoor Air Pollution Control Strategy:
Administrative Methods:
Work Practice
Labeling and Warning
Education
Waste disposal practice
Environmental monitoring
Assignment Scheduling
Medical Surveillance
Housekeeping
Dust suppression
Maintenance
Sanitation
Management

Try to identify these administrative controls in your work or home environment.

Slide 14

Indoor Air Quality
Engineering Controls
Elimination
Substitution
Isolation
Enclosure
Process modification
Product modification
HVAC
Personal Protective devices (inc. barrier & isolator design)
Respirators
Face masks
Self-contained breathing apparatus

HVAC is an engineering control to deal with IAQ and control manufacturing environment to
make it suitable for manufacturing products.

Slide 15

Indoor Air Quality
Engineering controls such as HVAC is preferred and mandated
by regulators over administrative procedures or personal
protective equipment.
Accepted industry practice is companies must first use
engineering controls to ensure workers safety from indoor
contaminations.
HVAC control contaminants by performing the following functions
using design, equipment or methods to achieve controls:
Source elimination specific ventilation exhaust, chemical
hoods, Biosafety cabinets.
Dilution - use of outdoor air to provide make-up air to space
Air distribution proper placements of air devices in space
Air cleaning use filtration devices in air systems to extract
contaminants

To comply with safety and environmental codes, HVAC must be the first line of defense against
IAQ problem before companies can resort to use of administrative procedures or PPE.

Slide 16

Indoor Air Quality
Additional IAQ challenges for pharmaceutical or healthcare
industry
It is difficult to assess IAQ risks in drug manufacturing
Unusual chemical compositions or manufacturing
processes are created before health or environmental
implications are understood.
Product and process are developed faster than health tests
being developed or conducted to assess risks.
New products are being developed by small groups of R&D
people in a handful of manufacturers
Only a small amount of API is in final product

API = Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients in drug products usually listed on the drug marketing
label.

Slide 17

IAQ & Drug Manufacturing
In addition to IAQ issues, pharmaceutical companies also must
address the following issues with their facility environment:
Product sterility aseptic processing
Product cross-contaminations multi-product facility
Operator exposure to potent compounds safety, liability
Containment of chemical and biological agents safety,
liability
Product environmental specifications - compliance
Employee environmental comforts productivity, compliance
Emission controls - EPA
Energy conservation manufacturing costs
Green design EPA
Sustainability public expectation

Sterility = drug products must be sterile (void of foreign substances) enough to be safely
administered to human, regulators such as FDA will audit this requirement.
Cross-contamination = is drug manufacturers highest concern in producing sterile drugs, drugs
can be contaminated with another products or air contaminants.
The drug production facility and process also must be safe to employees operating it and the
public it serves.
EPA = Environmental Protection Agency (USA)

Slide 18

Thermal Comfort
Human body complex regulation system maintains the body
temperature at about 98.6 F regardless of environmental conditions,
however, normal person feels most comfortable when the body can
maintain thermal balance with that environment.
Acceptable environment is obviously a subjective condition,
however, the environmental factors that affect a persons thermal
balance to influence their comfort are:
The dry bulb temperature of surrounding air
The humidity of the surrounding air
The relative velocity of the air crossing the person
The temperature of any surface that directly exchange radiation with
that persons body.
HVAC systems control the space environmental factors so that
a healthy person can most easily maintain thermal balance.

Why Surgeon General wears Navy-like uniform? Its 1798 bill Marine Hospital Service Bill
established US Public Health and the country Surgeon General role.

Slide 19

HVAC in Healthcare facilities
HVAC system is the main and a must-have device in the healthcare
space due to:
Thermal comfort for occupants
Acceptable IAQ for occupants
A specified level of particulate matters in the space
aka. An ISO certified space
A specified dry-bulb temperature
A specified humidity level
A specified level of air pressure or air motion relative
to another adjacent areas or spaces
A specified direction of air distribution
These conditions must be proven, i.e. validated

ISO= International Organization for Standardization, responsible for the ISO 9000, ISO 14000,
ISO 27000, ISO 22000 and other international management standards. www.iso.org

Slide 20

HVAC in Healthcare facilities
HVAC system is the main and a must-have means to achieve the
following conditions in the healthcare space, contd:
Contain hazardous contaminants to protect
operators
Remove contaminants from space
Eliminate conditions that cause fire, smoke, and
explosion due to accumulation of combustible
materials or situations
Meet regulatory requirements for manufacturing, aka
cGMP or current Good Manufacturing Practices

Slide 21

The HVAC industry
HVAC is a very large industry
List of Industry Associations
Air Conditioning of America
http://www.acca.org/
Air Conditioning, Heating & Refrigeration Institute represent 90% of
equipment manufacturer
http://www.ahrinet.org/
Air Control and Movement Association a valuable resource and a strong
means of self regulation for HVAC industry.
http://www.amca.org/
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
http://www.ashrae.org/
Indoor Air Quality Association (IAQA)
http://www.iaqa.org/

Students should try to explore these HVAC organizations via their web sites. Due to limited
lecture space only a few representative organizations are listed.

Slide 22

The HVAC industry
List of Industry Associations
Heating, Air Conditioning & Refrigeration Distributors International -
resource for marketing and distribution interests to advance
the science of distributing HVACR products and supplies.
http://www.hardinet.org/
International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration
https://www.iiar.org//index.cfm?
North American Technician Excellence, Inc
http://www.natex.org/
Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors Association
http://www.phccweb.org/
Associated Builders and Contractors Construction Information
http://www.abc.org/
National Association of Home Builders - Housing Information
http://www.nahb.org/

Slide 23

The HVAC industry
List of Trade Press
Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration NEWS
http://www.achrnews.com/
Contracting Business for HVACR
http://contractingbusiness.com/
HVACR Business a Management source
http://www.hvacrbusiness.com/
HVAC Insider News News about new products
http://www.hvacinsidernews.com/
International Code Council
http://www.iccsafe.org/

Slide 24

The HVAC industry
List of Major Equipment Manufacturers
The Trane Company
York/Johnson Controls
Carrier Company
Siemens
Honeywell

The number of companies serving the HVAC industry is uncountable, I only list a few major and
familiar companies for illustration purposes. I suggest the students should google the HVAC
vendors category for more.

Slide 25

HVAC codes and standards
ASHRAE - American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers.
The most recognized standards for HVAC design based on the
ASHRAE Handbooks.
ASHRAE Fundamentals
ASHRAE Systems
ASHRAE Applications
ASHRAE Refrigeration
The ASHRAE Handbook's most general volume of the four, is
Fundamentals Hand Book; it includes data for heating and cooling
calculations. Each volume of the ASHRAE Handbook is updated
every four years.
The design professional must consult ASHRAE data for the
standards of design and care as the typical building codes provides
little to no information on HVAC design practices.

Codes= are mandated and enforceable requirements by authority having jurisdictions, e. g. the
governments International Building Codes
Standards = documents that present a minimum set of requirements developed by a group of
recognized experts, e.g. ASHRAEs Handbooks. These are the industry de facto standards and
are referenced in building codes.

Slide 26

ASHRAE also publish standards for specific subjects.
Some notable and significant ASHRAE Standards for HVAC
applications in design and operations:
Standard 15 Safety Design Criteria for Refrigeration Systems
Standard 34 Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants
Standard 55 Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy
Standard 62.1 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality (versions:
2001 and earlier as "62", 2004 and beyond as "62.1")
Standard 62.2 - Ventilation and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in Low-Rise
Residential Buildings
Standard 90.1 - Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise
Residential Buildings - The IESNA is a joint sponsor of this standard.
Standard 135 BACnet - A Data Communication Protocol for Building
Automation and Control Networks

Codes= are mandated and enforceable requirements by authority having jurisdictions, e. g. the
governments International Building Codes
Standards = documents that present a minimum set of requirements developed by a group of
recognized experts, e.g. ASHRAEs Handbooks

Slide 27

Other general standards, codes and useful reference materials for
HVAC professional practices.
International Building Code
OSHA, Occupational Safety and Health Act
EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
International Plumbing code
AMCA, Air Movement and Control Association
SMACNA, Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors
National Associations

Slide 28

Other general standards, codes and useful reference materials for HVAC
professional practices.
NFPA, National Fire Protection Association
ACGIH, American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienist
ASTM, American Society for Testing Materials
AGA, American Gas Association
FM, Factory Mutual
UL, Underwriter Laboratories

We will refer to these documents, hand books or organizations throughout the course.

Slide 29

Standards, codes and useful reference materials for Healthcare
Applications.
FDA, CFR 21, Parts 210 and 211 - GMP
ISO 14644 Cleanrooms and Associated Controlled Environments
IES, Institute of Environmental Science, Considerations in Clean
Room Design, IES-RP-CC012-1
ISPE Baseline - Pharmaceuticals Engineering Guidelines.
Six (6) ISPE Guidelines, Volume 1 to 6 addressing different
pharmaceutical facility types.
NIH Design Requirements
NIH addresses biosafety and containment requirements

FDA- Food & Drug Administration
CFR Code of Federal Register
CFR21, Part 210 & 211 contains FDA requirements for Good Manufacturing Practices
ISO International Standard Organization
ISPE International Society of Pharmaceutical Engineering
NIH- National Institute of Health

We will discuss the HVAC requirements for pharmaceutical manufacturing in details in
subsequent lectures, beginning lecture 7.

Slide 30

Course Outline & Learning Goals
The first half of the course we will learn the fundamentals of HVAC
technologies, and their applications in design and analyses
HVAC Fundamentals
HVAC Equipment and Operations
HVAC System Configurations
HVAC Design Considerations
HVAC Controls
The second half of the course we will apply the learned HVAC
knowledge to the design of pharmaceutical & healthcare facility
environments.
We will also touch upon the followings
Future HVAC technologies
Energy Conservation
Sustainability & Green Design

FDA- Food & Drug Administration
CFR Code of Federal Register
CFR21, Part 210 & 211 contains FDA requirements for Good Manufacturing Practices
ISO International Standard Organization
ISPE International Society of Pharmaceutical Engineering
NIH- National Institute of Health

We will discuss the requirements in details in subsequent lectures, beginning lecture 7.

Slide 31

HVAC Fundamentals
Moist Air Properties
Dry-bulb, Wet-bulb, Relative Humidity
Sensible & Latent Heat
Enthalpy
Air Conditioning Processes
Psychrometric Charting
Heat Transmission
Conduction, Convection, Radiation
Solar Heat gain
R factor, C factor, thermal conductivity k
Overall U factor
Heat Load Estimates
Heat Loss, Gain

We will discuss the air properties, the conditioning processes required to treat the air that we
supplied to the controlled environment. The concepts of how to make a space heat up or cool
down by moving the heat unit called British Thermal Unit or BTU.

Slide 32

HVAC Equipment & Theories of Operations
Refrigeration
Chiller
Air Moving Equipment
Fans
Air Handling Equipment
Fluid Moving Equipment
Pumps
Heating
Boilers
Capacity Estimates

The HVAC equipment required to control and monitor the environments (either used for business
or manufacturing) is typically taking up a major portion of space in a facility, ranging from 20%
to as much as 50% of the usable facility space in the case of pharmaceutical fill/finishing plant.
The capital cost required to install these equipment represents a big portion of the project budget
and the O&M cost (operating & maintenance) for HVAC including energy and compliance costs
is the large burden for manufacturing operations.
We will learn the types of heating and cooling equipment (Chiller, boiler, fans, AHU, etc) that
comprised the HVAC systems (both air and liquid) and how to estimate their capacity for sizing
and selecting the proper HVAC mechanical systems.

Slide 33

HVAC System Design & Configurations
Central Air Systems
Basic Configurations
Constant Volume with Reheat
Variable Air Volume with Reheat
Central Mechanical Systems
Chilled Water
Steam
Hot Water
Distribution Systems
All-Air
All-Water
Water-Air

Following up the previous lecture where we learned the HVAC equipment and components, In
this lecture we will discuss HVAC system which will normally have these characteristics and
systems:
Central Air System(s) (we will not discuss small unitary systems mostly used in residential
spaces) perform the conditioning processes on the supply and return/exhaust air to the specified
temperature, humidity and particulate levels necessary to achieve the previously mentioned
HVAC goals (thermal comfort, IAQ, process and product requirements). The typical system is
Air Handling Units with Cooling/Heating Coil, Supply Fan, Filtrations, and Air Mixing Box and
associated control devices.
Central Mechanical System(s) convert fuels (oil, gas, electricity) or distribute energy sources
(internal and external) in appropriate ways to achieve the specified environment efficiently. The
typical systems are Chilled Water, Hot Heating Water, and Steam systems. There are many other
plant utility systems that are necessary to a functional HVAC system, however we will not have
time in this course to cover those systems such as Compressed Air, Electrical Systems, etc
HVAC Distribution System(s) use medium such as air and or water to transfer energy within the
environments. The systems comprised of ductwork, piping, valves, diffusers, registers, grilles,
and associated fluid control devices.

Slide 34

HVAC Design
Design Procedure
Design Management
Design Delivery Methods
Project Work
Design Considerations
Technical
Operational
Safety
Energy Usage
Mechanical Contract Management
HVAC contracting business
Project Coordination
Contracts

Creating a complete and functional HVAC system is a complex, iterative and integrative process,
the HVAC engineer must know the industry practices in terms of designing, installing, and
operating the HVAC system. Knowledge of project management, construction contract and
strategy, and HVAC business are essential tools to realize and deliver the complete HVAC
system that satisfy the project requirements such as timeline and capital investment or budget
constraints.

Slide 35

HVAC Controls
Control Systems Evolution
Pneumatic Control
Digital Control
Internet
HVAC Control Schemes
Air system control
Distribution control
Room Control
Auxiliary equipment control
System Design
Sequence of Operations
System Architecture
Cost estimates
Control System Validation

All modern mechanical systems require automatic controls and some degree of system
automation. In fact, in a pharmaceutical plant the HVAC system variables and controlled
environmental parameters are considered critical parameters by federal regulations and are
subject to regulatory oversight to be approved (have validated status) for manufacturing drugs.
The healthcare environmental factors are some of the most difficult to control to meet regulatory
compliant requirements of Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) promulgated by governmental
regulators such as the FDA and others.
In early days, the HVAC control devices such as valves and damper actuators were air operated
(pneumatic). At present time, the recent digital revolution and advances in information
technology has spawned new electronic controls and computerized control system. In the
modern plants, HVAC systems are typically operated with Building Automation System (BAS)
or Building Management System which are microprocessor-based control systems using
electronic controlled devices. Pneumatic controls are still used in environment where potential
explosive conditions cause concerns.
HVAC Control system in regulated healthcare industry must be validated before it can be used in
manufacturing drug products.

Slide 36

Pharmaceutical Environmental Requirements
Sterile and Aseptic Processing
FDA
ISO
ISPE
Design Criteria
URS
GMP
Qualifications
Commercial HVAC vs Pharmaceutical HVAC
The differences

In addition to the previously mentioned HVAC system goals to maintain thermal balance for
building occupants, the pharmaceutical HVAC system must meet special requirements of sterile
and aseptic processing in pharmaceutical manufacturing as stipulated by the FDA, ISO and
ISPE.
We will discuss and study the pharmaceutical HVAC design criteria and point out the differences
between a commercial HVAC system to that of a pharmaceutical Clean HVAC system.

Slide 37

Containment & Contamination Control Requirements
Requirements
FDA
NIH
OSHA
Control by Design
Containment control
Cross-contamination control
Operator Exposure Control
Specific Ventilation
Hood Design
Biosafety Cabinet
xxxx

In this session, we will discuss the containment and cross-contamination control requirements
imposed by regulators to ensure operators safety by preventing, eliminating or minimizing their
exposure to high potent and toxic environment in drug manufacturing, in fact future
pharmaceutical environment will be increasingly hazardous to people who work in their
manufacturing. We will learn the HVAC system methodology used to reduce the operator
exposure to below certain limits acceptable by regulations.
Needless to say, beside the obvious cost of regulatory compliance the liability cost arisen from
potential law suits, damaged corporate image or social responsibility may be immeasurable to a
company.

Slide 38

HVAC Applications Facility Types
Oral Solid Dosage
Biopharm
Sterile Facility
Parenteral
Laboratories
API
Fill/Finish
Packaging
Process development

It is accepted that for each New Molecular Entity (NME) to reach commercialization from its
initial discovery, the process may take 8-10 years and a billion dollar or more to realize. During
this time, the pharmaceutical drug discovery and development process required the use of
different facilities to meet different levels of GMP, manufacturing cleanliness and scales. We will
explore HVAC systems that applied to different pharmaceutical facilities.

Slide 39

Design, Implementation & Operations
Corporate engineering practices
Users
Operations
Quality
management
Pharmaceutical engineering organizations
Big Pharma
CMO
CRO
Consultants
A/E
Specialists
Vendors
Contractors

The pharmaceutical industry is heavily regulated and each company may have its own corporate
engineering methods developed over the years to meet its needs for designing, installing and
operating HVAC systems and facilities. We will discuss the industry best practices that are the
bases for these companies HVAC standards for implementing an HVAC system.

Slide 40

Distribution System Design & Operations
Air systems
Ductwork Design (sizing)
Duct-mounted Equipment
Utility Systems
Water piping
Steam Piping
Gas Piping
Design Tools
Test, Adjust & Balancing

Understanding the air and utility distribution systems is a critically important aspect to have a
successful HVAC system design, the techniques and tools for designing these distribution
systems will be presented. Additionally, HVAC system and its distributions must be tested,
adjusted and balanced prior to the declaration that the HVAC system is operational for a formal
Commissioning and Qualification phase of the HVAC system before the HVAC system can be
turned over to drug manufacturing

Slide 41

New HVAC Trends & Future Technologies
Green Design
Design
Equipment
Operations
Sustainability
Energy Recovery
LEED
Alternative Energy
New HVAC Automation
New HVAC Equipment & Products
Future Techs

The HVAC system typically has a long life-cycle, designer of HVAC system must be aware of
the developing trends and technologies to anticipate and possibly incorporate them into current
design.

Slide 1

Lecture 2: HVAC Fundamentals
Moist Air Properties
Air Conditioning Processes
Heat Transmission
Heat Loads
Original PME647 course by Vi Van Trieu, PE, MBA

Slide 2

Air Properties
In 1911, Willis H. Carrier published moist air properties with a
psychrometric chart
In 1949, the standard composition of dry air is fixed by the
International Joint Committee on Psychrometric Data
Constituent Molecular Mass Volume Fraction Constituent Molecular Mass
Oxygen 32.000 0.2095 Oxygen 32.000
Nitrogen 28.016 0.7809 Nitrogen 28.016
Argon 39.944 0.0093 Argon 39.944
Carbon Dioxide 44.010 0.0003 Carbon Dioxide 44.010

Slide 3

Air Properties
Definition of U.S.standard atmosphere
Acceleration due to gravity is constant = 32.174 ft/sec
2
or 9.807
m/sec
2
Temperature at sea level = 59.0 F, 15 C or 288.1 Kelvin
Pressure at sea level = 29.921 in. Hg or 101.039 kPa
The atmosphere consists of dry air which behave as perfect gas
Atmospheric conditions vary with locality, altitude, and weather
conditions.

Slide 4

Air Properties Standard Atmospheric Data
Altitude (ft) Temperature (F) Pressure (in. Hg) Pressure (psia)
1000 62.6 31.02 15.236
500 60.8 30.47 14.966
0 59.0 29.921 14.696
500 57.2 29.38 14.430
1000 55.4 28.86 14.175
2000 51.9 27.82 13.664
3000 48.3 26.82 13.173
4000 44.7 25.82 12.682
5000 41.2 24.90 12.230
60000 69.7 2.14 1.051
Altitude (ft) Temperature (F) Pressure (in. Hg) Pressure (psia)
Source: Adapted from NASA (1976).

Sea Level = 0 altitude
Sea level conditions are standard air conditions

Slide 5

Air Properties
For practical purpose, Atmospheric Pressure also commonly
assumed = 30 in. Hg or 101.325 kPa and 14.696 psi and
temperature at 70 F.
Atmospheric Air contains contaminants such as smoke, pollens and
gaseous pollutants
Using ideal gas law between -60 F to 120 F will result less than .7%
error of major air properties
The ideal gas law error is decreasing with increasing pressure
In 1983, Hyland and Wexler (NIST) published thermodynamic
properties of moist air. Air properties can be found in 2001
ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals.

Slide 6

Dry Air versus Moist Air
Dry Air: exists when all water vapor and contaminants are removed
from atmospheric air.
Molecular Mass of dry air = 28.965
Universal Gas Constant, R = 1545.32 (ft-lbf)/(lb mole-R) or 8314
J/(kg mole-K)
Gas constant for Dry Air : R
a
= R/M
a
= 1545.32/28.965 = 53.352 (ft-
lbf) /lbm-R) or 287 J/(kg-K)
Moist Air: is a mixture of water vapor and dry air with amount of
water vapor varies from zero (dry air) to saturation (100% RH)
depending on the saturated condition of temperature and pressure
of the air.
Saturated air is the state of neutral equilibrium between moist air
and any liquid or solid phase of water

Slide 7

Dry Air versus Moist Air
Humidity Ratio: is the ratio of mass of water vapor to the mass of
dry air in the sample.
Molecular mass of water, M
w
= 18.01528
W = M
w
/M
da
or x
w
/x
da
* (18.01528/28.9645) or 0.6219779 (x
w
/x
da
)
Where : X = mole fraction
Specific Humidity, : is the ratio of mass of water vapor to the total
mass of moist air sample
= M
w
/ (M
w
+ M
da
)
Absolute Humidity,
v
(vapor density) : is the ratio of the mass of
water vapor to the total volume of sample

v
= M
w
/ V

Slide 8

Laws of Thermodynamics
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Mass
Neither Energy nor Mass can be created or destroyed in a
system.
The conservation laws are the basis for HVAC analysis of moist
air processes in air conditioning
In practice, the processes are analyzed using the bulk averaged
properties across the inlet or outlet of the analyzed system.

Law of conservation of energy is an empirical law of physics. It states that the total amount of
energy in an isolated system remains constant over time (is said to be conserved over time). A
consequence of this law is that energy can neither be created nor destroyed: energy can only be
transformed from one state to another. The only thing that can happen to energy in a closed
system is that it can change form: for instance chemical energy can become kinetic energy.
Law of conservation of mass, also known as principle of mass/matter conservation is that the
mass of a closed system (in the sense of a completely isolated system) will remain constant over
time. The mass of an isolated system cannot be changed as a result of processes acting inside the
system. A similar statement is that mass cannot be created/destroyed, although mass may be
rearranged in space, and changed into different types of particles. This implies that for any
chemical process in a closed system, the mass of the reactants must equal the mass of the
products

Slide 9

Psychrometric Chart
Invented by Willis H. Carrier in 1911
A graphical representation of moist air properties
Use extensively by HVAC engineers as a quick method for
calculations of moist air processes
The text has a program PSYCH that can performed some
engineering calculations and a full paper psychrometric chart
is in the text; Appendix E
A typical Psychometric chart is shown next slide, We will use
this chart to illustrate the HVAC processes.
Any air stream properties can be determined graphically on a
Psychrometric chart if any two properties such as dry-bulb
and wet-bulb temperature or relative humidity of that air
stream are known.

Slide 10

Psychrometric Chart
Relative humidity
Saturation line
Wet-bulb temperature
S
p
e
c
i
f
i
c

H
u
m
i
d
i
t
y
Dew-point temperature

A Psychrometric chart with a typical air conditioning process shown

OA = Outside air
Mix = A mixture of OA and Room Air
Room = Air at room environmental conditions
LAT = Air leaving the HVAC apparatus such as cooling or heating coil in an Air handling Unit.

Slide 11

Psychrometric Chart - Heating or Cooling of Moist Air
When air is heated (adding thermal energy) or cooled (removing thermal energy)
without gaining or losing moisture the process is called sensible heat transfer.
Sensible heating is left to right and Sensible cooling is right to left on the chart
Sensible heat transfer,
Q
s

This process is typically depicting what happened to the air properties when the air stream is
moving across a heating coil or cooling coil in and AHU.
The mixed air is the result of returning air stream from the room being combined with the
outside air stream in a plenum (an enclosure designed to mix the two air streams with minimal
stratifications) to create a well-mixed air stream (uniformed temperature) prior to contact with
the coils.
Mixed air, Room air, OA air properties can be read directly from the chart. Air leaving the coils
(LAT) can be approximated from the chart, actual LAT conditions will depend on the coil design
characteristics.

Slide 12

Psychrometric Chart Cooling and Dehumidifying of Moist Air
When the air stream is passed over the Cooling coil surface, the air will be cooled
sensibly from right to left (Mix to LAT) and its moisture content will be lowered in
vertical direction from top to bottom (Mix level to LAT) of chart.
Dehumidification
Latent heat transfer, Q
L
Cooling
Sensible heat transfer, Q
s

The dehumidification path is typically as shown curving down on along the saturation line as the
moisture being condensed (squeezed) out of the air stream as its being cooled below its dew
point.
The Leaving Air Temperature (LAT) of the cooling coil will depend on the selected cooling coil
with a coil by-pass factor. The by-pass factor is a function of the coil design such as the number
of fins per inch by the equipment engineer or vendor.
We will talk more about HVAC hardware component design characteristics in later lectures.

Slide 13

Psychrometric Chart - Heating and Humidifying of Moist Air
When the air stream is passed over the heating coil surface and a humidifier ,the air will
be heated sensibly from left to right (LAT to Room) and its moisture content will be
raised in vertical direction from bottom to top (LAT level to Room) of chart.
Heating
Humidifying

AS the cooled (LAT) air supplied to the room, it gains heat and moisture from the environment
and thats how the supplied air performs its cooling duty (by absorbing heat and moisture from
the space) to provide the desired cooler environmental conditions.
The process described is for a cooling process, however, heating process of the air in the winter
will work the same way, i.e. it can be traced on the Psychrometric chart. Its just that for heating
process, the mixed air conditions for winter design conditions will be obviously different from
summer design conditions.
For NE region, the OA air is typically 0F dry-bulb and very dry (often assumed zero moisture in
calculations) in the winter versus a much warmer and more moist outside air in the summer (this
is self-evident since we can feel the difference).
During the winter, the dry supplied air stream will need to be humidified using a moisture source
such as a steam humidifier to increase moisture into the room environment. If not, the room will
eventually be very dry (low relative humidity)
The humidification process in winter heating depends on the conditioned of the moisture
medium used in the humidifier, in practice steam humidifier will inject steam vapor of about 0 to
5 psig into the air stream for humidification.

Slide 14

Psychrometric Chart
Outside Air, Room Air and Mix Air Derivations:
Outside Air condition is the weather conditions at the location of the space.
The outside air data for many localities is given in ASHRAE Handbook
Fundamentals and other standards.
Room Air is usually determined by the requirements to create optimal
comfort for the occupants, or meeting environmental specifications for
manufacturing product(s), safely and economically.
Mix air is the mixing of re-circulated room air from conditioned space with
unconditioned air from outside. The properties of outside air and
mixed air can be determined graphically using a psychometric chart.
For non-recirculated (100% OA) HVAC system, there is no mixed air.

Slide 15

Psychrometric Chart
Outside Air, Room Air and Mix Air Derivations:
Mix-Air Calculations Procedure:
1. First determine the mix-air dry bulb temperature.
T
MA
= (OA * T
OA
) + (RA * T
RA
) / (OA + RA)
Where,
T
MA
= Mix-air dry-bulb temperature
OA = Outside air flow rate, CFM
T
OA
= Outside air dry-bulb temperature
RA = Return air flow rate, CFM
T
RA
= Return air dry-bulb temperature
2. Plot the OA and RA conditions on the psychrometric chart and
connect the two points.
3. The point where the mix-air dry bulb temperature intersects the
line OA-RA is the MA conditions. Air properties at that point is
mixed air properties.

Slide 16

Design Conditions
Indoor Air Quality
The word comfort means the control of temperature, relative humidity, air
motion, air differential pressure, air change rate, heat radiant sources, odor,
dust, viable and non-viable particulates, noise, vibration, exposure to
chemical or biological contaminants, and potential explosion from
flammable or combustible vapors, etc
Manufacturing Environments
The word environmental specificationsmeans the control of temperature,
relative humidity, air motion, air differential pressure, air change rate, heat
radiant sources, odor, dust, viable and non-viable particulates, noise,
vibration, exposure to chemical or biological contaminants, and potential
explosion from flammable or combustible vapors, etc
The difference between the conditions is in the robustness,
reliability, control band tolerances, required documentations,
criticality or parameters, safety, level of regulatory expectations
and economic damages if system failed.

These are the environmental variables treated by the HVAC apparatus to achieve the specified
environment. Definitions for these parameters can be found in the lecture supplement and are
explained in later lectures.

Slide 17

Design Conditions
Outdoor Design Conditions
Outside design criteria should be based on Climatic Design Information
found in the latest edition of the ASHRAE Handbook- Fundamentals.
Additional data can be obtained from the Engineering Weather Data
published National Climatic Data Center and the Air Force Combat
Climatology Center.
Where the site location is not one of the stations listed, use the listed station
closest to the site location. In determining the level of confidence in
closest station criteria, factors such as elevation, proximity to bodies of
water, and regions within the state or province should be considered.
The use of this data does not supersede compliance with governing codes,
including energy code requirements. In the event of conflict among the
references and codes, deviations must be reviewed and usually the most
stringent conditions will govern the design (be selected for calculations).

NOAA The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is a federal agency
focused on the condition of the oceans and the atmosphere. HVAC engineers often used weather
data from NOAA as Outdoor Design Conditions
Airport data In the US, airports also maintain weather data that HVAC engineers sometimes
used for outdoor design conditions.

Slide 18

Design Conditions
Indoor Design Conditions
Design Temperature For comfort, a dry-bulb temperature will be
selected to provide the optimum conditions for thermal balance,
taking in account clothing, activity level, and heat gain or loss into
the space and meeting product environmental specification
requirements.
Design Relative Humidity Relative Humidity level will be selected to
aid heat and mass transfer from occupants skin and meeting
product environmental specification requirements.
Design Air Change Rate The air change rate per hour will be
selected for adequately offsetting heat gain or loss and controlling
viable and non-viable particulates generated in the space by
appropriate unidirectional air flow pattern and contaminant capture
velocity.

Air Change Rate is a design parameter but not a controlled parameter in HVAC system
operations.

Slide 19

Design Conditions
Indoor Design Conditions
Design Room Pressurization
In order to minimize uncontrolled infiltration of outside
(unconditioned) air into a facility and the associated heat and
particulates problems that accompanied that air, the overall building
pressurization should be positive to the outdoor ambient.
Individual room or zone pressure relationships may be positive or
negative depending on the operations within the space
These room pressure relationships are essential in order to
control and maintain cleanliness in the spaces, as well as for
containment of either bio-hazards or potent compounds.
Airlocks are usually interposed between areas if airflow between
the spaces needs to be controlled when they are entered or exited.

It will be suffice for now to state the general rationales for selecting design conditions. Specific
Design Criteria will be predicated on and dependent of the facility types, the operational
activities, the functions of the space, and a whole host of other issues. We will get into more
specific Differential Pressure Design Criteria in designing HVAC systems in later lectures.

Slide 20

Heat Transmission Modes
Heat Transmission in Buildings
In the summer, the space will be heated up by heat gains from external
sources such as hot outside air, solar heat from the sun, high humid air and
from internal sources such as people, equipment, lighting, and from the
HVAC equipment, etc
In the winter, the space will be cooled if heat (losses) transmitted to the
outside colder temperature, drier air (less moisture) are greater than the
heat gains from the sun (solar heat) and internal sources.
HVAC specialists must estimate the amount of heat gains or losses to the
space in order to properly size and select the HVAC equipment and system
for the project.

As mentioned earlier, the HVAC process essentially is a way to move thermal energy around to
achieve either cooling or heating effect, therefore knowledge of heat transmission is fundamental
to HVAC system design.

Slide 21

Heat transmits through building structures by conduction,
convection and radiation transport modes.
Conduction Mode the mechanism of heat transfer between
parts of a continuum due to transfer of energy between
particles at the atomic level.
Fourier equation expresses steady-state conduction
Q = -kA dt/dx
Q = heat transfer rate, Btu/hr or W
k = material thermal conductivity, Btu/(hr-ft-F) or W/(m-C)
A = area normal to heat flow, ft
2
or m
2
dt/dx = temperature gradient, F/ft or C/m
R factor = x/kA, unit thermal resistance
C = 1/R = k/x , unit thermal conductance

Thermal resistance of a material is defined as the materials ability to oppose to the flow of heat
at a given temperature gradient. Sometime its easier for students to understand thermal energy
transmission in terms of electrical transmission in an electrical circuit.
R factor = is analogous to electrical resistance
Q = analogous to electrical current
Delta t or dt = similar to voltage difference that cause the flow of current.

Slide 22

Convection modes.
Convection the mechanism of heat transfer by mixing
associated with fluid in motion either along a surface or in a
pipe or duct.
Convection mechanism expressed in mathematical form as
Q = hA(t
b
t
w
)
h = film coefficient, Btu/(hr-ft
2
-F) or W/(m
2
-s) or unit surface
conductance. h is determined empirically.
A = area subject to heat flow, ft
2
or m
2
t
b
= bulk temperature of air or fluid, F or C
t
w
= wall temperature

Similarly to conduction, the thermal resistance R for convection is the reciprocity of film
coefficient or unit surface conductance h, Btu/(hr-ft
2
-F) or W/(m
2
-s). Another word, the air films
on the surfaces (both sides) of the medium is giving resistance (make it more difficult) to the
amount of heat being transmitted through the medium.

R = 1/h = 1/C (hr-ft
2
-F)/Btu or (m
2
-C)/W
The film coefficient magnitude is directly affected by the tangential air velocity across the
surface of the medium.

Slide 23

Radiation transport modes
Radiation the mechanism of heat transfer by electromagnetic
waves. Radiation can occur in perfect vacuum but can be
blocked by an intervening medium.
Radiation mechanism expressed in mathematical form as
= 1-
1
/A
1
1
+1/A
1
F
1-2
+ 1-
2
/A
2
2
Q
1-2
= (T
1
4
T
2
4
) /
= Boltzmann constant, 0.1713 x 10
-8
Btu/(hr-ft
2
-R
4
) = 5.673 x 10
-8
W/(m
2
-K
4
)
= emittance of surfaces 1 or 2
F = configuration factor, geometry of the system components

Radiation heat transfer is a complex phenomenon.
In practice, the radiation heat gain is normally taking place through the air space between the
window panes. The heat conductance and resistance for air space is dependent on surface
orientation, heat flow direction, air temperature, and the space effective emittance.
At this point, I would like to mention that in HVAC professional practices no complex
calculation need to be performed, HVAC practitioners relied on engineering tables derived from
combination of theories and experiments to calculate all heat transmissions.
Such table can be found in the textbook page 131 or in ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals or in
Carrier and Trane Hand Books.

Slide 24

Heat Gain or Loss Estimate
Overall Heat Gains or Losses are estimated by totalizing the heat gains or
losses due to each heat transfer mode.
Overall thermal resistance, R
overall
= R
convection
+ R
radiation
+ R
conduction
For convenience, we create an Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient by taking
the reciprocity of the R
overall
Overall heat transfer coefficient, U = 1/R
overall
The U factor is used to calculate the amount of heat transferred across
any unique building components making up its walls, roofs, etcby
summing up the individual material thermal resistances then
calculating the overall U factor for the composite structure.
Overall heat transfer coefficient, U can be calculated (estimated)
by looking up individual component thermal resistance and film
coefficient in ASHRAE handbook or other HVAC references.

That is:
U = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3.+ 1/Rn
Students should note that we say heat gain or loss estimates (as opposed to exact calculations)
which means the heat loads being calculated is only an approximation. This is due to the facts
that many of the factors that go into these calculations are derived by experiments and subject to
ranges of accuracies.

Slide 25

Heat gains or losses through building envelopes (Walls, Roof, Floor)
must be estimated for HVAC design.
Where the heat transfer rate for each component of building envelopes
is given by equation:
Q
Wall or Roof
= U*A*t
U = overall heat transfer, Btu/(hr-F) or W/C
A = surface area of component normal to flow, ft
2
or m
2
t = overall temperature difference, F or C
The above overall heat transfer equation is used extensively in HVAC
design.
Beside its use in estimating heat gains and losses through building
envelopes, it can also be used to size heat exchangers, air and
water components of HVAC systems.

In theory, the delta T derivation is much more complex. In practice, HVAC designers use the
difference between air dry-bulb temperatures across the medium.

Slide 26

Solar Heat Gain Through Fenestrations (Windows)
Solar radiation = several broad classes of electromagnetic radiation
Thermal radiation of solar rays is the portion of that solar electromagnetic
spectrum with wavelength from 0.1 to 100 micrometer that irradiated on
surfaces
Radiant energy emitted from a surface is a function of temperature and
characteristics of the material
Total radiant energy radiating from a surface comes from its internal emitted
energy and reflected irradiation energy
When solar radiation strikes a window surface some ~8% (@ 30 degree
incident angle) is reflected , some radiant energy (5 to 50%) will be
absorbed to within the glazing materials (see textbook, fig. 7-9, page 198)
The total heat admission through the glazing = Transmitted
radiation + Absorbed radiation + Conduction heat

In heat gain and loss estimate, thermal energy from the sun is a major contributor to the amount
of heat gain into a space. If that space having windows exposed to the sun rays, that amount of
heat radiation energy must be estimated differently and included in the total heat gain into the
room.
If you ever sit in the room with windows and walls facing the sun and feel that room
temperature is hotter than the temperature in another room on the shady side (in the opposite side
of the sun). That is because that room got additional solar heat from the sun in addition to the
heat gain from the temperature difference between inside and outside air temperature.
See text book page 198 for additional information

Slide 27

Solar Heat Gain Through Fenestrations (Windows)
Conduction heat gain is estimated as before Q
Window
= U*A*t
Solar heat gain = (G
Total irradiation
) * (SHGC)
Where SHGC = Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
Using theories and experiments, engineers generated SHGC for window
components (frame, glazing) (see textbook, table 7.3 p. 200) or ASHRAE
Handbook.
The SHGC and G are look-up values in the generated tables
Total irradiation value, G depends on the sun location, time of day,
clearness of the sky, and day of the year
The SHGC value depends on glazing system (thickness, coatings, single or
double panes), and incident angles.
To calculate heat gains through windows:
The total heat gain = Solar heat gain + Conduction heat gain

In practice, HVAC designers will need the building information such as floor layout, elevation
views (window size and shape), and building orientation (North arrow) from the architect and
then he can estimate SHGC and G values by looking them up in tables.

Slide 28

Room total cooling or heating load, Q (Btuh) is estimated by
calculating and totaling all room heat gains or losses.
Cooling Loads:
1. Heat gain through walls, roof, windows
Formula: Q
solar
= Area*G* SHGC* SC; SC:shading
coefficient
Formula: Q
conduction
= Area*U*(delta T of outside-inside);
U:heat transfer coefficient
2. Internal heat gain sources
Use ASHRAE handbooks for typical internal heat gain data
For example - People- Q
people
= # of people * (250-
300)Btuh/person
For example - Lighting- Q= 3watts/ SF * Area * 3.4 w/Btuh
For example - Equipment motor- Q
motor
= HP or KW*3410
Btuh/KW
3. The sum of all the heat gains together is the space total
cooling load

Slide 29

Heat Loads:
Similarly, the room total heat loss is calculated and equaled to heat
losses from all the surfaces exposed to a delta T.
Heat loss through walls, roof, windows to colder outside temperature
Formula: Q
loss
= -Area*U*(delta T of outside-inside); U:heat transfer
coefficient
Typically, the larger cooling load will usually determine the
volume of air flow for the HVAC system.
If, the air volume is determined, then the heat load will be calculated
by simply using the air equation Q
supply air
= 1.08*CFM*(delta T)
CFM= Air flow rate, cubic feet per minute, derived from cooling load
Delta T = difference between air entering the heating coil and
leaving the coil. The leaving air temperature (LAT) must be raised
high enough to heat up the cold outside air and compensate for heat
losses though building walls, roof, and windows.

Useful air data derivation:
Air Constant 1.08 = .244 * (60/13.5), where:
.244 = specific heat of moist air at 70F and 50% rh, Btu/F-lb of dry air
60 = minutes in an hour
13.5 = specific volume of moist air at 70F and 50% rh

Slide 30

HVAC System Calculation Procedure
First step the designer will need to determine the total air volume
flow rate to offset the maximum heat gains or losses to the space or
to achieve the cleanroom specifications dictated by the process or
product requirements.
In pharmaceutical HVAC, because of the need to have very clean
spaces (clean room design) to manufacture sterile drugs mentioned
earlier, therefore sometimes the room cleanliness requirements will
determine the total volume of supply air into the room NOT the total
space heat gain.
The room cleanliness level is achieved by the volume of air supplied
into a given space which typically will be may times more than
needed to compensate for heat gains or losses.
Later on, we will discuss the air change rate required for meeting the
clean room design. However, regardless of how the total volume of
supply air is ultimately determined, the HVAC system calculation
procedure and formulas for sizing the system will remain valid.

Slide 31

Assume that this design is carried out for a building without any
clean room requirements.
Typically, the total space cooling load will determine the total supply
air*
Once the total supply air volume is known through cooling
calculations, the rest of air system can be calculated, and Air
Handling Unit configurations can be sized and selected.
Total supply air, SA(CFM) = Sensible Heat Gains (Btuh) * 1.08*
(Delta T)
Where:
Air Constant; 1.08 = .244 * (60/13.5), where:
.244 = specific heat of moist air at 70F and 50% rh, Btu/F-lb of dry air
60 = minutes in an hour
13.5 = specific volume of moist air at 70F and 50% rh
Delta T = the difference between air entering and air leaving the cooling
coil.

In facility HVAC applications, the amount of thermal energy in BTU (British Thermal Unit)
required for cooling is almost always larger than the amount of heating BTU.
Often times, multiple AHUs will be required to deliver the calculated total air volume to satisfy
the building HVAC needs. The number of AHUs are determined by a procedure called HVAC
zoning which will be explained in later lectures when we discuss HVAC system design.

Slide 32

HVAC formulas
Total Latent Heat = .68 * SA * ( delta W), where:
Air constant; .68 = 60/13.5 * (1076/7000)
1076 = average heat required to condense 1 lb of water vapor
from air
7000 = grains per pound, conversion factor.
The Grand Total Heat (GTH) that must be removed by
cooling coil in AHU in order to meet the building cooling
needs:
GTH = Latent heat + Sensible heat; or can be calculated
using the known supply air volume, SA.
Total heat, Btuh = 4.45 * SA * (delta enthalpy, h), where:
Air constant; 4.45 = 60/13.5
Delta h = the difference between entering air and leaving air
enthalpy, which can be read from the Psychrometric chart.

Going back to Psychrometric chart, Latent Heat in BTU is the amount of heat required to remove
moisture from supply air to make the air drier for cooling and dehumidifying in the summer
design conditions.
As indicated, the supply air volume is the first quantity that HVAC designer must know in order
to size the rest of the complete HVAC apparatus including AHU, chiller, boiler, etc

Slide 33

Heat and Moisture Loads from Infiltration
Infiltration colder outside air will leak into the building through
structure imperfections
In practice, heating calculation must take into account the heat loss
due to air infiltration.
The heat loss needed to raise the infiltrated air temperature is
calculated on the basis of infiltration flow rate.
The infiltration air flow rate depends on the total area of cracks
(imperfections) , type of cracks, and the air velocity pressure
differential across the crack areas.
Q = A x VP; where VP = 4005(delta P)
0.5
Where; Q = airflow (CFM)
A = area of opening (sq. ft.)
Delta P = the differential static pressure across the opening, i.e., room differential pressure
(in. w.g.)
VP = velocity pressureis the velocity pressure at the opening (in. w.g.)
Now, heat and moisture loads can be calculated using the air
flow in air formulas

Flow coefficient, C is the factor that convert static pressure differential existing both side of a
crack (or orifice) to kinetic energy.

VP, air velocity pressure across crack area in fpm = (4005)*delta P
1/2
(in. of wg)

If you remember, we said earlier that the building inside air pressure should be designed to be
positive to the outside, the reason is we want to control infiltration and dust from entering the
building through cracks and wall porosity. However, building positive internal pressure will
reduce but not eliminate infiltration entirely.

Slide 34

Moisture Transmission
Moisture in air will migrate from area of high moisture to another
area of lower moisture content. Moisture transmission will be in the
form of vapor until it condenses on a cold surface below the air dew
point.
Moisture transmission theory is similar to heat transmission
according to Ficks law:
M
w
= -DA*dC/dx
M
w
= moisture transfer, grains of moisture per hr
one grain = 1/7000 lb
D = diffusivity coefficient
A = surface or crack area
Moisture transmission expressed in a usable form
M
w
= h
m
A*(C
H
-C
L
)
h
m
= permeability of material
(C
H
-C
L
) = moisture difference from high to low, grain/lb

Moisture transmission is similar to heat flow except this is a transfer of mass with water vapor.
In real world practice, HVAC designers obtained the moisture difference graphically from
Psychrometric chart.
Use the Carrier or Cargocaire handbook equation to look up permeability of materials.
Permeability is derived based on test and experiments.
In practice, typically the supply air volume to the space is determined by heat gains or losses
from temperature difference, because the heat gain from moisture load through structure is not
large compared to the heat gains or losses from temperature difference.
System capability to dehumidify moisture is estimated by using this equation:
G = 4.5 * Volume of air * (C-C
w
)
G = total weight of water vapor absorbed by the supplied volume of air.
In cases when the product is hygroscopic or the space has to maintain a low level of humidity,
then moisture loads gained from air infiltration and vapor permeation became significant and
must be calculated and removed from space.

Slide 35

Particulate Transmission
In pharmaceutical environments, level of particle concentration in the room
must be controlled.
Source of particulate generation
99% of viable particulates are from personnel in the space and their
activities
Personnel presence
Human error
Non-routine activity such as repairs of dirty ceiling
Mechanical failure
Improper sanitization
Material transfer
Surface contaminants
Airborne contaminants from incoming air
The typical space has million of particles per cubic feet of air
The design of clean spaces in pharmaceutical environment required that the
HVAC system removes the particles generated in the room to meet a
classified environment defined by ISO standards to meet
pharmaceutical Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) regulations.

We will discuss ISO standards in later lectures. The particulate parameter must be taken into
consideration when the space cleanliness is a requirement as in clean room design for drug
manufacturing. As stated earlier, the specified particulate level in the room sometimes will
dictate the design of the AHU system over and above the normally required AHU air flow
capacity just to satisfy the building heat gains or losses.

Slide 1

Lecture 3: HVAC Equipment
Theories & Applications
Equipment Theories
Equipment Capacity Estimates

We will focus more on applications and only provide necessary theories to support applications.

Slide 2

HVAC Equipment
Following HVAC equipment categories and topics will be
covered
Air Conditioning or Cooling Equipment
Heating Equipment
Auxiliary Equipment
Unitary Equipment

Slide 3

Are primary equipment used to move air in an HVAC system
Air Handling Unit comprised of following components:
Fans for moving air
Supply Fans
Return Fans
Exhaust Fans
Coils for conditioning air
Cooling
Heating
Pre-heating
Humidifiers for moisture addition to air stream
Filters for air cleaning
Dampers air valves for air volume regulation
Controls provide auto operations and safeties

Slide 4

Heating and Venting Unit configuration
Standard Unit Configuration for Air Cleaning, Heating and
or Ventilating of the conditioned space.
RA = Return Air; RLFA = Relief Air; OA = Outside Air

This type of HV unit will provide filtered and heated air for heating application, typically used in
non-occupied space to prevent freezing conditions such as in mechanical equipment room.

Slide 5

Air Handling Unit Standard configuration
Standard AHU Configuration for Air Cleaning, Energy
Recovery, Heating, Cooling & Dehumidifying, Humidifying.
RA = Return Air; RLFA = Relief Air; OA = Outside Air
In Pharmaceutical HVAC, AHU Configurations will have
final filters and HEPA filters* to comply with GMP and
ISPE practices.

This standard configuration will provide filtered, heated, cooled, humidified or dehumidified air,
typically used in large, occupied space in commercial building. The unit can be used in
pharmaceutical GMP application serving classified areas if HEPA filtration will be installed in
distribution system. HEPA filters can be installed in the AHU or at the room ceilings as part of
air distribution system.

Pharma AHU configurations will be discussed in later lectures.

Slide 6

AHU Pharmaceutical configuration
Recovery, Cooling & Dehumidifying, Humidifying, and
Final Filter Air cleaning + HEPA filters*
Pharmaceutical AHU also has customized specifications
and different construction and quality levels to be GMP
compliant

*HEPA filters can be installed in the AHU or at the room ceilings depending on project
conditions.
AHU configuration and specifications used in pharmaceutical applications will be discussed in
later lectures.

Slide 7

AHU Pharmaceutical configuration
Recovery, Heating, Cooling & Dehumidifying, Humidifying,
and HEPA filters*
Pharmaceutical AHU also has customized specifications
and different construction and quality levels to be GMP
compliant

*HEPA filters can be installed in the AHU or at the room ceilings depending on available space,
system operations, and space controls..

Slide 8

Types of fans
Axial fans - The axial-flow fans have
blades that force air to move parallel to
the shaft about which the blades rotate.
Axial fans blow air across the axis of the
fan, linearly.
Centrifugal fan - fans blow air at right
angles to the intake of the fan, and spin
the air outwards to the outlet (by
deflection and centrifugal force). A
centrifugal fan produces more pressure
for a given air volume and noisier than
comparable axial fans.
8
Lecture 3: HVAC Equipment 2009
Stevens Institute of Technology

Different fan design will give different fan performance curves, which is a plot of air volume
flow rate capacities versus the fan static pressure, efficiencies, motor HP sizes, and operating
characteristics. The flow rate and pressure requirements of a desired HVAC system often will
dictate the type of fan to use to meet the HVAC system charateristics.

Slide 9

Air Handling Unit
FANS
Supply and return air fans in large, central air handling units should
be centrifugal type; either housed or unhoused (plenum fans).
Either Direct-drive fans or Belt-driven fans will be considered.
Direct Drive is preferred.
Motor speed should not exceed 1800 RPM. Maximum speed is
2500 RPM by special design with vendor
Fan speed control is either with Variable Inlet Vanes or Frequency
Drive Controller
Unit can have multiple supply fans inside the unit
Return fans, external to an air handling unit, may be housed
centrifugal fans (utility sets) or in-line centrifugal type as required by
the application and/or equipment arrangement .
Relief fan is typically NOT used in pharmaceutical application
due to room pressurization difficulty.

Check definitions of terminologies in the supplement materials for HVAC glossary

Slide 10

Air Handling Unit
FANS
When selecting fans:
Mechanical efficiency should be between 50 70%
Static pressure should not exceed 80% of the
operating limit of the fan class
To assure stable operation, fans should not be
selected near the top of the fan performance curve.
Refer to typical fan performance curve in next slide
for preferred selection range.
System effects shall be evaluated for parallel fan
operating in sequence.

Fans are classified based on their pressure capability, i.e. the compressive fore in inches of water
columns the fan exerted on the air to move it forward at certain velocity. The fan performance is
defined by plotting its static pressure capability versus its delivered air flow rate in Cubic feet of
air per minute, CFM. See next slide for a fan performance curve.
System Effect = When mechanical components such as a fan installed in a Air handling Unit
with distribution system, the effect of the system on the fan performance cannot be determined in
the factory but must be evaluated in situ. The system effect (usually pressure loss) can be
estimated (calculated) by system designer if the HVAC system and its distribution design can be
roughly defined in initial or preliminary design stages using partially complete architectural floor
plans, elevations and other pertinent building features.

Slide 11

Typical Fan Performance Curve
FAN SELECTION RANGE STAY IN THE GREEN AREA
Max. Surge

Fan performance curve normally shows a fan capability to deliver static pressure in inches of
water column (in wg) on the left vertical axis, air volume flow rate in Cubic Feet per Minute
(CFM) on the horizontal axis, and power in Motor Horse Power unit (HP) on the right vertical
axis. Designers typically select a fan with performance fall in the green area of the curve.
Notice the surge curve which indicate the fan will surge if it is forced to operate in that region.
Notice to the left of the surge maximum point, the RPM curve became unstable exhibiting a non-
linear relationship between static pressure and air flow rate.
The system curve originated from the (0,0) coordinates curving up to the right indicates the
HVAC system operating conditions in terms of required system air flow rate and the associated
friction losses imposed by the selected HVAC apparatus and ductwork distributing the required
air flow rate, e.g. if the manufacturing space required 30,000 CFM the design HVAC system will
need a fan that can deliver at least ~4.75 inches of static pressure as shown by the intersecting
point between the system curve and fan RPM curve (marked by a circle). The RPM curve shows
the fan performance capability along that curve.

Slide 12

Air Handling Unit
COOLING COILS tube with fins for heat transfer
Cooling coil face velocity should be no more than 450 feet per
minute (FPM) for recirculating (with returned air) air systems.
Lower velocities should be considered on 100% outside air
systems due to condensation.
Cooling coils should be designed with the following parameters
established by corporate and industry practices:
Design fluid delta T 12-15F
Maximum fin spacing 10 FPI
Maximum coil depth 10 Rows
Maximum airside delta P 1.10 w.g.
Fluid velocity 2 to 8 FPS
Maximum fluid delta P 40 ft. w.g.
Maximum coil height 48

The cooling coil is a critical component of air conditioning. Decisions made to select a coil
impact the initial investment as well as the costs of installing, providing, and maintaining thermal
comfort.
As an example, the amount of material in the coil fins, tubes, overall size determines the
coils initial cost; more material requires a larger outlay of capital. The size of the cooling coil
also dictates the air handlers weight and footprint: the larger the coil, the larger the air handler
must be to house it. A larger air handler may also require a larger mechanical room (reducing
rentable/usable floor space), adversely affect service access, or compromise the arrangement of
ductwork and piping.
The following equation quantifies the heat-transfer process:
Q = U A LMTD where,
Q = amount of heat transferred, Btu/hr (W)
U = heat-transfer coefficient, Btu/hr ft F (W/m K)
A = effective surface area for heat transfer, ft (m)
LMTD = log-mean temperature difference across the coil surface, F (C)
Increasing any one of these variables (heat-transfer coefficient, surface area, or log-mean temperature difference) results in more
heat transfer and ultimately improves the life-cycle value of the cooling coil.

Slide 13

Air Handling Unit
COOLING COILS
Cooling coils located outdoors (e.g., in roof top air handling units),
may be subject to freezing in colder climates and proper freeze
protection precautions must be taken.
Coils in systems that operate with 100% outside air are also at risk
of freezing during cold weather season.
Use of glycol, heat tracing, recirculating pumps, and/or other
means should be applied in these applications to prevent coil
freezing.
Outside air dampers on all air handling units should be modulated to
the closed position whenever the system is not in operation to
prevent possibility of coil freezed from thermal migration.

Because the cooling coil is an integral part of the air distribution system, its geometry size,
number of rows, fin spacing, and fin profile contributes to the airside pressure drop and
affects the sound power level of the fans. (Fan power needed to circulate air through the duct
system may warrant extra sound attenuation at the air handler.)
Beside affecting the air-side performance and costs, cooling coils are an integral part of the
chilled water system, too (we will learn about the water-side of the HVAC systems in later
lectures). The extent to which cooling coils raise the chilled water temperature dramatically
affects both capital investment in chilled water piping and pumping power. Coil performance can
even influence the efficiency of the chiller!

Slide 14

Air Handling Unit
COOLING COILS with DESICCANT DEHUMIDIFIER CONSIDERATIONS
Desiccant dehumidifiers are used when system operations impose large
dehumidification loads and/or space requires low humidity levels that would
be difficult to achieve with chilled water cooling-type dehumidification.
Dehumidifiers can be configured to condition only part or all of the incoming
air. A pre-cooling coil should be provided upstream of the desiccant unit to
reduce the size of the dehumidifier and to impose a more uniform entering
air condition.
The use of a desiccant system affects the selection and sizing of the
downstream (primary) air handling unit cooling coil.
The primary cooling coil only need to handle the sensible load of the
supply air, a higher chilled water temperature may be acceptable.
The sensible cooling load will be higher due to the elevated temperature
of the air leaving the desiccant wheel, this load must be included in the
selected cooling coil capacity

Depending on the configuration of the AHU, the addition of a dehumidifier may also increase the
pressure drop and required increased horsepower of the air handling unit fans. Side access for
maintenance of the dehumidifier and filter replacement need to be provided with the AHU
design.

Slide 15

Air Handling Unit
HEATING COILS
Heating coil face velocity should be no more than 500-700 FPM for
recirculating air systems.
Lower velocities should be considered on 100% outside air
systems to avoid carry-overs
Heating coils should be designed with the following parameters
established by corporate and industry practices:
Design fluid delta T 20F
Maximum fin spacing N/A
Maximum coil depth 2-4 Rows
Maximum airside delta P 1.10 w.g.
Fluid velocity 2 to 8 FPS
Maximum fluid delta P 40 ft. w.g.
Maximum coil height No taller than unit or
cooling coil

Carry-overs excessive air velocity causes high pressure drop across coils and carry air/moisture
or dirt particles to downstream components.

Slide 16

Air Handling Unit
HEATING COILS IN AHU ARE IN EITHER PRE-HEAT, HEATING
OR RE-HEAT POSITIONS.
Hot water is the preferred medium for heating or re-heating coils, but
not for pre-heating coil due to potential freezing.
A circulating pump should be provided in the heating water loop serving the
preheat coil to prevent coil freezing. The pump should be cycled based on
outdoor air temperature to maintain a minimum tube velocity of 6 FPS
through the coil whenever the outside air temperature is below 40F.
An alternative to the circulating pump/coil combination above is the vertical
integral face and bypass (VIFB) coil. These coils are piped with a 2-
position, on-off, valve. Whenever there is a demand for heating, full water
flow is provided through the coil to avoid freezing. Reduced water flow
should never be allowed when the entering air temperature is below 40F.
Temperature control is achieved by modulating the integrated clamshell
dampers to allow a portion of the air to bypass the coil.

Refer to AHU configuration slides for location of heating coil positions. Pre-heat and Heating
position could be with the same coil if the heating requirements are not too severe. Pre-heat coil
often use steam to avoid freezing protection needs.

Slide 17

HVAC Coils
Various heating and cooling coil configurations. Water coils have
water entering at the bottom connections and leaving the coils from
the top connections to avoid air entrainments
Lecture 3: HVAC Equipment 2009 Stevens
Institute of Technology 17

Air entrained in the heating water system will reduce heat transfer efficiency and may cause
damage to pump by causing cavitation (implosion of air bubbles) at pump inlet.

Slide 18

Air Handling Unit
HUMIDIFIERS
Humidifiers should be sized based on minimum indoor design criteria for the
space and the ASHRAE standard.
Indoor air quality standards may limit the use of utility steam for
humidification due to the chemical treatment used in the generation system.
For pharmaceutical humidifiers, humidification of unclassified spaces the
requirement is to use utility steam treated with food grade additives.
For humidification of Pharmaceutical GMP production spaces, which
includes controlled space, ISO classified and ISPE Grade classified
environments, the use of chemically free utility steam is preferred.
The use of process grade pure steam is an acceptable alternative for the
humidification GMP production area, however, discouraged due to the
expense of generation and its corrosive nature.
For humidification of air that comes in direct contact with the product or
sterilized components, pure steam is used for safety and economics.

The decision of which steam grade to use for humidification in pharmaceutical GMP applications
usually require an assessment providing an economic justification due to high operating costs.
Pure steam is highly corrosive and expensive to generate.

Slide 19

Steam Injection Humidifiers
Show manifold and steam grids with small holes to spray steam
vapor into air stream. The controls are an integrated part of the
humidifiers. These can be mounted in ductwork or in AHU.
Integrated control valve
Steam Manifolds
Steam grids

Slide 20

Air Handling Unit
AIR FILTRATION
ASHRAE Standard 52.2-1999 defined the minimum efficiency
reporting value (MERV) for all air filters except high efficiency
particulate air (HEPA) filters.
The MERV rating of the system is a function of both the filter and the
filter holding device.
Filter frames should include gasketing on the frame to filter sealing
surface to minimize leakage around the filter. MERV 7 filters
(equivalent to 30% by ASHRAE 52.1-1992) should be nominally 2
deep. MERV 14 filters (equivalent to 95% by ASHRAE 52.1-1992)
should be high capacity, nominally 12 deep cartridge type or 32
deep bag type.
MERV filters should be rated and sized for a maximum face velocity
of 500 FPM.
Design of pharmaceutical classified spaces should incorporate
HEPA filters with an efficiency of 99.99% @ 0.3 microns and larger.

Slide 21

Air Handling Unit
AIR FILTRATION
Holding frames for HEPA filters mounted in air handling units should include
an internal knife edge flange to seal into a gel filled channel on the filter.
High capacity filters used in air handling units should be rated and sized for
a maximum face velocity of 500 FPM.
If space or accessibility is limited within the air handling unit, duct mounted
HEPA filter boxes are acceptable and maintenance provisions shall be
provided to support filter testing and replacement procedures.
HEPA filters, whether ceiling mounted terminal units or a bank within the air
handling unit, must include access ports to introduce and monitor the
aerosol challenge materials upstream filter for integrity testing.
Terminal ceiling HEPA filters should be room-side replaceable. Maximum
actual filter media face velocity should not exceed 100 FPM. Note that this
may result in lower airflow per terminal unit than some manufacturers
published catalog data. Terminal HEPAs should be sized as follows:
24 X 24 TERMINAL HEPA MAXIMUM 360 CFM EACH
24 X 48 TERMINAL HEPA MAXIMUM 720 CFM EACH

Slide 22

HVAC System Design Considerations
Air Handling Unit for Pharmaceutical Environment
Air handling units serving GMP areas should be designed to
facilitate cleaning, i.e. can be washed down.
Unit interior should be designed to minimize any areas where
microbial growth could occur.
Air handling units located in mechanical rooms should be arranged
to allow general maintenance and coil-pull space.
In addition, service aisles for removal of fans and other large
components should be planned and designated on mechanical
room layout drawings.
Adequate access within air handling units should be provided
upstream and downstream of all unit components to facilitate
validation testing, cleaning and preventative maintenance.
Manufacturing areas supporting key unit operations require
maximum on-stream reliability. The air handling units supporting
these areas should be configured for partial operation during
routine maintenance operations to support this 24/7 requirement
Redundancy must be built-in, Uninterruptable Power or
Emergency Power must be provided for critical services

Slide 23

Major Mechanical Equipment
The HVAC air handling systems cooling and heating coils are
supplied with chilled water or hot heating water from the
mechanical equipment. This is commonly referred to as the wet or
water-side of HVAC system.
Typically, these major mechanical equipment are located in a
central utility area or mechanical room. The cooling or heating
medium is pumped to the coils via distribution piping systems.
For cooling following refrigeration equipment are used:
Centrifugal liquid cooled chillers
Modular Air-cooled liquid chillers
Helical rotary HVAC liquid chillers
Scroll Air-cooled chiller systems
Absorption liquid chillers
Cooling tower

Air and Piping distribution configurations will be discussed in later lectures.

Slide 24

Theory of refrigeration
A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration
cycle: 1) condensing coil, 2) expansion valve,
3) evaporator coil, 4) compressor

Condensing coil condenses the refrigerant vapor back into liquid form and rejects heat
Expansion valve Controls the flow rate of refrigerant to the evaporator coil and lower its
pressure
Evaporator coil evaporates the refrigerant into vapor and absorbs heat from the space
Compressor raise the refrigerant vapor pressure and pump the compressed vapor to the
condenser to be condensed and the refrigeration cycle repeats

Slide 25

Air Conditioning Equipment
Refrigeration Vapor Compression Cycle Theory
The most common refrigeration cycle uses an electric motor to drive
a compressor.
Since evaporation occurs when heat is absorbed, and condensation
occurs when heat is released, air conditioners use a compressor to
cause pressure changes between two compartments, and actively
condense and pump a refrigerant around.
A refrigerant is pumped into the cooled compartment (the evaporator
coil), where the low pressure causes the refrigerant to evaporate
into a vapor absorbing heat from the surrounding air stream.
In the other compartment (the condenser), the refrigerant vapor is
compressed to a higher pressure and forced through another heat
exchange coil, condensing into a liquid, rejecting the previously
absorbed heat from the cooled space.

Slide 26

HVAC Chillers
Most HVAC chillers operate as a vapor-compression
machine to provide chilled water (chillers) to cooling coil in
AHU or provide direct cooling (DX unit) to a packaged air
conditioner.

Vapor compression cycle consists of four steps as mentioned below:
Compression: Low pressure refrigerant gas is compressed, thus raising its pressure by
expanding mechanical energy. There is a corresponding increase in temperature along with
increase in temperature.
Condensation: The high pressure, high temperature gas is cooled by outdoor air or water that
serves as heat sink and condenses to a liquid form at high pressure.
Expansion: The high pressure liquid flows through an orifice in the expansion valve, thus
reducing the pressure. A small portion of liquid flashes to gas due to pressure reduction.
Evaporation: The low pressure liquid absorbs the heat indoor air or water and evaporates as gas
or vapor form. The low pressure vapor flows to the compressor and the process repeats.

Slide 27

Refrigeration Absorption Cooling Theory
Instead of having an electric compressor, the absorption cooling
system uses a "thermal" compressor (consisting of the generator,
absorber, pump and heat exchanger) to boil water vapor
(refrigerant) out of a lithium bromide/water solution and compresses
the refrigerant vapor to a higher pressure.
Increasing the refrigerant pressure also increases its condensing
temperature. The refrigerant vapor condenses to a liquid at this
higher pressure and temperature.
This condensing temperature is hotter than the condenser water,
heat moves from the condensed refrigerant to the condenser water
and is rejected. The high-pressure liquid then passes through a
throttling valve that reduces its pressure. Reducing its pressure
also reduces its boiling point temperature.

Slide 28

Refrigeration Absorption Cooling Theory Contd
The low-pressure liquid then passes into the evaporator and is
boiled at this lower temperature and pressure. Because the boiling
temperature is now lower than the temperature of the chilled water,
heat moves from the chilled water stream into the evaporator and
causes this refrigerant liquid to boil.
Removing heat from the water in this manner causes the water to be
chilled making chilled water.
The refrigerant vapor then passes into the absorber where it returns
to a liquid state as it is pulled into the lithium bromide solution (the
absorption process). The diluted lithium bromide solution is pumped
back to the generator.
Because lithium bromide (the absorbent) does not boil, water (the
refrigerant) is easily separated by adding heat. The resultant water
vapor passes into the condenser, the absorbent solution returns to
the absorber, and the process repeats.

Slide 29

Single-effect Absorption Cycle Schematic

Slide 30

Single-effect Absorption Cycles with pumps and heat exchanger

Slide 31

Vapor-Compression and Single-effect Absorption Cycles
Comparison

The difference is in refrigerant compression methods

Slide 32

Types of Chillers
Chillers are categorized based on thermodynamic cycle, compressor
and drive, how it rejects heat, and mechanical design
Reciprocating Liquid Chiller
Use Reciprocating compressor (piston)
Welded hermetic 25 ton chiller capacity
Semi-hermetic 200 ton chiller capacity
Direct-drive open up to 450 ton-ref capacity
Centrifugal Liquid chillers
Use Open or Hermetic centrifugal compressor (impeller)
Package unit from 80 ton to 2400 ton-ref capacity
Field-erect unit up to 10,000 ton-ref capacity
Screw Liquid Chillers
Use Screw compressor positive displacement machine
Packaged unit from 30 to 1250 ton-ref capacity

There are other type of chillers such as absorption chiller and turbine-driven chiller, however, the
most commonly used type in commercial and pharmaceutical HVAC applications are the
types of chillers mentioned:
Reciprocating
Screw
Centrifugal
Absorption chiller is ONLY used when an economical
source of heat (thermal compressor) is available. There
are installation and safety issues associated with use of
absorption chiller.

Slide 33

Types of Chillers
In vendors published catalog, chillers performance is expressed
using Cooling Coefficient of Performance, COP
c
:
COP
c
= useful refrigerating effect / net energy input
Energy Efficient ration, EER Btu/(W-hr)
Conversion for 1 W-hr = 3.412 Btu
Due to seasonal factor, an averaged performance of a refrigerating
system over the entire season is called:
Seasonal Energy Efficient Ration, SEER Btu/(W-hr)
Refrigeration system are also rated in terms of power requirements
HP/ton-ref = 12,000 Btu/(ton-hr)/(COP)(2545 Btu/(ton-hr)) = 4.72/COP
Or in SI unit
kW/ton-ref= 12,000 Btu/(ton-hr)/(COP)(3412 Btu/(kW-hr)) = 3.52/COP
Above conversion factors allow engineers to use either
performance ratings

Slide 34

Cross section of a Screw Compressor

Slide 35

PACKAGED CHILLER COMPARISON MATRIX
TYPE / CAPACITY / EFFICIENCY (1)
Compressor
Drive Type
Condenser &
Energy Type
Capacity
Range
(Tons)
Refrigerant
Type
Average Full
Load
Efficiency
Average Part
Load
Efficiency
Comment
S
c
r
o
l
l
Air-cooled 10 150
R-22
R-410a
1.25 kW/T 13.5 EER
Water-cooled 50 150 R-410a 0.60 kW/T 15 EER
R
o
t
a
r
y

S
c
r
e
wAir-cooled 150 525
R-134a
1.20 kW/T 14.5 EER
Water-cooled 90 220
R-22
R-407c
0.65 kW/T
0.55 kW/T
NPLV (2)
C
e
n
t
r
i
f
u
g
a
l
Electric 300 3000 R-134a 0.60 kW/T
0.45 kW/T
NPLV (3)
Steam Turbine 750 8000
R-134a
9.0 lbs/hr/T
1.25 COP
1.9 COP
Gas Engine 500 800 R-134a 1.9 COP 2.4 COP
Heat Recovery
(Compound)
500 3000 R-134a
A
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n
1-Stage
LP Steam
100 1377 Brine
18 Lbs/Hr/T
0.70 COP
2-Stage
HP Steam
200 750 Brine
10 Lbs/Hr/T
1.2 COP
1.1 COP
Two-Stage
Direct-fired
Gas
200 750 Brine 1.0 COP 1.1 COP
(1) Based on Chiller 2007 data
(2) NPLVs as low as 0.36 can be achieved with VFD
(3) NPLVs as low as 0.36 can be achieved with VFD

NPLV = Nominal Part Load Value.
A convenient tabulation of chillers types and corresponding available capacity and efficiency
ratings

Slide 36

Chiller Equipment Design
The type of chiller machines that are suitable depends on
the project specific design criteria, fuel availability, and
economics.
All else being equal, standard practice is to use electric,
water-cooled chiller over the other types.
The chiller compressor type is determined based on
optimal combination of capacity range, unit noise level and
efficiency.
Water-cooled chiller are generally more efficient than air-
cooled, therefore shall be used as applicable.
Air-cooled chiller can be considered when a risk
assessment dictated the requirement of emergency power
for continuous chiller operation and a reliable back-up
water source is not available.

Chiller selection rules according to one vendor:
For chiller below 150 ton, scroll compressor shall be used; reciprocating compressor is not
recommended.
From 150 ton to 500 ton, rotary screw chiller shall be used.
Above 500 ton, the centrifugal chiller shall be used and an economic assessment shall be
performed on chiller selection to evaluate all available alternate energy sources such as gas,
steam driven chillers, steam absorption chiller and operating costs of the load profiles with
applicable utility rate structure

Slide 37

Chiller Heat Rejection Equipment
If its condenser rejects heat to a water source; its a water-
cooled chiller
If its condenser rejects heat to a surrounding air; its an air-
cooled chiller
Cooling Tower
Water-cooled chiller rejects heat to a cooling tower via a
condenser water loop.
The condenser water to be cooled is sprayed in the cooling
tower to expose the water to a very large surface area to
atmospheric air
A portion of this water absorbed heat from air and evaporated
taking way the heat.
The process involves both mass and heat transfer as
illustrated in the following psychrometric chart

Slide 38

Psychrometric Analyses of Air process through Cooling
Tower
EA Conditions 1
LA Conditions
EA Conditions 2

EA = Entering Air to the cooling tower
LA = Leaving Air from the cooling tower
EA Condition1 or 2 enter the cooling tower along the wet-bulb temperature and enthalpy line at
h
A
, EA1 air will absorb heat and moisture from the condenser water and leave the cooling tower
at line h
B
. EA2 will lose heat to condenser water but will absorb moisture from the water to also
leave at line h
B
. The leaving air LA will be saturated air.
EA1 and EA2 are two separate events that do not happen at the same time.

Slide 39

Open Evaporative
Cooling Tower
Natural draft Hyperbolic
Cooling Tower

Two types of cooling tower.
Natural draft Hyperbolic Cooling Tower is used in very large installation, its a familiar sight at
nuclear power plants.
Most small manufacturing plants use the forced-draft cooling tower which uses fans to blow or
draw air through the cooling tower fill packing surfaces.

Slide 40

Refrigerants - is the fluid used for energy exchanges in a
refrigeration system
Refrigerant Thermodynamic Characteristics (Performance)
High latent enthalpy of vaporization high refrigerating effect per
unit mass
Low freezing temperature cant freeze in normal operations
High critical temperature for ease of compression
Positive evaporating temperature avoid in-leakage
Low condensing temperature for economical compression
system
Physical and Chemical Characteristics (Reliability)
High dielectric strength for vapor contact motor windings
High heat transfer coefficient
Oil solubility avoid lubrication and oil logging problems
Water solubility avoid frozen water in device and corrosion
Inertness and stability non reactive and stable over time

Slide 41

Safety Characteristics
Non-flammable do not support combustion when mix with air
Non-toxic to human or generate harmful contaminations
Environmental Characteristics
Ozone depletion potential (ODP) should be none or low
Global warming potential (GWP) trapping radiation emitting from
earth, i.e. greenhouse effect
Classes of compounds & compositional groups:
Halocarbons contribute to global warming
Hydrocarbons
Organic
Inorganic

CFC refrigerant = A chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is an organic compound that contains carbon,
chlorine, and fluorine, produced as a volatile derivative of methane and ethane. A common
subclass is the hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which contain hydrogen, as well. They are
also commonly known by the DuPont trade name Freon. The most common representative is
dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12 or Freon-12). Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants,
propellants (in aerosol applications), and solvents. The manufacture of such compounds is being
phased out by the Montreal Protocol because they contribute to ozone depletion.
Montreal Protocol -1990-1992 confirmed in Copenhagen. CFC refrigerants must be phased out
in Jan, 1 1996 (for industrialized nations) and 2010 (for developing nations).

Slide 42

Refrigerant Regulations
Certain legacy refrigerants will be banned from use due to
their Ozone depletion and global warming potentials
Refrigerant HCFC-22, HFC-134a, HFC-404A, HFC-407A,
and HFC-407C in comfort and process air conditioning and
R-717 (ammonia) in industrial applications are the currently
used refrigerants.
HCFC-22 which will be restricted from the year 2004 due to
its ozone depletion.
HFC-134a is the preferred refrigerant for most applications.
A refrigerant recovery unit capable of servicing the largest
chiller on the site should be available for maintenance and
refrigerant recovery.

See ASHRAE Standard 15 for safety and design criteria of Refrigeration system
Ammonia is not appropriate for direct refrigeration, however has some renewed interest due to
phased out of CFC. Ammonia use as secondary system that circulate chilled water or as a
secondary refrigerant is a viable alternative.

Slide 43

Refrigerants - Compositional groups:
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) R-12, 11, 114, 115 are
phased-out
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC has nonzero ODP)
R-22, 123 is being phased out.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC, ODP=0) HFC-134a
replacing CFC and HCFC
Hydrocarbons (ODP=0; low=GWP) propane, ammonia
are flammable and toxic.
Standards used for Refrigerant Analysis
ARI Standard 700 Gas chromatography
UL Standard 2182 Critical flammable ratio

Montreal Protocol -1990-1992 confirmed in Copenhagen.
Phased out CFC in Jan, 1 1996 (industrialized nations) and 2010 (developing nations)
Cap consumption of HCFC Jan, 1 1996, will phase out 2030. From 2020 to 2030 only for
existing equipment
Ammonia toxic at 35-50 ppm, human nose detects at <5ppm. Flammable between 15.2-27.4%
volume mixed with air (ASHRAE STD-34) (UL, DOT). Ignitable at 1200F.

Slide 44

Heating Equipment
Heating equipment transmits or add energy to an HVAC system to
provide heating effect to the controlled environment or process
Typically, these major mechanical heating equipment are located in
a central utility area or mechanical room separate from the
conditioned space.
For heating - Boilers are used to generate either steam or hot water
for distributing heating energy to HVAC apparatus
Available Types of Boiler
Cast Iron
Fire-tube
Water-tube
Steam

Slide 45

Heating Equipment
Boilers is a pressure vessel designed to transfer combustion
heat to a fluid for heating
Boilers are classified based on operating temperature, pressure,
construction, type of fuel, steam or hot water generation, or final
usage such as industrial process, commercial or residential heating .
Boilers are constructed in compliance with ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code
ASME rated boilers based on the operating pressure conditions
Low pressure boiler below 15 psi for steam; and 160 psi for hot
water
Medium & High pressure boiler above 15 psi for steam or 160
psi or 250F for water

Slide 46

Heating Equipment
Boiler construction
Cast Iron boilers are constructed of individually cast iron
sections assembled into blocks.
Steel boilers are heat exchangers constructed of one assembly
by welding with tubes inside the shell.
Steel boilers can be classified into two general types:
Fire-tube boilers The heat source is inside the tubes and
the water to be heated is outside in the shell.
Water-tube boilers The heat source is outside the tubes
and the water to be heated is inside the tubes.

Slide 47

Heating Equipment
Boiler design & application
For operating pressure below 350 psig, packaged wetback, four-
pass fire-tube boiler should be used due to:
its higher efficiency
more economical installation
lower maintenance cost
its ability to respond to load changes with minimum variation
in steam pressure.
For operating pressure above 350 psig, industrial water tube
boiler should be used.
Industrial water-tube boiler provides fast steaming and
superheated steam capability.

Slide 48

Cast Iron boilers with dry-base design firebox is beneath fluid section

Different boiler design configurations

Slide 49

Cast-Iron boiler
Cast Iron boilers with wet
base design (firebox is
surrounded by fluid
sections except for
necessary openings)

Slide 50

Scotch Marine Boiler
One popular steel
boiler design is
Scotch Marine type
Scotch Marine is
one of the most
popular fire-tube
boiler design.
Its widely used in
pharmaceutical
installations

Slide 51

Scotch Marine Boiler
Fire-tube and Water-
tube boiler diagrams
showing different
boiler design
configurations

Slide 52

A large commercial Cast Iron boiler
Smith Model 28HE

Slide 53

A large industrial fire-tube boiler
Made by Cleaver Brooks company

Slide 54

A large industrial watertube boiler
by Cleaver Brooks

Slide 55

Auxiliary Equipment
Auxiliary equipment or general components will be needed to
complete the functional HVAC systems
The auxiliary equipment can be installed in a central utility space or
located within HVAC distribution systems.
Specialty auxiliary equipment
Heat Exchangers shell and tube or plate and frame heat
exchanger design used to exchange heat or cool between two
different fluid streams
Air separators a vessel designed to separate air in a liquid
distribution system such as chilled water or hot water heating. A
liquid distribution system will not be able to transfer heat
effectively or circulate properly with air in it.
Expansion tanks a vessel designed to accommodate water
system pressure fluctuations in a system. Any cooling or heating
fluid system will experience thermal expansion and contraction

The auxiliary systems will be mentioned here for information and to make students aware of the
needs for them. However, we will not discuss them in details.
Interested students can search for more information from vendors using the internet.

Slide 56

Auxiliary Equipment
Auxiliary equipment or general components needed to complete
functional HVAC systems
Specialty Items
Condensate Receiver Unit A vessel and pump skid designed
to accumulate condensate from steam system. Use to remove
condensate from steam system
Deaerators a vessel designed to remove air and non-
condensible gases from condensate return to boiler. Standard is
to use deaerator that will remove all dissolved oxygen in excess
of .005 cc per liter.
Boiler feed systems a system comprised of vessel and
pumps design to combine condensate return and make-up water
of certain quality and flow rate to feed the boiler and to
accommodate any unpredictability of condensate return from
distribution system.

Boiler feed system is needed to smooth out demands from the system usages

Slide 57

Auxiliary Equipment
Specialty Items
Boiler water treatment - A chemical feed system, which is a
package usually supplied by a vendor specializing in water
treatment used to meter chemicals into the boiler make-up water
to control alkalinity, scale, corrosion, foaming, etc Additional
water treatment requirements may be necessary based on
alkalinity, scale and control factors associated with make-up
water.
Drives (Motor, turbine, and others) Electric motors, turbine,
gas engines are typical drives used with HVAC equipment and
distribution pumping systems.

Slide 58

Auxiliary Equipment
Specialty Items
Centrifugal pumps - provide the primary force to distribute and
recirculate hot and chilled water in a variety of space conditioning
systems.
The pump provides a predetermined flow of water to the terminal
heat transfer units such as heating or cooling coils to offset the
space heat load.
The use of centrifugal pump in hydronic systems that use pumps
include (1) chilled water and condenser water circuits to cooling
towers, (2) boiler feed water, and (3) hot water system.
These will be discussed in the next lecture.

Fans and Pumps are the ubiquitous workhorse in the HVAC fluid handling systems.

Slide 59

Frame-Mounted End-Suction Pump on Base Plate

Slide 60

Base-Mounted, Horizontal (Axial), Split-Case,
Single-Stage, Double-Suction Pump

Slide 61

Typical Pump Performance Curve

Similar to fan performance curve, the pump performance curve shows a pump or a class of
pumps capability by plotting the total pressure in feet of water (ft of head in British unit) or PSI
(in metric SI unit) that the pump can put out at different flow rate in Gallons per Minute or
GPM.
Superimpose on the Head versus GPM are the impeller sizing curves showing different impeller
sizes in inches (5 to 7), the motor HP dotted lines and the pump efficiency curves in
percentages.
The given pump is selected by overlaying the system operating curve starting from (0,0)
coordinates as shown in the next slide

Slide 62

System Curve vs Pump Performance Curve

Similar to fan operating region, superimpose the system curve onto pump curve to determine the
system operating point (marked by a circle). The system curve required total heads and flow
rates are calculated (estimated) from the designed fluid handling systems such as chiller water or
heating water loops.

Slide 63

Unitary or Packaged Equipment
Packaged equipment is usually stand-alone HVAC equipment serving a
dedicated space or purpose. Some examples are:
Roof-top AC unit
Room air-conditioners and humidifiers
Unitary heat pump
Fancoil Unit
These unitary equipment are normally used in residential,
commercial air conditioning application but have limited use in
pharmaceutical HVAC applications. Their use is for very small office
areas or administrative spaces.
Most installations use central HVAC systems for manufacturing
spaces. Therefore this course is focus on the large central HVAC
installation, however equipment theories are applicable in either
case.

Many of these unitary equipment operate with the same previously discussed principles and
theories except these come in a complete package from the equipment manufacturers.

Slide 1

Lecture 4: HVAC Systems &
Auxiliary Equipment
System configurations
Central Mechanical Equipment
System Design

This lecture we will begin to discuss HVAC system design.

Slide 2

Lecture 4: HVAC Systems Design
HVAC Systems
Air-Side Systems
All-Air
Air and Water
All Water
Decentralized Cooling and Heating
Heat Pump
Heat Recovery
Water-Side Mechanical Systems
Chilled Water System & Condenser Water System
Steam Heating
Hot Water Heating
Thermal Energy Storage
Distribution System Design
2

Slide 3

Air systems
All-Air System Configuration
The All-Air HVAC system using a central Air Handling Unit(s) and a
ductwork system to supply or extract energy (in BTU) from the
conditioned space to heat or cool that space, respectively.
All-Air system has two basic configurations
Single-Duct single-duct system carries cooling and heating coils in
series in air flow path. Its has common air distribution system that
supplies air to the space. Capacity control can be either by varying
the temperature or volume of the supply air
Dual-Duct system carries cooling and heating coils in parallel or
series-parallel path. Capacity control is by mixing the two air streams
together and or varying the volume of air. Duct system can be two
separate cold and hot air systems that mixes the air at a room
terminal device.
By far, most modern HVAC systems is installed as a Single-duct
configuration. We will not discuss Dual-Duct in this course.
3

Textbook uses Single-zone terminology which is not 100% correct, Single-zone is a sub-category
of single-duct configuration system. Single-duct system can serve one single zone or more than
one zone (multiple zones)

Slide 4

Typical Dual-duct system configuration
Lecture 4: HVAC Systems Design 2009
Stevens Institute of Technology 4

One distinct feature of dual-duct system is, as the name implied, the system has two duct
distributions and a mix box to control individual room/zone temperature

Slide 5

All-Air
Single-Duct configuration is further divided into following sub-categories:
Constant Volume (CAV) Supply air volumes does not change with space
heat loads.
Constant Volume with Reheat
Single zone group all interior spaces as one zone
Multiple-zone group interior spaces with similar heat loads into (multiple)
separate zones.
Variable Air Volume (VAV) Supply air volumes change with space heat
loads.
Different ways and devices to control loads with CAV & VAV systems
Variable Air Volume with Reheat
Bypass VAV variation of VAV terminal device design
Fan-powered variation of VAV terminal device design
Induction variation of VAV terminal device design
Variable diffusers variation of VAV terminal device design
Fan Throttling Varies system air volume at the central supply fan in AHU
5

Constant Volume with Reheat is the most commonly used type in pharmaceutical
manufacturing, especially in classified areas.
Variable Air Volume or (VAV) is typically use in administrative areas such as office space

Slide 6

Single-duct Constant Volume with reheat
and by-pass box
Constant Volume system varies the supply air temperature in
response to the space heat gains or losses

Space temperature can be regulated at the central coils in the AHU or locally with space
thermostat after the reheat coils

Slide 7

Single-duct Variable Air Volume system
with reheat configuration
This system varies the volume of air not the temperature to
respond to the space heat loads

In many VAV systems, reheat coils will still be needed for maintaining specified conditions for
some rooms which have different load profiles.

Slide 8

Air Flow Diagram
8

In addition to the main AHU, return fans may be required to overcome high pressure drop in
long ducts, to provide negative pressure where needed, and to improve control of the air flows.

Air handlers and return fans may be located either indoors or on the roof.
Constant volume control boxes contain dampers and flow measuring devices. Dampers may be
controlled by electric or pneumatic operators.

Slide 9

All-Air System Advantages
Central mechanical location for major equipment allows operation
and maintenance to be performed in unoccupied areas.
Allows the maximum range of choices of filtration equipment,
vibration and noise control, and the selection of high quality and
durable equipment.
Keeping piping, electrical equipment, wiring, filters, and vibration
and noise-producing equipment away from the conditioned area
minimizes service needs and reduces potential harm to occupants,
furnishings, and processes.
Offer the greatest potential for use of outside air for economizer
cooling instead of mechanical refrigeration for cooling.
Seasonal changeover from heating to cooling or vice versa is
simpler with central air system
Central air system readily adapts to automatic controls and building
automation and integrates with other building management systems
9

Slide 10

All-Air System Advantages
Wide choice of zoning, flexibility, and humidity control under
different operating conditions is possible, with the availability of
simultaneous heating and cooling even during off-season periods.
Air-to-air and other heat recovery may be readily incorporated.
Permit good design flexibility for optimum air distribution, draft
control, and adaptability to varying local space requirements.
The systems are well suited to applications requiring unusual
exhaust or makeup air quantities (negative or positive
pressurization, etc.). This is needed for pharmaceutical applications
All-air systems adapt well to winter with central humidifier
By increasing the air change rate and using high-quality controls, it
is possible for these systems to maintain the closest environmental
condition of dry bulb temperature and relative humidity. Today,
some all-air systems can maintain essentially very tight range space
conditions.
10

Modern system design and controls can control to +/- .5 F.

Slide 11

All-Air System Disadvantages:
Require additional ceiling space for duct clearance, which reduces
usable floor space and increases the height of the building.
Depending on layout, larger floor plans are necessary to allow
enough space for the vertical shafts required for air distribution in
multi-story buildings.
Layout of terminal devices requires close cooperation between
architectural, mechanical, and structural designers to ensure
operability and serviceability.
Air testing and balancing, particularly on large systems, can be more
difficult.
Being a central air system, perimeter heating is not always available
to provide temporary heat during construction of the space.
Perimeter heating may still be needed to avoid cold spots near
windows
11

Especially for VAV system design, in winter the supply air volume is reduced to minimum design
air volume so there will not be adequate air mixing in the room, therefore at the perimeter wall or
windows, air convection (draft) will occur due to difference in air density.

Slide 12

Air Handling Units serving GMP areas considerations
Cleanliness - Should be designed to facilitate cleaning via wash
down. Unit interior should be designed to minimize any areas
where microbial growth could occur. Adequate access within air
handling units should be provided upstream and downstream of all
unit components to facilitate cleaning and maintenance.
Serviceability - Air handling units located in mechanical rooms
should be arranged to allow general maintenance and coil-pull
space. In addition, service aisles for removal of fans and other
large components should be planned. The system must be
designed and installed to allow testing, sampling, and monitoring
for quality control and validation.
Reliability - Manufacturing areas supporting key unit operations
require maximum on-stream reliability. The air handling units
supporting these areas should be configured for partial operation
during routine maintenance operations to support this requirement
12

Review AHU Equipment configuration design slides in previous lectures (lecture 3)

Slide 13

AHU System Design
Due to limited space simplified design steps presented here, detail HVAC
system design procedure will be in lecture 5
1. AHU sizing its size is determined by needed quantity of supply air, CFM
Supply Air CFM calculated from total room loads, Q=CFM*1.08(delta T)
Compare total CFM vs other requirements for supply air (cleanliness or
exhaust/ventilation requirement) and use greater of the two loads
2. AHU System Zoning Group spaces into HVAC zones based on
Operational usages having similar usage and or function
Environmental Parameters required cleanliness, temperature,
humidity, pressurization, containment of hazards
Thermal profiles spaces with similar load profile per cycle (day, shift)
Economics adjacencies, minimize distribution costs, pressure losses,
controls, etc
Cross-contamination prevent recirculation or migration of hazards
3. # of AHU systems
In pharmaceutical facility, one AHU serves a single zone but in some
rare case multiple zones serving by one AHU is possible
13

Q = Total air conditioning loads required by all the spaces in the facility in BTUH. Q is calculated by
summing all the calculated room loads.
CFM= air flow in cubic feet per minute
1.08 = air conversion constant
Delta T = difference between air leaving the cooling coil and the specified room temperature to be
maintained in degree F. Normally, designer uses 20 degrees difference for the initial estimate.

Slide 14

The HVAC systems below tend to be used in commercial and
residential installations but have only limited use in pharmaceutical
installations We will only mention them for students awareness
but will not discuss these in detail.
Air and Water desirable because water distribution system takes less
space than air distribution system, if needed.
All Water distribute cooling and heating to fan-coil units in rooms. Good
application in many hotel rooms.
Decentralized Cooling and Heating
Heat Pump
Heat Recovery and Thermal Storage are techniques used in
HVAC design and application to reduce the system overall energy
usage . These techniques usually require a cost and benefit
analyses to justify their implementation. We will discuss the
technologies later in appropriate lectures
14

Slide 15

HVAC Systems
Central Mechanical Systems The all-air HVAC system (AHU)
normally gets its cooling and heating capabilities from a central
utility plant which houses mechanical HVAC equipment, we will
discuss only following major systems.
Chilled water systems often have their central chiller(s) plant located
in the basement, or equipment floors of the building that it serves.
The central chillers can also be located in a separate central utility
building to serve the entire campus.
The chilled water from the chiller(s) in the central plant is then
supplied to the coils and terminals of various HVAC zones (AHUs) in
one building or in adjacent buildings by means of pumping
distribution systems. Chilled Water then returns from the coils and
terminals to the central plant via the Chilled Water return mains.
Depend on the goals, size and complexity of the system, various
distribution schemes have been developed to accommodate.
15

Slide 16

HVAC Systems
The most common chilled water distribution systems
fall into these main categories:
Primary Only Constant Speed Pumping
Primary/Secondary - Variable Speed Pumping
Primary-Only - Variable Speed Pumping
Distributed Pumping (Campus) Primary with
multiple secondary variable speed pumping systems
16

Slide 17

Primary only Constant Speed Pump
Schematic diagram
By-pass
crossover
By-pass control
valve for
controlling
differential
pressure
17

A primary only distribution loop using bypass throttling flow is one of the chilled water
systems that has been in wide use. For each chiller there is a corresponding primary chilled
water pump. The chilled water is supplied to the coils and terminal cooling devices through
supply and return mains and branches, and is then returned to the chiller.
Primary only system is shown here as a Reverse Return system. In a reverse-return system the
piping lengths for each branch circuit, including the main and branch pipes, are approximately
equal. Therefore, piping pressure drops are similar for each branch and system flow balancing is
simpler.
Reverse return is more expensive to install than Direct Return system.

Slide 18

Chilled Water System Primary-Constant Volume
The Primary-Constant Volume system typically has
these features to control flow.
A bypass crossover connects the supply and return mains. A
bypass control valve is usually installed in the crossover.
A set pressure differential across the supply and return
mains is maintained by modulating the bypass control valve. A
portion of the water flows through the bypass crossover and is
then combined with water from the return main and returns to the
chiller.

Slide 19

Chilled Water System Primary-Constant Volume
Advantages
Low installed cost
Minimal control
Relatively simple to operate
and maintain
Disadvantages
Restricted to a single
temperature
Higher pumping energy
More costly for future
expansion (adding chillers or
pumps with extensive piping
modification)

Slide 20

Primary-Secondary Distribution
Schematic diagram
Decoupler
VFD differential pressure sensor
20

Slide 21

Chilled Water System Primary-Secondary Volume
The Primary-Secondary Variable Volume system typically
has these features to control flow.
A decoupler is typically used to separate distribution
(secondary) pumping to users from production (primary ) chillers.
This allows the chilled water (glycol) flow to the user to vary
according to demands while allowing dedicated pumping through
the chillers for chilled water (glycol) generation.
The reason for this arrangement is in the past chillers required
constant water flow rate while users tend to need variable flow rates
to offset varying load conditions.

Slide 22

Chilled Water System Primary-Secondary
The Primary-Secondary Variable Volume system typically
has these features to control flow.
In a multiple chiller, decoupled or primary / secondary arrangement,
the main design features are as follows.
A decoupler pipe connects the supply and return headers.
If greater flow is demanded by the users, return water (glycol) is
directed through the bypass to the supply header. This will signal
the need for more cooling capacity and if needed an idle chiller and
its associated pump will start. Bypass flow in the opposite direction
will signal the need for less cooling capacity with subsequent
reversal of control actions for the chiller and its associated pump.
The by-pass piping must be designed to accommodate variable flow
rate conditions in either direction.

Slide 23

Chilled Water System - Primary/Secondary
Advantages
Better control and low annual
operating cost
Smaller distribution pipe size
Operating flexibility
Decouple secondary from
primary
Pump only the water require to
satisfy the partial loads saving
pump horse power
Can compensate for pipe
aging
Less wear
Disadvantages
Less reliable
Must evaluate complex system
pressure drop profile to locate
the correct pressure sensing
point
Higher installation cost with
more equipment
Averaged return chilled water
temperature from multiple
secondary loops

Slide 24

Primary- Variable Pumping Distribution
Schematic diagram
By-pass
valve
By-pass flow meter
24

The difference between Primary-Variable system to that of Primary-Secondary system is in the
design and arrangement of central chiller plant section.

Many other aspects of both distribution systems are similar to each other.

Slide 25

Chilled Water System Primary-Variable Volume
In the Primary-variable speed pump system, the primary pumps
are sized with the "pump head" of the primary pumps added to the
pump head of the secondary pumps. This eliminates the secondary
loop pumps.
The system water (glycol) flow variation in system is now seen at the
chiller level.
Variable flow through the chiller evaporators and close evaporator
approach temperatures are no longer a concern with modern
chiller controls. However equipment sizing and selection is critical
to make it work without damaging the expensive central plant
chillers.

This type of design is only recently possible due to advance in mechanical hardware design and
system microprocessor-based controls. The primary variable system will minimize capital and
operating cost if properly implemented, however, its use is still somewhat limited and
experimental (circa 2009). Vendor assistance in design and installation, startup and
commissioning of this system type is highly recommended until there are enough installations to
prove its worthiness in mission-critical applications such as pharmaceutical production or data
centers.

Slide 26

Chilled Water System Primary-Variable Volume
The differences between primary-secondary distribution and
primary-only variable pumping systems are listed below.
For primary-secondary systems the decoupler line is sized for the
minimum flow through the largest chiller
For primary-variable pumping system, water (glycol) flow rate or
pressure drop measurement is required to maintain minimum
flow thru chiller.
The system requires the addition of a flow meter to ensure a
minimum flow rate through the chiller.
In primary-variable pumping system, distribution water (glycol) flow
rate requirements match the chiller flow rate requirements where in
primary-secondary it may not.

As mentioned earlier, the advantage of primary/variable system over other types is potential
savings in capital and operating costs, if implemented correctly.

Slide 27

Primary/Secondary System
Variable Primary System
Secondary Pumps
Primary Pumps
Primary Pumps
Flow Meter
Bypass
Valve
Automatic Isolation Valve
Typical load with 2 way valve
Typical load with 2 way valve
Decoupler

This view allows a side-by-side (or top-to-bottom) comparison of the two systems. Possible savings by eliminating
secondary pumping stations in primary-variable system.

Slide 28

HVAC Systems
Central Mechanical Systems -
The primary variable pumping system can provide the following benefits.
Lower capital cost than primary-secondary system by eliminating a set
of secondary pumps, motors and bases and having fewer piping and
electrical connections
Lower field installation cost than primary-secondary
Need less floor space for chiller plant Fewer equipment
System is reliable with fewer mechanical components
Pumping redundancy - Any pump can serve any chiller
Energy savings by reducing pump horsepower
While this primary variable pumping system offers many advantages over
the other systems, the design of this type of distribution is complex and
required tight collaboration with the equipment provider.
28

Slide 29

Distributed Pumping Campus Distribution

In a Distributed Pumping System water (glycol) supplied from a chiller primary loop is divided
into several secondary loops. In each of these loops, there is a variable-speed water (glycol)
circulating pump that provides chilled water (glycol) to users on the loop.

Slide 30

The distributed pumping design has the following control options and
features.
A temperature sensor monitors the temperature in the combined
chilled water (glycol) return piping from the secondary loops and
sends a signal to the chillers to modulate the amount of chilled
water (glycol) generation capacity in primary loop to maintain a
preset loop or zone temperature.
A temperature sensor monitoring user load in distribution loop
return piping sends a signal to modulate the amount of water
(glycol) extracted from the supply header by the variable-speed
pump to maintain a preset loop or zone temperature.
This type of distribution may result in sending a chilled
water temperature that is averaged for all secondary users
Any secondary loop users which may need different chilled
water temperature from the averaged temperature due to its
process cooling needs must satisfy its need locally.
30

Slide 31

HVAC Systems
Design Procedure to Select # of Chillers
1. Tabulate all present and future users of chilled water
2. Calculate user chilled water demands (flow rate) using total cooling coils
heat gains
The formula: Q, in GPM flow rate = Heat gains/ (500* delta T)
3. Compile listing of maximum, minimum, and average user cooling loads
with diversity applied to the flow. If seasonal variations are a major factor
then the loads for the maximum and minimum seasons will be tabulated.
4. The tabulation of load variations (load profiles) can be analyzed to
determine the number and capacity of chillers. Typically, the minimum
number of chillers will be (n+1).
5. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals states for equipment sizing:
Equipment size/capacity will match the load calculations.
Safety Factor will not be needed unless special circumstances exist.
6. Select distribution system among the previous design choices for optimal
(lowest capital and life-cycle costs) operation.
31

The temperature range of the chilled water determines the flow rate of chilled water for a given
capacity or load. The greater the delta T is for chilled water, the lesser the amount of water needs
to flow through the system.
Current practice is to use a value of 14F for chilled water systems delta T in buildings. As
mentioned in previous lecture, the selection of cooling coils has profound impacts on chiller
sizing due to this delta T.
A load profile is a graph that shows the cooling load changing patterns over a period of time
(day, week, etc) for a space or a piece of equipment such as the chiller

Slide 32

HVAC Systems
Design Procedure for Condenser Water system
1. Select the ambient wet-bulb temperature typically it will be
that temperature that is equaled or exceeded 5% of the time of
the four hottest months of the year (obtain from site data).
2. Specify a the tower temperature approach range - typically, an
economic evaluation will be performed by equipment vendor to
evaluate various approach temperatures to determine the
lowest capital and operating costs of the total system.
Typical approach temperature ranges are from 5 to 20F.
3. Specify the condenser design temperature range and cooling
tower water flow rate.
Typical condenser water ranges are from 10 to 20F
In general, tower cost, fan power and pump power will be lowered
by maximizing the temperature range.
4. Design system flow diagram (similar to the one in slide)
32

Condenser water system (CWS) flow rate can be estimated:
CWS Flow rate, GPM = Total heat rejection/(500* delta T)
Final flow rate is machine dependent, given by selected vendor data

Slide 33

Typical Cooling tower Condenser Water distribution system
Open Loop Cooling Water System
Typical Controls
AC
AC
TI
LHH LC
XHH
TC TC

PI PI
FC TI PC
Sample System
Cooling Tower Basin
YIA
FC
Acid
Injection
Cooling Water
Pump
Cooling Water
Pump
Start Stop Pumps
Pump Minimum Flow Control
B
lo
w
d
o
w
n
Cooling Water Users (Heat Exchangers)
Sidestream
Filter
W
in
te
r B
y
-P
a
s
s
Fan Trip
Vibratio
n
Make-Up Water
Supply
Scale Dispersant
Corrosion Inhibitor
Biocide

VFD
VFD
Condenser
(in Chiller)
Cooling
Tower
33

Slide 34

Simplified Central Cooling Plant distribution systems

For ease of understanding the entire mechanical HVAC systems with all discussed components,
this schematic summarily depicts the complete picture of the systems described in this lecture.
Most Central Cooling Plant have this typical configuration.

Slide 35

A Holistic Design Procedure for Central Chiller Plant
1. Terminal user evaluation
Methods of control, coil selection, control valve selection
2. Chiller sizing
Part load analyses (select most efficient machine for the load profiles)
# of Chillers, Redundancy strategy
Cost & Service supports
3. Refrigeration System Selection
Centrifugal/Rotary/Reciprocating
Electric or steam drive
Absorption
4. Distribution System Analyses & Selection
Reverse return or Direct return
Primary Constant Speed
Primary Variable Speed
Primary/Secondary
5. Heat Rejection Analyses & Selection
Air-cooled versus Water-cooled
Types of Cooling Tower
6. Equipment Arrangement & Energy Conservation Measures
35

This extensive design effort requires much expertise and analyses. The equipment and systems
usually represent a major capital investment to the facility budget costs.

Slide 36

HVAC Central Mechanical Systems
Steam Heating & Condensate Removal System
Steam heating is using vapor phase of water to convey and
transfer heat from a steam generator (boiler) to a terminal device
(heating coil) through a steam distribution piping system.
Steam system can heat a space through appropriate terminal
devices such as:
AHU Steam heating coils
Unit Heaters; Baseboard; Fancoil units, etc
Steam system is widely used to heat water for domestic usage,
and or used in industrial processes.
After giving up the latent heat, steam will condense back to liquid
phase. The liquid condensate (condensed steam) will be collected
into a condensate return piping system to return back to the boiler.
Steam is NOT a preferred heating medium for heating coils in
AHU. Best practice is to use hot water heating coils.
36

Slide 37

Steam Heating & Condensate Removal
Steam traps are used to remove condensate from a steam system
or equipment. There are several different types, each designed on
different principles, operating either continuously or intermittently.
Float and thermostatic steam trap is normally used for low
pressure steam heating in HVAC application.
Steam trap assembly must be used at each condensate collection
point and each normally consists of strainer, check valve, vacuum
breaker.
Steam trap contributes significant cost and operational issues in
condensate collection system.
Condensate pumps are used where the condensate pressure or
condensate piping elevation is so low that a self-pressured return
system cannot be used.
37

Slide 38

Steam trap piping assembly
This steam trap assembly must be installed at each condensate
collection point

AS you can see, steam system requires many mechanical parts.

Slide 39

Condensate return for steam coils
The vacuum equalizer is needed to avoid vacuum in the coil when
the temperature regulating valve is closed.

Each equipment fed with steam will need to have steam trap assembly(ies) on the return side.

Slide 40

Steam trap types and details

Possible steam trap designs are shown, each design must be selected to suit a system design and
operating conditions. For example, most low pressure steam system will use Float &
Thermostatic trap to return the steam condensate back to generating source or to waste.

Slide 41

The following information will be needed to determine the system
design:
Steam Requirements
Type of application HVAC or Process loads
Steam quality (the degree of dryness or moisture content of steam)
Use Point Criteria
Flow rate and frequency / length of time
Pressure level requirements (High, medium, or low)
System design
Type of steam generation available
Source of fuel (Natural gas, Oil)
Type and number of systems required
Condensate collection requirements
Operational considerations
Safety considerations
Environmental (emission limits)
41

Distribution System
Condensate and moisture removal
Pipe size and insulation
Material of construction
Physical location of users
Heat and temperature losses
Steam traps

Slide 42

Central Heating System
Design Procedure to Select # of Boilers
1. Tabulate all present and future users of steam flow rate and pressure
2. Calculate user steam demands (flow rate) using space heat losses or
process demands
3. Formula: Q, flow rate lbs/hr = Heat losses/ (latent heat of
evaporation) from steam table in any engineering handbook
4. Compile listing of maximum, minimum, and average user heating loads
with diversity applied to the flow. If seasonal variations are a major
factor then the load profiles for the maximum and minimum seasons
will be tabulated.
5. The ability of the boiler plant to meet variable loads depends on boiler
type, selected turndown ratios, feedwater flow and combustion
controls. The baseline strategy for designing a central steam plant
should be to provide a minimum of three boilers, each with 50% of the
total load capacity for reliable and redundant operations.
6. Alternately, if the space is not available for the layout of 3 50% boilers
then design should use two boilers, each will have 75% of the total load
capacity to meet facility back-up and redundancy needs.
42

1 Boiler HP = 34.5 lbs/hr = 33,500 Btu/hr at 212F and 960 Btu/lb latent heat of evaporation at
0psig

Slide 43

Holistic Design Procedure for Central Steam Plant
1. Terminal user evaluation
Methods of control, coil selection, control valve selection
2. Steam Generator sizing strategy
Part load analyses (select most efficient machine for the load profiles)
Redundancy
Cost & Service supports
3. FeedwaterSystem Selection
Deaerator (pressurized or atmospheric)
Feedwater pumping (Electric or steam drive)
4. Fuel System Analyses & Selection
Primary fuel - Natural Gas or Fuel oil (No.2 or No.6) or Propane
Burner types (low NOx)
5. Auxiliary Equipment Analyses & Selection
Water conditioning system
Chemical feed system
Blowdown (manual or automatic)
6. Equipment Arrangement & Energy Conservation Measures
Flue gas economizer
43

This extensive design effort requires much expertise and analyses. This usually represents a
major capital investment to the company.
So the Central Utility Plant (Chillers + Boilers) is a major undertaking and large capital
investment for any company.

Slide 44

HVAC Systems
Hot Water Heating - Hydronic system convey heat to or from a
conditioned space or industrial process with hot water.
The hot water flows through piping that connects a hot water boiler or a heat
exchanger to suitable terminal heat transfer device (heating coil) located at
the space or process.
Water systems can be classified by (1) operating temperature, (2) flow
generation, (3) pressurization, (4) piping arrangement, and (5) pumping
arrangement.
Classified by flow generation, hydronic heating systems may be (1) gravity
systems, which use the difference in density between the supply and return
water columns of a circuit or system to circulate water; or (2) forced
systems, in which a pump, usually driven by an electric motor, maintains
the flow.
In modern HVAC system, most hot water heating systems are recirculated
by a pump(s) in a closed distribution system.
44

Gravity return system is not common.

Slide 45

Hot Water Heating
HVAC heating hot water tends to be produced locally, usually on a
building-by-building basis, rather than at a central plant. This
minimizes both capital and operating costs for distribution systems. It also
corresponds better with variations in load profiles and operating schedules
of different buildings on a site.
Production of heating hot water is usually with a Steam-to-water heat
transfer packages (HTP). The HTP comprised of heat exchanger, pumps
and associated controls can be purchased as complete units and15 to 65
psig steam will be supplied to HTP skids to heat water.
Sizing:
The hot water heating system will usually be sized based on the peak
coincidental flow demand of all users. The temperature range of the hot
water system will be 140 to 120F. Higher water temperatures and larger
delta Ts are discouraged as these may result in control difficulties during
partial load.
Present and future loads will normally be taken into account when sizing
the system.
The reheat coils used in central AHU or local VAV boxes are prime
application of this hot water heating system.
45

Slide 46

The Holistic System Review
air
surroundings
Zone (Loads)
mix box
supply fan
cooling coil heating coil
chiller boiler
cooling
tower
pump pump
pump
Secondary
System
Primary System
A Building
and its
HVAC
System

Slide 47

HVAC System Loops for 3-Zone VAV System
Showing each system loop
North
Zone
East
Zone
Resistive
Zone
Plant Supply Side
Cooling Loop
CWPump
Cooling
Tower
Cond . Pump
Cond . Supply Side Loop
Chiller
Bypass
Supply Fan
R
e
tu
r
n
A
ir
M
ix
e
r
Z
o
n
e
A
ir
S
p
litte
r
Plant Demand Side
Cooling Loop
P
la
n
t D
e
m
a
n
d
S
id
e
H
e
a
tin
g
L
o
o
p
CC
B
y
p
a
s
s
Condenser
Bypass
VAV Box: ReHeat
VAV Box: ReHeat
R
e
tu
r
n
H
o
t
W
a
te
r
M
ix
e
r
Bypass
Cond . Demand
Side Loop
Condenser
Bypass
H
o
t W
a
te
r
S
p
litte
r
Mixed Outside
Air Box
Relief Air
Outside Air
VAV Box: ReHeat
Boiler
Plant Supply Side
Heating Loop
HWPump
North
Zone
East
Zone
Resistive
Zone
Plant Supply Side
Cooling Loop
CWPump
Cooling
Tower
Cond . Pump
Cond . Supply Side Loop
Chiller
Bypass
Supply Fan
R
e
tu
r
n
A
ir
M
ix
e
r
Z
o
n
e
A
ir
S
p
litte
r
Plant Demand Side
Cooling Loop
P
la
n
t D
e
m
a
n
d
S
id
e
H
e
a
tin
g
L
o
o
p
CC
B
y
p
a
s
s
Condenser
Bypass
VAV Box: ReHeat
VAV Box: ReHeat
R
e
tu
r
n
H
o
t
W
a
te
r
M
ix
e
r
Bypass
Cond . Demand
Side Loop
Condenser
Bypass
H
o
t W
a
te
r
S
p
litte
r
Mixed Outside
Air Box
Relief Air
Outside Air
VAV Box: ReHeat
Boiler
Plant Supply Side
Heating Loop
HWPump
Boiler
Plant Supply Side
Heating Loop
HWPump

Slide 1

Lecture 5: HVAC System Design
Design Procedure
Design Considerations
Contract Management

Slide 2

HVAC Design
System design must begin with a definition of both outdoor and
indoor criteria, which becomes the basis of system calculations.
All criteria should be established based on the space type and the
critical parameters for that space.
For pharmaceutical HVAC, facility locations and types, space
functions, processes, and GMP requirements, are key elements in
determining system capacities, components, and control strategies.
The HVAC engineer must also understand the basic process steps and
the critical parameters each step places on the HVAC system.
At this time, many pharmaceutical production processes are batch
operations that impose high loads on the HVAC system on an
intermittent basis.
The system design must take this into account and be capable of
maintaining space conditions when the loads are present as well as
when they are not present.

At this time we have accumulated enough HVAC equipment theories and design applications, in
this lecture we will discuss the technical procedures and the business of HVAC design process.

Slide 3

HVAC Design
The design steps for general HVAC system with some items geared
more toward pharmaceutical environmental system in bold
1. Analyze the products and production process for environmental
requirements
2. Obtain architectural room layouts
3. Gather information for operational activities
4. Understand GMP (materials, personnel, equipment, etc) flow
diagrams.
5. Define activities associated with the rooms or space functionalities
6. Define environmental conditions requirements (ISO classified
spaces) to support products and/or processes
7. Obtain or estimate heat loads (gains and losses) from building
envelope, equipment and/or processes
8. Understand applicable environmental, health and safety and
containment requirements
9. Select appropriate HVAC systems configurations and controls

Some basic understanding of pharmaceutical Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP ) here would
be helpful to increase your understanding, we will also revisit these terms in second half of the
course. Good Manufacturing Practices are regulations that have been established by regulators
(FDA) and pharmaceutical industry in manufacturing drugs.

Slide 4

Lecture 5: HVAC System Design 2009
Design Conditions
Indoor Air Quality For Comfort
The word IAQ for comfort means the control of temperature, relative
humidity, air motion, air differential pressure, air change rate, heat radiant
sources, odor, dust, viable and non-viable particulates, noise, vibration,
exposure to chemical or biological contaminants, and potential explosion
from flammable or combustible vapors, etc
Manufacturing Environments
The word environmental specifications means the control of temperature,
relative humidity, air motion, air differential pressure, air change rate, heat
radiant sources, odor, dust, viable and non-viable particulates, noise,
vibration, exposure to chemical or biological contaminants, and potential
explosion from flammable or combustible vapors, etc
The difference between them is in the exactness, robustness,
reliability, control band tolerances, required documentations,
criticality of parameters, safety, level of regulatory expectations
required and levels of economic/liable damages if system
failed.

I hope you still remember this slide.

Slide 5

HVAC Design Basics
Defining the HVAC Basis of Design
Outside design conditions
Go to ASHRAE handbooks or NOAA and select the design
weather conditions for the plant location
If the AHU equipment is located on rooftop, the temperature
there can be several degrees higher than the temperature listed
in the ASHRAE standards due to solar heat effects
Absences of specific company guidelines or policies, the rules
of thumb are:
For production environment, use summer peak dry bulb/wet
bulb temperatures that will be the worst-case design conditions
Use the winter lowest design dry bulb temperature for the site
and to determine the moisture content in the air at that
temperature for sizing humidification load if required

NOAA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
ASHRAE: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, Air-Conditioning Engineers

Slide 6

HVAC Design Basics
Defining the HVAC Basis of Design, contd
OUTDOOR DESIGN CRITERIA
The ASHRAE data includes multiple design conditions with specific
purposes. For manufacturing facilities except administration and
infrastructure facilities; the following data should be used to
determine the overall system load:
Heating and humidification99.6% DB column for heating;
99.6% HR column for humidification
Preheating of outside airmean minimum Extreme Annual DB
column
Cooling with mechanical dehumidification0.4% Cooling
DB/MCWB columns
Critical dehumidification applications0.4% Dehumidification
DP/MCDB and HR columns
Cooling tower sizing0.4% Evaporation WB column

Outside design criteria should be based on Climatic Design Information found in the latest
edition of the ASHRAE Handbook- Fundamentals. Additional data can be obtained from the
Engineering Weather Data published National Climatic Data Center and the Air Force Combat
Climatology Center. Where the site location is not one of the stations listed, use the listed station
closest to the site location. In determining the level of confidence in closest station criteria,
factors such as elevation, proximity to bodies of water, and regions within the state or province
should be considered.

Slide 7

HVAC Design Basics
For administration, infrastructure facilities and temperature
controlled warehouses; the following data should be used to
determine the overall system load:
Heating and humidification99% DB column for heating;
99% HR column for humidification
Cooling with mechanical dehumidification2% Cooling
DB/MCWB columns
The use of this data does not supersede compliance with
governing codes, including energy code requirements.
Deviations must be reviewed and in the event of conflict
between the guidance shown here and governing codes,
usually we want to use the most stringent requirements.

Slide 8

HVAC Design Basics
For production areas and humidity controlled warehouses in
tropical environments, use the following:
Cooling with mechanical dehumidification0.4%
Dehumidification DP/MCDB and HR columns
The use of this data does not supersede compliance with
governing codes, including energy code requirements.
Deviations must be reviewed and in the event of conflict
between the guidance shown here and governing codes,
usually we want to use the most stringent requirements.

NOAA
Airport data

Slide 9

HVAC Design Basics
Inside design conditions Most companies have corporate
engineering design standards for indoor environments.
Absence of company guidelines, use the following logics to select
indoor air conditions:
For pharmaceutical manufacturing space:
Based on the process requirements, determine the room classifications
required by applicable regulations, and GMP or codes for meeting the
space functionality
Determine the room temperature and humidity requirements as
required by specified products properties or environmental conditions
Determine level of gowning requirements
Determine if processing will have unusual local spot heating or cooling
situations
Analyze the above data to come up with acceptable dry-bulb
temperature, relative humidity, differential pressure, and air quality
(cleanliness) parameters.

Slide 10

HVAC Design Basics
Inside design conditions
Absence of company guidelines, use the following logics as a
general guide to select indoor air conditions:
For office or administrative space:
In summer time, the environmental conditions that allow optimal
maintenance of thermal balance is 72 F +/- 2 F and 50% +/- 5%
relative humidity.
In winter time, its normally design for 2 F below the summer
design condition and no humidification.
Summer normal design range: 72 F to 78 F db; 50% +/- 10%
Winter normal design range: 68 F
For non-conditioned space (warehouse, mech. room):
Summer design range: 80 F
Winter design range: 60F
Humidity design range: Not controlled

Slide 11

HVAC Design Criteria Caveat
Be careful when specifying control tolerances for
temperature and humidity uniformity the tighter
the control tolerance (ranges), the more
expensive HVAC system will be to install and
operate
It is difficult to make the whole room having
uniform temperature and humidity, specially
when the systems are serving large areas and
spaces.

Slide 12

HVAC Design Basics
Design Guide For Space Air Change Rate per Hour
The minimum design air change rate should be verified during the
design to assure that it is appropriate for the operations in the room.
Successful pharmaceutical HVAC is attributed to proper filtration
and attention to the physical geometry of airflow in a space. The
layout of air inlets and outlets with relation to the sources of
contamination/heat and expected physical obstructions are critical to
controlling contamination and yielding effective HVAC design.
The relationship between these factors is expressed in the effective
ventilation rate for a space. This measure expresses the efficiency
of the HVAC system at removing contaminants expressed as a % of
the theoretical performance of perfect room air dilution.

Slide 13

HVAC Design Basics
Design Guide For Space Air Change Rate
Guidelines for required number of air volume changes:
240-600 changes/hr for Cl. 100 rooms (ISO-5)
60-90 changes/hr for Cl. 10,000 rooms (ISO-7)
20-40 changes/hr for Cl. 100,000 rooms (ISO-8)
These numbers are not regulations, just guidelines. They
vary in different sources.
Actual number of particles observed depends on activity
level people present, dust-generating operations etc.
Easier to achieve low particulates in static (no activity)
than in dynamic conditions

The number of air changes per hour required to maintain acceptable particle concentration can
actually be calculated if we know the particle generation rate. For instance, if operations generate
1 million particles/ft3/hr, then (assuming uniform distribution of particles in the room and 100%
removal efficiency of HEPA filters) air filtration with flow rate of 10 room volumes per hour will
result in residual concentration of 1,000,000 / 10 = 100,000 particles / ft3. Increasing the air flow
to 100 room volumes per hour will reduce particle concentration to 10,000 particles/ft3. It is
clear that in this example there is no practical way to achieve Class 100 conditions because the
particle generation rate is too high.

Slide 14

HVAC Design Basics
Room Air Flow Patterns
Conventional and commercial HVAC system provides
turbulent air flow pattern diffusing from a ceiling diffuser
For pharmaceutical application, specially classified
areas, air is usually supplied to a room at high point and
returned from a low point
Unidirectional (laminar) air flow is used for Class 100
areas. This provides displacement effect for air with
particles, rather than dilution as observed with turbulent
flow. Where creating such room or area is not practical,
a laminar flow cabinet can be used instead in specific
process operations

Slide 15

15
Room Air Flow Pattern
Example of area with
vertical unidirectional
air flow pattern

In critical application such as in clean room, the air flow must maintain its unidirection,
uniformity and terminal velocity passed the work surfaces. The raised floor shown in the picture
is not a typical pharmaceutical application, in pharmaceutical the air is returned via low return
grilles on the side walls.

Slide 16

HVAC Design Basics
Design Guide For Temperature
Control of temperature within the design tolerance is a function of
the load profile of the space. The combination of separate rooms
into a common control zone should take into account the various
and different load profiles of each room.
If the load profiles are not the same, the rooms should not be
combined into a common zone. Even within a single room, it may
be necessary to divide the room into separate control zones due to
the room layout and equipment arrangement.
Ideally, all rooms in a single zone should have the same HVAC load
profiles over time. However, this is essentially an impossibility so all
HVAC systems must have controls to handle this situation.

Slide 17

HVAC Design Basics
Design Relative Humidity
Humidity control is most commonly achieved based on the average
humidity as measured in the combined return air from all spaces
served by a single air handling unit.
Spaces with critical humidity parameters may justify individual
space control. Likewise, spaces with high internal moisture loads
may require local exhaust to remove the moisture at the source.
For most applications, central humidification system is used to
maintain the minimum required RH% and additional local humifier
can supplement.
In very low RH environment (say below 15% RH), special
desiccant system will be required.

Slide 18

HVAC Design Basics
Design Guide For Room Pressurization
In order to minimize uncontrolled infiltration of outside air into a
facility and the associated problems, the overall building
pressurization should be positive to the outdoor ambient.
Individual room or zone pressure relationships may be positive or
negative depending on the operations within the space. These room
pressure relationships are essential in order to maintain cleanliness
in the spaces, as well as for containment of either bio-hazards or
potent compounds.
Airlocks are usually interposed between areas if airflow between
the spaces needs to be controlled when they are entered or exited.

Slide 19

HVAC Design Basics
Recommended pressure differential between adjacent
areas is 0.05 inches of water column (12 Pa), as
measured with doors closed
When a door opens, pressure differential essentially
goes to zero. That is why air locks are installed at
critical connection points, and the two doors in an air
lock are never opened simultaneously (often enforced by
interlocking controls on mechanically and electrically
operated doors)

Slide 20

HVAC Design Basics
Rooms need to be sealed as tight as possible to enable
maintaining required pressure differential
Places that require sealing include ceiling tiles, lightning
fixtures, pipe and electrical conduit penetrations,
windows
Doors are made with very small (1/8) crack area at top
and sides and at the bottom; rubber seals are used to
further reduce air leaks

Slide 21

HVAC Design Basics
Control of airflow in rooms is divided into three (3) categories:
Active Control- Supply airflow is maintained constant by a terminal volume
box. Return and/or exhaust terminal volume boxes are modulated as required to
actively maintain room pressures based on the pressure differential between a
reference and the space under control.
Passive Control- For spaces that have constant airflow design
requirements, the supply airflow is maintained by a terminal volume box. Return
and/or exhaust terminal volume boxes track the supply to maintain a fixed airflow
differential. For spaces that have variable airflow fume hoods, the return/exhaust
airflow is maintained by terminal boxes based on fume hood feedback. Supply
terminal boxes track the return/exhaust to maintain a fixed airflow differential.
Static Control- Terminal volume boxes are not used. Supply, return, and
exhaust airflow are balanced using manual balancing dampers and locked in
place.
Pressure controls will be discussed further in Building Automation
System lecture

Slide 22

HVAC Design Basics
System Requirements
Determine if HVAC redundancy and back-up is needed, this is
usually based on risk assessments, safety and economic
justifications
Determine the space and equipment exhaust air requirements
based on processing, amount of solvents used, etc to mitigate
or minimize contamination and to protect operators.
Determine if the system requires 100% outside air (once-
through air) or air in rooms can be recirculated (re-use air).
Once-through design will be required if the risk of cross-
contamination or harmful accumulation of toxins are
unacceptable.
Determine how the T, %RH, and delta P should be controlled
Determine the system sequence of operations (SOO)
including steps needed to start-up, shut down, re-start and for
on-going operating conditions.

Slide 23

HVAC Design Basics
System Zoning and Configurations
1. Using the architectural room layouts to determine the different
zones of air systems
For example, grouping all GMP production rooms on one cGMP
Air handling unit, and all non-GMP spaces on another AHU.
2. Based on HVAC requirements, determine the required AHU system
components such as mixing box (return fan), pre-filter, heating coil,
cooling coils, humidifiers, supply fan(s), and final filtration (HEPA)
3. After the AHU system is configured and sized, based on utilities
requirements of the AHU design, new chillers and boilers capacity
estimated and equipment can be selected
4. Alternately, if existing utilities available, existing capacities should
be assessed for available utilities capacities to supply AHU.

Slide 24

HVAC Design Basics
Air Distribution Design
Depending on the room specifications, either heat loads or
cleanliness classification whichever greater will dictate room air
change per hour or air flow rate in Cubic Feet per Minute (CFM )
The pharmaceutical space tends to need a duct-mounted reheat
coil and a terminal ceiling-mounted HEPA filter for classified
spaces.
Depending on whether the system is designed for once-through or
recirculated air, the room air will be exhausted via an exhaust fan
system or ducted back into the AHU return, respectively.
Keep the individual zone of each supply and exhaust system
segregated from other zones

Recirculation versus Once-through
Recirculation of conditioned air is preferred whenever possible to minimize operating cost.
Whenever recirculation is applied a small percentage of fresh outdoor air is required for
ventilation of the space and/or to provide the required pressurization. The amount of outdoor air
must meet the local building code requirement at a minimum. However, pressurization needs
usually exceed the code requirement.
For recirculated system, we can calculate mix-air conditions as follows:
T
MA
= (OA * T
OA
) + (RA * T
RA
) / (OA + RA)
Where,
T
MA
T
OA
T
RA

Once-through (100% exhaust) must be employed whenever dictated by the process or safety
requirements. Specific environments may also require once-through air for safety such as when
solvents or harmful chemicals are present that can cause accidental release.

Slide 25

HVAC Design Basics
HVAC Control System
Each process room will have individual temperature, relative
humidity and pressure sensor control loop to maintain the
design environmental specifications
Each AHU system will have differential pressure gage on filters,
freeze-stat, temperature, RH and pressure loop to control supply
air leaving conditions, and safeties such as smoke detector and
auto isolation dampers
Each HVAC supply and exhaust system will have a control
scheme to interlock and coordinate the room pressure control to
maintain required room differential pressures

Slide 26

HVAC Design Basics
General & Clean HVAC Design GMP Considerations
Pharmaceutical Air Handling Unit Design Features
No fiberglass internal insulation in unit
Inside unit should be cleanable, drainable
Cooling coil should have no more than 4 rows and 8 fins per
inch for easy cleaning
Have Variable Frequency Drive to compensate for filter loading
Filters must be increasing efficiency in same direction of air flow
Be put on emergency power if involuntary outages are
intolerable

Slide 27

HVAC Design Basics
General & Clean HVAC Design GMP Considerations
Pharmaceutical In-duct Equipment Design
Humidifiers feeds should use clean steam or DI water
Do not use in-duct sound trap for sound attenuation
No liner in ductwork to avoid particulate contamination
Reheat coils should be 2 rows or less for cleanability
Air in room must flow from cleaner to less clean areas
Air must flow toward a higher containment areas
Locate 99.99% HEPA filters over the process that needs
protection such as Autoclave or Lyophilizer door

Slide 28

HVAC System Design
Sizing of Air Flow Requirements for non-ISO classified room
First step, rooms supply air flow rate is calculated based on room
heating or cooling requirements
Formula: Air flow, CFM = Q Heat loads, Btuh / (1.08 * Delta T)
Example- CFM = 12000 Btuh / (1.08 (70-55))= 740 CFM
Room total cooling load, Q (Btuh) is estimated by calculating room heat gains as
discussed in lecture 2 and next slide.
The derived supply air flow rate (CFM) is then compared to any
exhaust air requirements for that space, if applicable.
In example above, if room has two chemical hoods requiring 1200
CFM exhaust air, then room supply air flow rate must be 1200 CFM
plus pressurization air if the room is to be positively pressurized.
With the room supply air higher than what is needed to offset the
total heat gain, the supply air delta T must be adjusted using a
reheat coil or other techniques.

Non-ISO Classified rooms are spaces that do not have to meet ISO environmental specifications
for design, testing, operating and validation.

Slide 29

HVAC System Design
Sizing of Air Flow Requirements for non-classified room, cont'd
Room total cooling load, Q (Btuh) is estimated by calculating room
heat gains from following sources
Outside source like solar heat gain through walls, roof, windows
Formula: Q= Area*U*(delta T of outside-inside); U:heat transfer coefficient
Internal heat gain sources
Use ASHRAE handbooks for typical internal heat gain data
People- Q= # of people * (250-300)Btuh/person
Lighting- Q= 3watts/ SF * Area * 3.4 w/Btuh
Equipment motor- Q= HP or KW*3410 Btuh/KW
Then add all the heat gains together for total cooling load
Normally, the non-classified room heat gains (cooling load) or
exhaust air quantity will dictate the room supply air volume.
Heating (heat loss) will be controlled by varying the temperature of
supply air discharged to the room.

Slide 30

HVAC System Design
Sizing of Air Handling Unit
The AHU total air flow rate is the summation of all room air flows for the
served HVAC zone, or calculated using total sensible heat gains, Q using
the formula:
AHU - Total CFM = Total Q(Btu/h)/(1.08*(delta T))
Sizing of Chiller (Tons of Refrigeration)
AHU Cooling coil is sized using derived total air flow rate in equation:
Cooling Coil Capacity = 4.45 * Total CFM* (delta h)
Delta h is the difference in enthalpy (Btu/lb) of air entering* and
leaving the cooling coil which includes both latent and sensible heat.
Example- 4.45*20000CFM*(39.5-20.5)Btu/lb =1,691,000Btuh
Refrigeration load= 1,691,000/12000 = 141 tons Chiller
For convenience, this example ignores certain system effects and
equipment inefficiencies such as chilled water pump heat gain,
supply fan heat, etc to simplify the calculations

From the formula, the AHU total air flow is the sum total of the individual room supply air.
However, students should be aware that in practice and for commercial application, sometimes
the AHU supply air is calculated from the block load as opposed to the individual room heat
gains.
Block heat load is the total heat gain calculated for the gross overall building envelope. The
reason is that most commercial HVAC system are Variable Air Volume so designer took into
account the fact that all rooms cannot instantaneously have peak heat load at the same time, this
is known as building load diversity factor.
Its important to note that the block load usually is not used in pharmaceutical HVAC air
system sizing.
If the system is a re-circulated system, entering air temperature into the cooling coil has to be the
mix-air conditions which can be obtained from psychrometric chart. Mix-air calculation
procedure in next slide.

Slide 31

HVAC System Design
Room Heat Losses:
The heat loss is calculated similarly to the heat gain calculations, the
equation for heat loss is: Q
heat loss
= Area * U * (delta T).
Heat loss is calculated for all surfaces that has a temperature
difference, normally exterior walls, ceiling space or roof, windows.
Sizing of Heating Equipment (Boiler)
Boiler capacity can be estimated by totalizing all space heat losses
plus infiltration heat loss plus other losses (inefficiency, distribution
loss from piping, etc)
Or estimate using the air equation Q, Btu/hr= 1.08*CFM*(delta T)
Example- Boiler load= 1.08*20000* (70-0)=1,512,000Btuh
For convenience, this calculation example ignores the internal heat
gain from people, equipment, and lighting mentioned earlier and
heat gain from AHU supply fan to simplify the procedure

T
MA
= (OA * T
OA
) + (RA * T
RA
) / (OA + RA)
Where,
T
MA
T
OA
T
RA

2. Plot the OA and RA conditions on the psychrometric chart and connect the two points.
3. The point where the mix-air dry bulb temperature intersects the line OA-RA is the MA point.
The Mix-air properties can be read directly from the chart.

Slide 32

Pharmaceutical HVAC Design Requirements
For Pharma HVAC system design, GMP and qualification
requirements must be included its design & installation
Pharma HVAC system is more expensive and take longer to
make than other commercial or industrial building HVAC
system due to GMP and qualification requirements of the
installed system.
To be qualified to serve GMP areas, the system design must
include capability of sampling, monitoring and trending of
the environmental critical variables (temperature, relative
humidity, room differential pressures, and particulates).
The Pharma HVAC system design usually includes Building
Automation System* that performs all the control functions
as well as monitoring and data archiving to comply with GMP
needs

* Currently, some companies use two separate automation systems, one for control and another
for monitoring and record HVAC critical parameters for production records.

Slide 33

HVAC Systems Used in Pharmaceutical plant:
Variable air-volume system used in office, storage and
other non-critical areas. It is relatively less expensive to
install and operate than Constant volume system with
terminal reheat
Constant volume system with terminal reheat. Allows
tight control of temperature and humidity in each room,
makes easier to maintain room pressurization. More
expensive to operate because air is first cooled, than
reheated, so energy use is high.
Building Automation System (BAS) is used to monitor
and control all HVAC components and provide
necessary alarms.

Why would someone cool the air down to 45 or 50F and then reheat it back to 65 or 70F?
Sounds very wasteful, especially if you consider that the air is recirculated at high flow rate.
There are two main reasons for such approach:
Cooling of air causes condensation of moisture, thereby allowing to maintain desired air
humidity in the summer time. In this system, dehumidification for RH% control is accomplished
by refrigeration and not by desiccants.
By having supply air in the main duct colder than required to meet the space with the highest
cooling requirement, we can provide individual temperature control for each of the process
rooms, using local reheat coils in each branch duct to meet the varying cooling load profiles.

Slide 34

34
Air Quality Monitoring
Number of particles per
unit of air volume is
tested during facility
qualification and
routinely. Such testing is
done both at rest (no
activity) and during
normal operations.
Portable (shown in the
picture) or permanently
installed particle counters
may be used.
Source - www.metone.com

Slide 35

35
Air Quality Monitoring
Microbial monitoring
of room air and
selected surfaces in
clean rooms (walls,
work benches,
gloves, gowns etc.)
Source - www.nbsc.com

For air testing, a known volume of air is drawn by vacuum through a slit orifice that accelerates
the sampled air and its contaminants. Located below the slit and in the path of airflow is an
exposed agar plate that rotates on a turntable at a selected speed. Particles settle on agar that is
then incubated and microbial colonies counted.

Slide 36

HVAC Design Considerations Pharmaceutical GMP
In general, GMP HVAC system must accommodate the followings GMP
design requirements:
Separate dirty air flow from clean air flow paths
Air lock system will need pressurization schemes to avoid cross
contamination
Secured production areas have access control and auto-closing
doors to maintain pressurization.
Follow unidirectional material flows through the plant from raw
materials in to final products out
Follow processing material flow direction is from dirty to
increasingly clean environments (except for some re-processing
work)
Access for maintenance of air system equipment and components
such as HEPA filters should be from outside production space
Some items that are listed in multiple locations may be
applicable to more than one category

Slide 37

HVAC Design Considerations Pharmaceutical GMP
In general, GMP HVAC system must accommodate the followings GMP
design requirements:
Design for non-intrusive equipment or maintenance wherever
possible to minimize cross-contamination
Provide non-intrusive viewing of production areas for inspections
by regulators or non-production people by having a gallery outside
the area
Minimize potential cross-contamination all the time for personnel,
material, equipment, wastes, and finish product movements
Should consider validation requirements (sampling and
monitoring) in design, if applicable
Should design as if Design Qualification is needed, even if at this
project DQ may or may not be regulatory requirement but this may
change.
Some items that are listed in multiple locations may be
applicable to more than one category

Slide 38

HVAC Design Considerations Clean Room
In general, GMP HVAC air flow patterns and room pressurization must
accommodate the following requirements:
Have wall spaces for low return ductwork with filters in ISO
classified rooms
Make sure building floor-floor heights have enough ceiling spaces
for air moving equipment, HEPA filters and utilities
Gowning operations must have correct air flow patterns
Appropriate operator relative position to products to reduce
contamination, i.e. air movements should be from product to
operator to exhaust/return outlets
HVAC distribution ductwork and components must be cleanable,
drainable and no dust built-up ledges or ideally concealed from
clean areas.
Minimize and seal all room penetrations for maintaining room
pressurization
Specify equipment bio-seals at wall penetrations

Slide 39

Adjacency of related spaces
Logical and simple flow of personnel, portable equipment and
materials
Avoid where possible clean and dirty equipment and personnel
passing through the same corridors, gowning areas etc.
Air locks are used at major separation points where maintaining
pressure differential is important
Cleaner spaces usually are located in the middle of a facility, and
surrounded by areas of lower classification
Clean areas cannot be directly connected to dirty areas. There
are several levels or grades of cleanliness (to be discussed later in
this lecture) and the step up approach is used to connect them.
Usually the difference in the class of connected areas is not more
than one grade.

Slide 40

Walls and floors designed for easy cleaning, resistant to wear and
cleaning chemicals
Coved floor and wall corners
Minimize horizontal piping, ducts, equipment surfaces where dust
can accumulate
Lighting is supplied by sealed fixtures, often incorporated into ceiling
HEPA filter modules.
Typical clean room finishes include:
Epoxy terrazzo floors
Epoxy painted walls
Suspended drywall or plaster ceiling, painted for easy cleaning
Clean rooms can be built at the site or purchased as modules from a
vendor

Slide 41

Examples of Modular Clean Rooms
Clean room may be
purchased as a
vendor supplied and
installed module

Slide 42

HVAC Design Considerations Building Codes
In general, HVAC design must comply with Building Code requirements
1. Meet Life safety code requirements for means of egress,
emergency exits, lights, flammables and combustibles handling
areas.
2. Meet fire codes and fire separation requirements for permitted
construction classification
3. Utilize (compartmentation) layout for smoke control if applicable
4. When locating HVAC equipment on roof top or outside the building,
considerations must be given to site esthetics (next to hotel or
residential areas) or noise pollution. This will be important for
obtaining building construction permits at public hearings
5. When locate equipment outdoor, site setbacks requirements (safety
of truck loading and unloading areas) are important to code
officials.
6. The use of flammable and combustible solvents will require some
type of design for electrical hazards classifications
7. Evaluate need for emergency power (space for generator, UPS) for
HVAC equipment and ventilation needs for emergency equipment.

Slide 43

HVAC Design Considerations Operations Efficiency
1. HVAC system must not cause excessive noise that interfere with
normal communications
2. HVAC ductwork must not allow cross-talk between different rooms
to maintain privacy and lessen distractions.
3. Consider remote controls - Minimize entering and leaving
production spaces during processing such as having to go in/out to
adjust HVAC controls (thermostats, RH stat, etc)
4. Consider grouping control valves, transmitters, terminal filters or
any local equipment that need periodic adjustments or calibration
for ease of access and maintenance and to minimize entering and
leaving production spaces during processing.
5. Consider the level of activities in heat gain calculations, for
example, lower room temperature in rooms that require several
layers of gowning
6. Consider the heat gains from process in your air flow supply

Slide 44

HVAC Design Considerations Automation Design
HVAC Automation system should have
1. Ability to continuously perform GMP sampling and monitoring requirements
2. Ability to display all monitored equipment variables on screen, in real time
3. Ability to report faults via a video display and to archive a real-time event
log
4. Ability to communicate with the plant wide process control systems and
manufacturing execution system
5. Ability to expand for growth
6. Ability to produce linear flow rates
7. Adherence to industry standards
8. Ability to archive and recall data for optimization and regulatory
compliance.
9. Allow easy of maintenance from outside clean areas and easy upgrade
10. Ability to dial out for warning and alarming conditions
11. Make sure vendor supports are available for the long term.
12. Cant be too complex for your operators, theyll disconnect them
13. Have secure access controls

Slide 45

HVAC Design Considerations _General
1. Dont oversize! Using accurate data such as headcounts,
equipment loads in heat load estimates, etcbut dont undersize!
However some built-in growth is prudent, the system will grow over
time.
2. Its better to wait for accurate data than to keep changing load
calculations. Need to freeze equipment sizing and selection as
soon as possible
3. Layout to minimize length of utilities and ductwork headers from
point of generation to point of use
4. Make sure the interstitial spaces have good layered arrangements
for all utilities to fit. Ductwork requires much more physical space
than other utilities.
5. Efficient layout with not many dead spots, this applies to all kind of
spaces (production, supports, and ceiling spaces)
6. Make sure having adequate vertical chases for ductwork
7. Dont overdo GMPs but make sure its validatable as applicable

Slide 46

HVAC Design Considerations
Environmental, Health & Safety Requirements (EHS)
1. Incorporate requirements from environmental impact assessment studies
at the beginning
2. Evaluate containment of operator exposure limits (OEL) to high potent
compounds, if any, determine appropriate containment design
specification up front otherwise it will be very expensive to rework design.
3. Select a correct Biosafety level requirement (BSL-1 to BSL-4) for design
and operations.
4. Investigate need for explosion proof requirements, if any, get a list of
flammable liquids from users the list is an User Requirement item
5. Get a certified Industrial Hygienist, IH to provide reviews and inputs to
requirements and your design solutions for the requirements
6. Make sure exhaust air does not short-circuit back into building spaces via
inlet openings and or thermal inversion.
7. Make sure all utility discharges are to safe and acceptable locations
8. Consider ergonomics in design specially for repetitive tasks (RMI)
9. Design in safety for construction and hazardous operability (HAZOP).
Participate in formal PSR and or HAZOP at 30%, and 75% PID design
review with attendance from other design teams and user groups to
ensure HVAC design is well coordinated with other designs.

Environmental and Safety Risk Assessments must always be performed for this type of project,
its required for obtaining permits and it has become Good Corporate Engineering Practices.

Slide 47

HVAC Design Management
The capital project delivery approach is very critical
to the success or failure of project execution
In turn, the HVAC system design must take into
considerations the selected delivery method, the
project size and complexity, the timing of need,
company available resource and budget, cash flow
constraints, and the degree of risks that the company
is willing and afford to take
HVAC scope (including complementary central
mechanical systems) usually is a very large portion of
the capital project.
We will devote a separate lecture on this subject of
capital project delivery methodologies in later weeks.

Slide 1

Lecture 6: HVAC Controls
Control Theories
Control System Design
Building Automation

Slide 2

Lecture 6: Building Automation Design
Building Automation Design
HVAC Control Theory & Evolution
Automatic controls are used whenever a variable condition must be
controlled and human attendance is either not desirable nor
possible.
Elements of controlled systems
Controlled systems: made up of all equipment in which the controlled
variable exists but do not include the automatic control equipment
Controlled variable: a quantity which is measured and controlled, e.g.
space temperature
Controlled medium: where the controlled variable exists, e.g. if water
temperature is the controlled variable, then water is the controlled
medium
Manipulated variable: quantity or condition which is regulated by the
control system that causes a desired change in controlled variable, for
example steam pressure
Control agent: contains the manipulated variable, e.g. steam,
compressed air
2

Slide 3

An example of an automatic control system:
A heating coil through which hot water is flowing to heat a room
The room temperature (controlled variable) is measured by a
thermostat which is placed in return duct sensing the return air
(controlled medium). The thermostat modulates a hot water
control valve which regulates the flow rate (manipulated variable)
of the hot water (control agent).
The above is a description of a temperature control loop normally
found in an HVAC system. This is called a closed-loop control
The control elements in the closed-loop system can be substituted
to control other controlled variables such as pressure, relative
humidity, fan speeds, etc
Since, closed-loop exists we also have open-loop which is less
common than closed-loop but nonetheless exists in some situations.
3

Closed-loop control system- the control action is dependent of on the output, also
known as feed-back control system

Open-loop control system- the control action is independent of on the output. Open-
loop performance depends on calibration to establish input-output relation.

Slide 4

We will need some working definitions in order to discuss automatic
control systems.
Set point: is the value of the controlled variable on a controller scale
where the controller indicator is set at
Control point: is the value of the controlled variable which the
controller operates to maintain the value
Deviation or error: is the difference between the set point and the
value of the controlled variable at any instant
Corrective action: initiated by a deviation or error that results in a
change in the manipulated variable
Differential gap: is the smallest range through which the controlled
variable must pass to move the final control element from one
position to its other position.
Proportional band: is the range of values through which the
controlled variable must pass to move the final control element
through it full operating range.
4

Slide 5

Working definitions of automatic control systems.
Cycling: is the periodic change in the controlled variable from one
value to another, also called hunting
Offset: is a sustained deviation or error between the value of
controlled variable corresponding to the set point or control point
Lag: is a delay in the effect of a changed condition at one point in
the system
Primary element: the element that first senses and measures
energy or force from the controlled medium, such as the thermostat
senses the return air temperature, and sends control signal to
controller
Final control element: is the mechanism which directly acts to
change the value of the manipulated variable, i.e. the control valve.
5

Slide 6

Working definitions of automatic control systems.
Controller: is the device at the heart of the system that does the
followings:
1. Via the primary element, it senses and measures the changes in
controlled variable (CV)
2. Uses an impulse received from sensing the CV to meter a usable
form of energy
3. Use the metered usable energy to actuate the final control element
to correct or prevent further change in the controlled variable
Controller mechanism: The controller through a pneumatic circuit
or electric circuit amplifies the control signal to the final control
element.
For pneumatic controller the action is to regulate air pressure.
For electric controller, the action is to vary resistance in the circuit
6

Slide 7

Control valves: consists of an actuator and a valve body. The
actuator can receive and be controlled by a remote control signal to
change the rate of fluid flow through it
Valve flow terms
Quick-opening: maximum possible flow as the actuator starts to
move
Linear flow: equal flow volume change to actuator change, the
relationship is plotted as a straight line
Equal percentage: an equal percentage move in actuator will
increase the flow by an equal percentage. If actuator moves 10%
and flow changes by 50%, another actuator move of 10% will
change the flow by another 50%.
Rangeability: the ratio of maximum controllable flow to minimum
controllable flow
Turndown: ratio of maximum usable flow to minimum controllable
flow
7

We always want the turndown ratio to be smaller than the rangeability of the selected
valve.

Slide 8

Control valves for HVAC systems come in two different
configurations 1) three-way valve or 2) two-way valve
Three-way valve - use to mix or divert the flow rate to the HVAC
equipment. The flow rate in the system remains constant.
Two-way valve use to modulate the flow rate to the HVAC
equipment. The flow rate in the system will be variable. One place
where this 2-way valve is used is Secondary Variable Chilled Water
System Cooling Coil Control.
Valve ratings:
Capacity Index, C
v
: defined as quantity of water flow in gallon per
minute (gpm) that will flow through a given valve with a pressure
differential of 1 psi.
Close-off: maximum pressure drop to which the valve may be
subjected to while fully closed. Its usually a function of the actuator
holding power and or structural strength of the stem.
8

Two-way control valve is currently the best practice in HVAC control system due to
advance in variable speed control and energy conservation.

Slide 9

Modes of Automatic Control
Two-position control: common use for start and stop of electric
motor or unit heater
Proportional control: the final control element (valve) moves are
proportional to the deviations of the value of the controlled variable
(temperature). Within the proportional band, there can be only one
valve position for each controlled variable value.
Floating control: final control element moves at a rate in a
corrective direction until the controller is satisfied or until it calls for
movement in the other direction.
Proportional-plus-reset control: combine proportional control and
floating proportional speed control to position the final control
element. The component due to proportional speed floating control
is called reset response and proportional control component is
called proportional response. Reset response tends to correct
the offset (sustain deviation).
9

All control system has LAG.
Lags in control system is due to:
Change in manipulated variable in response to change in position of the final
element
Reaching new rate of energy transfer from control agent to control medium
Response of the controlled variable to the changes in energy transferred to it from
control agent
For example:
If a great quantity of cold air enters the room, the room temperature would drop
immediately but the sensing element would not be able to sense and measure the
temperature drop as fast. The result is the lag between the time the air enters the
room and the time corrective action can be applied.

Slide 10

Control Loop Summary
Control System Functions
1. Measure changes in controlled variable
2. Translate force or energy used by final control
element
3. Transmit the energy or force from point of
translation to point of corrective action
4. Use translated force or energy to position a
final control element to effect corrective change
5. Detect the completion of corrective change
and terminate the action
Control equipment
Primary element - sensors
Controller
Control circuits wiring or pneumatic tubing
Controlled device actuator (motor or valve)
Controller
Sensor Actuator Ctroller Control
Device
Process Final
Condition
System feedback
10

Slide 11

Pneumatic control:
Pneumatic control system uses compressed air energy as the
usable energy for the operations of valves, motors, relays, actuators,
final elements, and sensing devices.
The pneumatic control circuits consists of air tubings, air passages,
orifices and mechanical devices such as pneumatic controllers.
The pneumatic control systems requires a source of clean, dry,
compressed air known as instrument air quality.
In recent time, due to advance in electronic and computer
technology, Pneumatic systems have been displaced by electronic
and digital control systems.
Pneumatic controls can still be found in existing installations or
where environments have risk of fire or explosions which can be
caused by electric and electronic devices
11

Instrument air comes from the plant compressed air system that comprised of an
industrial air compressor, receiver, dryer, filter, air pressure reducing valve. Air
distribution can be via plastic or copper tubing.

Slide 12

Pneumatic
valve
Pneumatic
relay
Pneumatic
Temperature
controller
Pneumatic
humidistat
Pneumatic
switches
Pneumatic
actuator
12

Slide 13

Two-position
damper actuator
Pressure
controller
Temperature
controller
damper & valve
linkage
Spring return
damper motor
Static pressure
regulator in central
fan control
13

Slide 14

The control technology for HVAC has evolved from pneumatic
system to the digital control networks of today
Electronic & Digital control: The control theory is the same as
pneumatic control theory.
The difference is in use of modern electronics, computer
technology, network technology and software in designing the
automatic control system in lieu of mechanical control devices,
The difference is also the source of power to the control
system, i.e. compressed air versus electrical current, and the
type of processing signals, analog versus digital signals
In addition, microprocessor-based control systems have
capability to do energy management, maintenance
management (CMMS), monitoring and supervisory (SCADA),
network with business systems, and integrate fire and security
controls in one Building Automation System (BAS).
14

Slide 15

BAS for HVAC
Basic DDC (Direct Digital Control) Loop
Input from sensor/device Either Analog or Digital; if analog a
signal conversion step is needed
DDC or building automation controller to process information
Typical Controller Programmable Logic or Microprocessor
Output Digital signal then use a signal conversion device to
convert digital signal to an analog signal to process

Slide 16

Typical BAS Network Architecture with PLC

Slide 17

HVAC Control System
Typical BAS system architecture with microprocessor
17

Slide 18

CONTROL METHODS

Slide 19

HVAC Control Devices & Systems

Slide 20

Typical Control Loop
Basic element of a control loop
SENSOR
(FOR CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL ONLY)
SET POINT
ERROR
CONTROLLER
OUTPUT
FINAL
CONDITIONS
FINAL CONTROL
ELEMENT
MANIPULATED
VARIABLE CONTROL
ENVIRONMENT
CONTROLLER

Slide 21

Typical Controlled Variables in HVAC Systems
Temperature
Relative humidity
Air flow rate
Static pressure of air
Differential pressure of air
# of Particulates (viable and non-viable)

Slide 22

Control Devices in a control loop
Sensors sense and send control signals
Controllers measure and perform control logics
Controlled devices carry out controller instructions
Auxiliary devices Wiring, Tubing, Relays, transducers,
I/P converters, and switches, etc intermediate
components for signal processing

-Sensor is the device that measure a variable and transmits its value to the controller.
- The controllers compare the value of the variable with the set point/desired valve, and
outputs a signal based on the different between the variable and the set points.

Slide 23

Typical Sensors
Temperature sensors
Resistance
temperature
detectors (RTD)
Thermocouples
Thermistors
IC sensors (Solid
State)
IC sensors

-Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD), are sensors used to measure temperature by correlating
the resistance of the RTD element with temperature. Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine
coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The element is usually quite fragile, so it is
often placed inside a sheathed probe to protect it. The RTD element is made from a pure material
whose resistance at various temperatures has been documented. The material has a predictable
change in resistance as the temperature changes; it is this predictable change that is used to
determine temperature.
RTD: Platinum and silicon-based thin film RTDs are laser trimmed for accuracy and
interchangeability. Linear outputs are stable and fast. Sensors are accurate and interchangeable
without recalibration. Plastic and ceramic, miniaturized and surface mount housings are available,
including printed circuit board termination. Wide variety of package styles for wiring, mounting and
environmental conditions.
-A thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which can be read by a voltmeter.
-Thermistors are "thermal resistors" - they change resistance with a change in temperature. They do
not amplify, rectify, polarize or generate a signal. The thermistor temperature may be changed by
the surrounding temperature or by self-heating the thermistor by passing a current through it.

Slide 24

Typical Sensors
IC sensors:
enables digital sensors
to drive peripheral
elements, such as
programmable logic
controllers (PLC) and
relays
Applications
I/O sensor interface
Digital sensors
Light barriers
Proximity switches
IC sensors block
diagram

Slide 25

Typical Sensors
Humidity sensors
Relative-humidity
sensors
Dew-point sensors
RH Sensor Calibrator
Humidity Sensors & Transmitters
Dew-point Sensors http://www.michell.com/us/category/relative-
humidity-products.htm

-Relative humidity/temperature and relative humidity sensors are configured with integrated circuitry
to provide on-chip signal conditioning. Absorption-based humidity sensors provide both temperature
and %RH (Relative Humidity) outputs. On-chip signal processing ensures linear voltage output
versus %RH. Sensor laser trimming offers +5 %RH accuracy and achieves 2 %RH accuracy with
calibration. Packages are chemically resistant and operate in ranges of -40 C to 85 C [-40 F to
185 F] to accommodate harsh environments.

Slide 26

Typical Sensors
Flow sensors
Pitot tube : static /
dynamic pressure
differential
Orifice tube : flow
proportional to square root
of pressure
Venturi meter :
Bernoullis principle
Hot wire anemometer :
to control wire temperature
by applying current
Turbine meter :
measurement of turbine
velocity
Ultrasonic flows :
Doppler effect
Mass Flow Sensor

Slide 27

Typical Sensors
Pressure sensors
Diaphragm
pressure
sensors
Bellows
pressure
sensors
strain gauges
piezoelectric
gauges - quartz
crystal
Potentiometers
Bourdon tube
pressure
sensors
PCB Mounted Pressure Sensors
Media Isolated piezoelectric
Pressure Sensors

Slide 28

List of Sensor Manufacturers
http://www.us.endress.com/

List of Flow Sensors Manufacturers for Bing or Google to learn more about
controls manufactured by these vendors

Slide 29

Control System Response & Controller types
Types of control response
Two-position or On-Off control
Floating control
Proportional control
Proportional plus integral
Proportional plus integral plus derivatives (PID)
When controller receives a signal from the sensors,
there are mechanisms and algorithms that a controller
can respond to effect the corrective actions
Controllers are classified by their response mechanisms

How to select Controllers?
The controller is one part of the entire control system, and the whole system should be
analyzed in selecting the proper controller. The following items should be considered
when selecting a controller:
Type of input sensor (thermocouple, RTD) and temperature range
Type of output required (electromechanical relay, SSR, analog output)
Control algorithm needed (on/off, proportional, PID)
Number and type of outputs (heat, cool, alarm, limit)
What Are the Different Types of Controllers?
There are three basic types of controllers: on-off, proportional and PID. Depending
upon the system to be controlled, the operator will be able to use one type or another to
control the process.

Slide 30

Typical Controller
Two-Position (On-Off control)
The output from the device is either on or off, with no
middle state. An on-off controller will switch the output only
when the CV crosses the setpoint.
Advantage - cheap and effective
Disadvantage
cost for maintenance (wear/ tear of control valves)
start up cost when power is reapplied each MV drops
have deadband, a region around the set point valve in
which no control action occurs.

On/Off Control
For heating control, the output is on when the temperature is below the setpoint, and off above setpoint. Since the
temperature crosses the setpoint to change the output state, the process temperature will be cycling continually,
going from below setpoint to above, and back below. In cases where this cycling occurs rapidly, and to prevent
damage to contactors and valves, an on-off differential, or hysteresis, is added to the controller operations. This
differential requires that the temperature exceed setpoint by a certain amount before the output will turn off or on
again. On-off differential prevents the output from chattering or making fast, continual switches if the cycling above
and below the setpoint occurs very rapidly. On-off control is usually used where a precise control is not necessary, in
systems which cannot handle having the energy turned on and off frequently, where the mass of the system is so
great that temperatures change extremely slowly, or for a temperature alarm. One special type of on-off control used
for alarm is a limit controller. This controller uses a latching relay, which must be manually reset, and is used to shut
down a process when a certain temperature is reached.

Slide 31

Typical Controller
Proportional Controller
Controlled device moves are proportional to the deviations
of the value of the controlled variable (temperature).
Within the proportional band, there can be only one valve
position for each controlled variable value.

Proportional Control
Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the cycling associated with on-off control. A proportional controller
decreases the average power supplied to the heater as the temperature approaches setpoint. This has the effect of
slowing down the heater so that it will not overshoot the setpoint, but will approach the setpoint and maintain a stable
temperature. This proportioning action can be accomplished by turning the output on and off for short time intervals.
This "time proportioning" varies the ratio of on time to "off" time to control the temperature. The proportioning action
occurs within a proportional band around the setpoint temperature. Outside this band, the controller functions as an
on-off unit, with the output either fully on (below the band) or fully off (above the band). However, within the band, the
output is turned on and off in the ratio of the measurement difference from the setpoint. At the setpoint (the midpoint
of the proportional band), the output on:off ratio is 1:1; that is, the on-time and off-time are equal. if the temperature is
further from the setpoint, the on- and off-times vary in proportion to the temperature difference. If the temperature is
below setpoint, the output will be on longer; if the temperature is too high, the output will be off longer.

Slide 32

Typical Controller
Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) Controller
correct the error between a measured variable and a desired set
point by calculating and then outputting a corrective action that can
adjust the process according to the rate of change, automatically.

*PID Control
PID Controller
The Proportional value determines the reaction to the current error
-The Integral value determines the reaction based on the sum of recent errors
-The Derivative value determines the reaction based on the rate at which the error has
been changing.
This controller combines proportional control with two additional adjustments, which
helps the unit automatically compensate for changes in the system. These adjustments,
integral and derivative, are expressed in time-based units; they are also referred to by
their reciprocals, RESET and RATE, respectively. The proportional, integral and
derivative terms must be individually adjusted or tuned to a particular system using
trial and error. It provides the most accurate and stable control of the three controller
types, and is best used in systems which have a relatively small mass, those which
react quickly to changes in the energy added to the process. It is recommended in
systems where the load changes often and the controller is expected to compensate
automatically due to frequent changes in setpoint, the amount of energy available, or
the mass to be controlled.
Vendors offer a number of controllers that automatically tune themselves. These are
known as autotune controllers.

Slide 33

Controller Standard Sizes
http://www.omega.com/prodinfo/temperaturecontrollers.html
Since temperature controllers are generally mounted inside an instrument
panel, the panel must be cut to accommodate the temperature controller. In
order to provide interchangeability between temperature controllers, most
temperature controllers are designed to standard DIN sizes. The most
common DIN sizes are shown below.

Slide 34


Slide 35

HVAC Design & Equipment Control Schemes
Room controlled variables (temperature, pressure,
relative humidity, air volume flow rate, particulates)
Air Handling Unit
Central Cooling plant
Central heating plant
Integrated Building Management Systems
BMS and MES

Slide 36

Space temperature control
AHU supply air discharge temperature: maintain constant
discharge temperature, vary air volume via VFD fan motor or
VAV boxes
Control room space temperature: vary SA discharge
temperature, constant air volume not commonly use.
Constant air volume with reheat (central or local): use
Constant Volume box to maintain fixed air supply volume.
Adjust the air temperature with reheat coil. This is commonly
used.
Variable air volume with reheat reducing air supply as the
space heal load reduces. At a minimum air volume setpoint
the reheat coil comes on. Use in offices.
Space pressure
Space relative humidity
Space particulate level

Slide 37

Space pressure control
Static (hard) air balance: the room pressure is
maintained by balancing the air systems with mechanical
dampers
Constant supply air- variable return air: fix the SA air
using CAV box and control the room pressure by
modulating the return air volume. Commonly use in
pharmaceutical rooms.
Air volume tracking: fix the differential air flow between
supply and return air streams using air flow monitors in
return duct to modulate VAV box

Slide 38

Space pressure control
Room differential pressure reference: two methods of
maintaining the room differential pressure relationships
for all the rooms.
Room differential pressure can be relative to a common
reference pressure level such as a common corridor pressure
Room Delta P can be relative to its adjacent rooms, the room
differential pressure keeps cascading to a low reference
pressure at a common corridor.
Common reference pressure level in a common space is
the preferred method to measure room differential
pressure over the cascading method.

More tubing runs (higher cost) will be required with Common-Reference-Pressure-Level
method, however in return for this investment this method is more stable and easier to
set up than Cascading Method.

Slide 39

Definition
Pressure Control (Static Pressurization
Control)
Direct control of duct supply and return static
pressures via the use of air handler fan
speed/dampers, with room differential pressure
and air flow volume as secondary or indirectly
controlled variables.
Manual dampers are balanced to maintain desired
pressure differential in rooms.

Slide 40

Static Pressurization Control Diagram
S2
S1
DP1
CW1
EH1
SF1
DA2
HW1
DX1
OUTSIDE
H1
S2
S1
DP1
CW1
EH1
SF1
DA3
HW1
DX1
DA2
DA1
H1
Air Lock
Process
Room
DP
DP
REF
REF
HD
HD
HD
HD
RF1 RF1
VFD
VFD
A
A

Static Pressure Control Setup:
The balancers set up the hand dampers (HD) to fix the air flow volume into each room
in accordance with the balancing report to meet the specified room differential pressure.
The static pressure sensors S1 and S2 control the return fan RF1 and supply fan SF1,
respectively by sensing the static pressure in the ductwork to maintain the fixed return
and supply air quantities to the rooms in accordance to the balancing report set up by
the balancing technicians.
The DP sensors and magnahelic pressure gauges are for monitoring the room
differential pressures as a result of the balanced air flows into each space.

Slide 41

Definition
Airflow Control (Passive Pressurization Control)
Direct control of air flow volume (and room
turnover) via the use of air handler fan speed and
locked down supply and return/exhaust box
settings with room differential pressure as a
secondary or indirectly controlled variable.

Slide 42

Passive Pressurization Control Diagram
DP1
CW1
EH1
SF1
DA2
HW1
DX1
OUTSIDE
H1
DP1
CW1
EH1
SF1
DA3
HW1
DX1
DA2
DA1
H1
Air Lock
Process
Room
DP
DP
REF
REF
HD
HD
HD
HD
AFM
AFM
RF1 RF1
VFD
VFD
A
A

Passive Pressurization Control Setup:
The setup is similar to static pressure control method, except the Supply Fan SF1 and
Return Fan RF1 are controlled by Air Flow Monitoring Stations, the AFM measure the
air flow rate directly to maintain the desired balanced air flow rates into each space to
produce the specified room differential pressures.

Slide 43

Definition
Differential Airflow Control (Active Pressurization
Control)
Control room differential pressure by varying the
differential between the supply air flow (CFM)
and the total exhaust air flow from space.
Supply air volume set point is modulated to track
the total exhaust to maintain the necessary
differential air flow rate. The air flow differential
creates the subsequent pressure differential for
room turnover. Temperature is maintained by
modulating the general exhaust/return air volume.

Slide 44

Active Pressurization Control Diagram
DP1
CW1
EH1
SF1
DA2
HW1
DX1
OUTSIDE
H1
DP1
CW1
EH1
SF1
DA3
HW1
DX1
DA2
DA1
H1
Air Lock
Process
Room
DP
DP
REF
REF
SAV
RAV
RAV
SAV
RF1 RF1
VFD
VFD
A
A
S2
S1

Active Pressurization Control SetUp:

The rooms air flow rates (supply and return or exhaust air streams) are directly
modulated by the individual air flow control boxes (SAV and RAV) by the DP signals
from the room differential pressure sensors.
In addition, the SF1 and RF1 are controlled to maintain fixed supply and return air flows
for the entire system to compensate for changes in system pressures due to SVA or
RAV changes, dirty filters or other conditions.

Slide 45

PRESSURE CONTROL STRATEGY DECISION CRITERIA
Are there issues with:
1) Bio-containment?
2) Highly toxic compound?
3) High Safety Risk?
4) High-value products?
5) Need for mechanical design
flexibility or performance
diversity?
Is project Bus.
Critical?
PASSIVE PRESSURIZATION
CONTROL
1)Is project GMP
space?
2) Is tight T,H, dP
tolerances
required?
ACTIVE
PRESSURIZATION
CONTROL
NO
YES to ANY
NO to ALL
YES
YES to ALL
Re-Evaluate
Risk
NO
YES
Does Economic
Evaluation Justify?
NO
OR

Actual pressurization control schemes could vary somewhat from the academic
descriptions in this lecture, however the underlying scheme concepts should be the
same.

Slide 46

Space relative humidity control
Central humidification control:
Common return air RH sensor: measure RH level in the
common return duct from a single zone
Individual room RH sensor: measures RH level in individual
rooms then average the cumulative signals
Special humidification requirements
Rooms that require additional humidification or different level of
RH can have its supply duct fitted with a duct-mounted humidifier
Rooms that require to have low RH level than can be provided
by cooling coil can have a separate dehumidification system
using desiccant to dehumidify.
Desiccant system can dehumidify the space to below 10-15%
RH

Slide 47

Non-classified space: use pre-filters and intermediate
filters of increasing filtration efficiency installed in AHU to
remove air particulates. Differential pressure switch
monitors pressure drop across the filter for replacement
at a pre-determined pressure drop level
Classified-space: in addition to pre- and intermediate
filters, final HEPA filters can be installed either in AHU or
in room ceiling space to remove air particulates
Supply fan speed control: as the systems filters loaded
up, the fan speed will increase to compensate for the
increased pressure drops.

Slide 48

The space cleanliness level (ISO Clean Room
classification) can be achieved by supply the space with
a fixed number of room air volume change per hour with
HEPA filter air.
At ISO-5 level, in addition to air change per hour the
room air flow distribution pattern becomes important in
removing air-borne particles.
The air flow in ISO-5 room typically must be
unidirectional, non-turbulence (laminar), and having
adequate terminal velocity of 90 fpm (+/- 20 fpm) at work
surface

Slide 49

HVAC Monitoring
For approved pharmaceuticals to meet the FDA GMP requirements ,
an Environmental Monitoring System is needed to collect and trend
critical variables of the HVAC system serving manufacturing spaces
Environmental Monitoring System Design Considerations
Define requirements (control microorganisms and particles)-
cleanroom operation is very different for each case so start the
control range wide and tighten specifications as collected data
dictates
Condition of use (As-built(initial), Static (no activity),
Dynamic*FDA focus (in operation)) are different usage status of
the space being monitored
Particle monitoring
Minimum sample size = 2 liters
Minimum sample time = 1 minutes
Method of determining # of sample points in clean room
Sample points (Fed Std. 209e) N= A/2.32 or N=(A x 64) / SQRT
of Room classification
Sample point (ISO 14644) N= SQRT of Area
Sample point N= SQRT of room classification
49

EMS = Environmental Monitoring or Management System
Condition of Use:
As-built test and monitor the system and the space without any people or equipment
installed in this space
Static The space has production or process equipment installed as intended for
manufacturing but not running
Dynamic This condition of use is when the space being monitored is fully operational
with equipment and operators performing or assimilating their routine activities
Currently, due to difficulty in validating the combined functions (specially for exisiting
legacy BAS systems) most companies segregate the BAS control functions from
monitoring function, and only qualify the EMS portion

Slide 50

Building Automation System Design
The first step in designing a BAS system is to write the Sequence of
Operation, SOO
A SOO is written to describe the operations of all the control loops
for cooling coil, heating coil, room temperature, relative humidity,
and pressure control.
The SOO also describes the start-up and shut-down procedure for
the whole HVAC system, and the system safety interlocks when
something abnormal happened
The SOO can also include energy management scheduling or
strategies for automatic execution
Using the SOO document and the HVAC control diagrams, the
engineers can generate a Control System Architecture which shows
the hierarchical relationships of the control system components.
50

Slide 51

Building Automation System Design
After the Sequence of Operations is drafted, a point
list can be developed to document all controls, alarms,
monitoring conditions and the necessary instruments to
connect all field sensors to the BAS front end system
Using the developed point list, the engineer can either
ask the vendor for a budget price or using some rule of
thumb to arrive at a guestimated price
Depending on the scope of the control system, complex
or simple, and the size of the project, the price per
control point could range from $1200 to $2500 (based on
2007 data for discussion purpose only)
51

My definition of a control point is for example a sensor has a wire to be connected to,
that is one control point.

Slide 52

BAS Design Trends
Active (automatic) Static (manual)
Passive
~80% of Todays
Systems
~15% of Todays
Systems
~5% of Todays
Systems
Cost of Active Mechanical Decreasing
Cost of Active Control Decreasing
FDA Wants Less Unexplained Deviations
Complexity of Active Control Systems Decreasing

Slide 53

List of BAS Manufacturers & Resources
http://www.automatedbuildings.com/
http://newsroom.cisco.com/dlls/2009/prod_070109b.html?sid=BAC-JsSynd
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/products/ps10447/Products_Sub_Category_Home.html
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h0uUb9p0vyc
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yV7iy9-0Gbg&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rcfNC_x0VvE
http://www.businessweek.com/go/09/smartbuilding
http://www.johnsoncontrols.com/publish/us/en/products/building_efficiency/building_management
.html

List of BAS Manufacturers for Bing or Google to learn more about available BAS
design and technologies

Slide 54

List of BAS Manufacturers & Resources
http://www.usa.siemens.com/entry/en/
http://www.echelon.com/solutions/building/
http://acscorp.honeywell.com/Pages/default.aspx
http://www.rockwellautomation.com/rockwellsoftware/
http://trane.com/COMMERCIAL/Controls/Default.aspx?i=875
http://www.facilitiesnet.com/buildingautomation/default.asp
http://www.caba.org

List of BAS Manufacturers for Bing or Google.

BAE Systems
Johnson Controls
Cisco Systems, Inc.
Legrand (Ortronics/The Wattstopper)
CommScope, Inc.
Natural Resources Canada
Delta Controls Inc.
Robinson Solutions Inc.
Encelium Technologies Inc.
Sloan Monitored Systems
Global Environment Fund
Trane Herman Miller Inc.
Tridel Corporation
InfoComm International
Panduit, Corp.

Slide 55

Building Automation System
Building Management System
Integrate facility operations
Coordinate manufacturing operations
Environmental monitoring
Energy management

Slide 56

Additional BAS functions and capabilities
Integrate building management and process control
BAS capable of monitoring and controlling conditions
throughout a single or multiple buildings
Provide holistic control of building access, lighting,
energy usage, maintenance, security and life safety
management as per regulatory compliance
Modern BAS can be used to handle more facility
functions in more facilities at a single point
BAS can interface with Manufacturing Execution System
to increase productivity, equipment up time, and
regulatory compliance

Slide 57

Functional aspects of BAS

Slide 58

Functional Model of BAS(BMS)

Slide 59

Integrated approach in design and selection of
Building Automation
Operational center establishment- to manage
integrated building management and process control
function
Seamless, synchronized system architecture- to
provide common electronic batch records, common
exception reporting and production management with
resource traceability
Pulls all information to a single interface point
Enhance the regulated manufacturing security by
combining alarm, video recording and manual
intervention to change the process in a single point of
view.

Slide 60

Security System Management
Access control
Centralized card holder management- for employee,
contractor and visitors
Enhanced security through integration- complete
single window access to building information and
enterprise databases
card reader technology
integrated support for fingerprint reader and biometric
authentication
Integrate photos and signatures in card holder database
Constant real time location and status of tagged equipment, and
people through the facility- asset locator

Slide 61

Security System Management
Identification Control
Centralize alarming, card holder management system,
and fully integrated photo id badging
Customize graphical display
Integration with time, attendance file, HR, financial and
inventory management
Interface with third party CCTV controller

Slide 62

Integrated Monitoring and Control
Single point monitoring and control of buildings HVAC,
lighting, environment control and energy management
Emergency communication system
Life safety management system
Control facilities ventilation systems, smoke and fire
detection, comparmentalization, and alarms
Evacuation plan with advance audio communication
system
Integration of firefighters telephone communication
system
Sprinkler supervisory status
Integration of CCTV live video status
Emergency notification of storm and hazardous materials

Slide 63

Manufacturing Execution System(MES)
Manufacturing Control System(MCS)
Manage all steps of production lifecycle with MES/MCS
Integration with other manufacturing system can be achieved
with web service and industry standard technology such as
XML (extensible mark up language) and OPC (object linking
and embedding for process control)
Uses modern control system using web-based human
machine interface (HMI)
Provides single facility wise view of operation
To integrate business process with common HMI across the
plant or plants
Provide seamless, third party integration through open web
standards

Slide 64

BAS & MES & MCS Integration
Advancement of total batch control
MCS provides platform for handling of inbound (process
order, lab result) and outbound transaction (inventory update
and lab request)
Implementation of MCS requires open standard based
programming interface to communicate between MES and
ERP (enterprise resource planning)
Integrated system with EBR (electronic batch records) and
process automation information like alarms, unit control, batch
history, etc for easier compliance and verification
Single, unified system with common environment for
accessing production data, and process display

This integration goal has not been realized by pharmaceutical manufacturers

Slide 65

Plant Control Levels
BAS


Slide 66

BAS Integration
BAS
Facility Control Systems


Slide 67

Integrated BAS Front End Control Room
Central Command Interface
HVAC related malfunction annunciation panel
Main security system along with fire alarms panel
Other type of alarms and warning system
Access control - badging
Centralize and remote control capability
Operator interface capability- touch screen/keypad
combination
Graphical, audible, visual and centralize alarm
presentation and acknowledgment.
Authorized access control to hardware and software
within control rooms or control panel locations

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