History of the United

States of America
When the London Company sent out its first expedition to begin colonizing
Virginia on December 20, 10, it !as by no means the first "uropean attempt
to exploit #orth $merica% &n 1'(, for example, )rench *rotestants +,uguenots-
built a colony near !hat is no! .ac/son0ille, )lorida% 1his intrusion did not go
unnoticed by the 2panish, !ho had pre0iously claimed the region% 1he next
year, the 2panish established a military post at 2t% $ugustine3 2panish troops
soon !iped out the )rench interlopers residing but (0 miles a!ay%
4ean!hile, 5as6ue, "nglish, and )rench fishing fleets became regular 0isitors
to the coasts from #e!foundland to Cape Cod% 2ome of these fishing fleets
e0en set up semi7permanent camps on the coasts to dry their catches and to
trade !ith local &ndians, exchanging furs for manufactured goods% )or the next
t!o decades, "uropeans8 presence in #orth $merica !as limited to these semi7
permanent incursions% 1hen in the 1'90s, the "nglish tried to plant a permanent
colony on :oano/e &sland +on the outer ban/s of present7day #orth Carolina-,
but their effort !as short7li0ed%
&n the early 100s, in rapid succession, the "nglish began a colony
+.amesto!n- in Chesapea/e 5ay in 10;, the )rench built <uebec in 109, and
the Dutch began their interest in the region that became present7day #e! =or/%
Within another generation, the *lymouth Company +120-, the 4assachusetts
5ay Company +12>-, the Company of #e! )rance +12;-, and the Dutch West
&ndia Company +121- began to send thousands of colonists, including families,
to #orth $merica% 2uccessful colonization !as not ine0itable% :ather, interest in
#orth $merica !as a halting, yet global, contest among "uropean po!ers to
exploit these lands%
1here is another 0ery important point to /eep in mind? "uropean colonization
and settlement of #orth $merica +and other areas of the so7called @ne! !orld@-
!as an in0asion of territory controlled and settled for centuries by #ati0e
$mericans% 1o be sure, &ndian control and settlement of that land loo/ed
different to "uropean, as compared to &ndian, eyes% #onetheless, &ndian groups
percei0ed the "uropeans8 arri0al as an encroachment and they pursued any
number of a0enues to deal !ith that in0asion% 1hat the &ndians !ere
unsuccessful in the long run in resisting or in establishing a more fa0orable
accommodation !ith the "uropeans !as as much the result of the impact on
&ndians of "uropean diseases as superior force of arms% 4oreo0er, to 0ie! the
situation from &ndian perspecti0es +@facing east from &ndian country,@ in historian
Daniel A% :ichter8s !onderful phrase- is essential in understanding the complex
interaction of these 0ery different peoples%
)inally, it is also important to /eep in mind that yet a third group of people77in
this case $fricans77played an acti0e role in the "uropean in0asion +or
colonization- of the !estern hemisphere% )rom the 0ery beginning, "uropeans8
attempts to establish colonies in the !estern hemisphere foundered on the lac/
of laborers to do the hard !or/ of colony7building% )or the most part, "uropeans
!ere not especially pic/y about !ho did the !or/, as long as it !asn8t them% 1he
2panish, for example, ensla0ed the &ndians in regions under their control% 1he
"nglish struc/ upon the idea of indentured ser0itude to sol0e the labor problem
in Virginia% Virtually all the "uropean po!ers e0entually turned to $frican sla0ery
to pro0ide labor on their islands in the West &ndies% 2la0ery !as e0entually
transferred to other colonies in both 2outh and #orth $merica%
5ecause of the interactions of these 0ery di0erse peoples, the process of
"uropean in0asionBcolonization of the !estern hemisphere !as a complex one,
indeed% &ndi0idual members of each group confronted situations that !ere most
often not of their o!n ma/ing or choosing% 1hese indi0iduals responded !ith the
means a0ailable to them% )or most, these means !ere not sufficient to pre0ail%
=et these people !ere not simply 0ictims3 they !ere acti0e agents trying to
shape their o!n destinies% 1hat many of them failed should not detract from
their efforts%
The American Revolution
Cntil the end of the 2e0en =ears8 War in 1;D, fe! colonists in 5ritish #orth
$merica obEected to their place in the 5ritish "mpire% Colonists in 5ritish
$merica reaped many benefits from the 5ritish imperial system and bore fe!
costs for those benefits% &ndeed, until the early 1;0s, the 5ritish mostly left their
$merican colonies alone% 1he 2e0en =ears8 War +/no!n in $merica as the
)rench and &ndian War- changed e0erything% $lthough 5ritain e0entually
achie0ed 0ictory o0er )rance and its allies, 0ictory had come at great cost% $
staggering !ar debt influenced many 5ritish policies o0er the next decade%
$ttempts to raise money by reforming colonial administration, enforcing tax
la!s, and placing troops in $merica led directly to conflict !ith colonists% 5y the
mid71;;0s, relations bet!een $mericans and the 5ritish administration had
become strained and acrimonious%
1he first shots of !hat !ould become the !ar for $merican independence !ere
fired in $pril 1;;'% )or some months before that clash at Lexington and
Concord, patriots had been gathering arms and po!der and had been training
to fight the 5ritish if that became necessary% Feneral 1homas Fage,
commander of 5ritish forces around 5oston, had been cautious3 he did not !ish
to pro0o/e the $mericans% &n $pril, ho!e0er, Fage recei0ed orders to arrest
se0eral patriot leaders, rumored to be around Lexington% Fage sent his troops
out on the night of $pril 19, hoping to catch the colonists by surprise and thus to
a0oid bloodshed% When the 5ritish arri0ed in Lexington, ho!e0er, colonial militia
a!aited them% $ fire fight soon ensued% "0en so, it !as not ob0ious that this
clash !ould lead to !ar% $merican opinion !as split% 2ome !anted to declare
independence immediately3 others hoped for a 6uic/ reconciliation% 1he maEority
of $mericans remained undecided but !atching and !aiting%
&n .une 1;;', the Continental Congress created, on paper, a Continental $rmy
and appointed Feorge Washington as Commander% Washington8s first tas/,
!hen he arri0ed in 5oston to ta/e charge of the ragtag militia assembled there,
!as to create an army in fact% &t !as a daunting tas/ !ith no end of problems?
recruitment, retention, training and discipline, supply, and payment for soldiers8
ser0ices !ere among those problems% #e0ertheless, Washington realized that
/eeping an army in the field !as his single most important obEecti0e%
During the first t!o years of the :e0olutionary War, most of the fighting bet!een
the patriots and 5ritish too/ place in the north% $t first, the 5ritish generally had
their !ay because of their far superior sea po!er% Despite Washington8s daring
0ictories at 1renton and *rinceton, #e! .ersey, in late 1;; and early 1;;;, the
5ritish still retained the initiati0e% &ndeed, had 5ritish efforts been better
coordinated, they probably could ha0e put do!n the rebellion in 1;;;% 5ut such
!as not to be% *atriot forces, commanded by Feneral ,oratio Fates, achie0ed
a significant 0ictory at 2aratoga, #e! =or/, in Gctober 1;;;% Within months,
this 0ictory induced )rance to sign treaties of alliance and commerce !ith the
Cnited 2tates% &n retrospect, )rench in0ol0ement !as the turning point of the
!ar, although that !as not ob0ious at the time%
5et!een 1;;9 and 1;91, 5ritish military operations focused on the south
because the 5ritish assumed a large percentage of 2outherners !ere loyalists
!ho could help them subdue the patriots% 1he 5ritish !ere successful in most
con0entional battles fought in that region, especially in areas close to their
points of supply on the $tlantic coast% "0en so, $merican generals #athanael
Freene and Daniel 4organ turned to guerrilla and hit7and7run !arfare that
e0entually stymied the 5ritish% 5y 1;91, 5ritish Feneral Lord Charles Corn!allis
!as ordered to march into Virginia to a!ait resupply near Chesapea/e 5ay% 1he
$mericans and their )rench allies pounced on Corn!allis and forced his
surrender%
=or/to!n !as a signal 0ictory for the patriots, but t!o years of sporadic !arfare,
continued military preparations, and diplomatic negotiations still lay ahead% 1he
$mericans and 5ritish signed a preliminary peace treaty on #o0ember D0,
1;923 they signed the final treaty, /no!n as the *eace of *aris, on 2eptember
10, 1;9D% 1he treaty !as generally 6uite fa0orable to the Cnited 2tates in terms
of national boundaries and other concessions% "0en so, 5ritish 0iolations of the
agreement !ould become an almost constant source of irritation bet!een the
t!o nations far into the future%
The New Nation
$t the successful conclusion of the :e0olutionary War !ith Freat 5ritain in
1;9D, an $merican could loo/ bac/ and reflect on the truly re0olutionary e0ents
that had occurred in the preceding three decades% &n that period $merican
colonists had first helped the 5ritish !in a global struggle !ith )rance% 2oon,
ho!e0er, troubles surfaced as 5ritain began to assert tighter control of its #orth
$merican colonies% "0entually, these troubles led to a struggle in !hich
$merican colonists se0ered their colonial ties !ith Freat 5ritain% 4ean!hile,
$mericans began to experiment !ith ne! forms of self7go0ernment% 1his
mo0ement occurred in both the Continental Congress during the :e0olution and
at the local and state le0els%
$fter !inning their independence, $mericans continued to experiment !ith ho!
to go0ern themsel0es under the $rticles of Confederation% G0er time, some
influential groups77and these by no means reflected the sentiments of all
$mericans77found the Confederation go0ernment inade6uate% :epresentati0es
of these groups came together in *hiladelphia to explore the creation of yet
another, ne!er form of go0ernment% 1he result !as a ne! constitution% #ot all
$mericans embraced this ne! Constitution, ho!e0er, and ratification of the
document produced many disagreements% "0en so, the Constitution !as
ratified, and !ith a ne! constitution in place, $mericans once again turned to
Feorge Washington for leadership, this time as *resident of the ne! republic%
$lthough Washington pro0ed to be personally popular and respected, conflict
o0er the proper functions and locus of go0ernmental po!er dominated his t!o
terms as president% 1hese disputes soon led to the formation of factions and
then political parties that !ere deeply di0ided o0er the nature and purposes of
the federal go0ernment, o0er foreign affairs, and o0er the 0ery future of the ne!
nation% "0ents during the single term of .ohn $dams, our second president,
made these di0isions e0en !orse and they continued into the presidency of
1homas .efferson +19017190>-%
"0en so, *resident .efferson nearly doubled the size of the ne! nation by
purchasing the Louisiana 1erritory from )rance% 1his purchase also led
.efferson to form the Le!is and Clar/ expedition to disco0er Eust !hat !as
contained in the ne! land% .efferson8s successor as *resident, .ames 4adison
+190>7191;-77one of authors of the constitution77led the ne! nation through
another !ar !ith Freat 5ritain% 1his, of course, !as the unpopular War of 1912%
1his !ar ended in 191' and if nothing else it con0inced 5ritain that the Cnited
2tates !as on the map to stay% 4ean!hile, $mericans began to de0elop a
culture and !ay of life that !as truly their o!n and no longer that of mere
colonials%
National Expansion
During this period, the small republic founded by Feorge Washington8s
generation became the !orld8s largest democracy% $ll adult, !hite males
recei0ed the right to 0ote% With !ider suffrage, politics became hotly contested%
1he period also sa! the emergence77and demise77of a number of significant
political parties, including the Democratic, the Whig, the $merican, the )ree
2oil, and the :epublican *arties%
4ean!hile, the young republic expanded geographically from the $tlantic to the
*acific% 1he 2tars and 2tripes !ere raised o0er 1exas, Gregon, California, and
the 2outh!est% "xpansion, ho!e0er, pro0ed to be a mixed blessing for
$mericans% While many !hite settlers found ne! opportunities to the West, their
settlement displaced other groups including &ndian tribes and 4exicans% &n
addition, territorial expansion ga0e $frican7$merican sla0ery a ne! lease on life
and led to increasing conflict bet!een #orth and 2outh%
Democracy and territorial expansion led most $mericans to feel optimistic about
the future% 1hese forces, reinforced by !idespread religious re0i0als, also led
many $mericans to support social reforms% 1hese reforms included promoting
temperance, creating public school systems, impro0ing the treatment of
prisoners, the insane, and the poor, abolishing sla0ery, and gaining e6ual rights
for !omen% 2ome of these reforms achie0ed significant successes% 1he political
climate supporting reform declined in the 19'0s, as conflict gre! bet!een the
#orth and 2outh o0er the sla0ery 6uestion%
Civil War and Reconstruction
&n 191, the Cnited 2tates faced its greatest crisis to that time% 1he northern
and southern states had become less and less ali/e77socially, economically,
politically% 1he #orth had become increasingly industrial and commercial !hile
the 2outh had remained largely agricultural% 4ore important than these
differences, ho!e0er, !as $frican7$merican sla0ery% 1he @peculiar institution,@
more than any other single thing, separated the 2outh from the #orth%
#ortherners generally !anted to limit the spread of sla0ery3 some !anted to
abolish it altogether% 2outherners generally !anted to maintain and e0en
expand the institution% 1hus, sla0ery became the focal point of a political crisis%
)ollo!ing the 190 election to the presidency of :epublican $braham Lincoln,
11 southern states e0entually seceded from the )ederal Cnion in 191% 1hey
sought to establish an independent Confederacy of states in !hich sla0ery
!ould be protected% #orthern Cnionists, on the other hand, insisted that
secession !as not only unconstitutional but unthin/able as !ell% 1hey !ere
!illing to use military force to /eep the 2outh in the Cnion% "0en 2outherners
!ho o!ned no sla0es opposed threatened )ederal coercion% 1he result !as a
costly and bloody ci0il !ar% $lmost as many $mericans !ere /illed in the Ci0il
War as in all the nation8s other !ars combined%
$fter four years of fighting, the Cnion !as restored through the force of arms%
1he problems of reconstructing the Cnion !ere Eust as difficult as fighting the
!ar had been% 5ecause most of the !ar !as fought in the 2outh, the region !as
de0astated physically and economically% ,elping freedmen +ex7sla0es- and
creating state go0ernments loyal to the Cnion also presented difficult problems
that !ould ta/e years to resol0e%
Rise of Industrial America
&n the decades follo!ing the Ci0il War, the Cnited 2tates emerged as an
industrial giant% Gld industries expanded and many ne! ones, including
petroleum refining, steel manufacturing, and electrical po!er, emerged%
:ailroads expanded significantly, bringing e0en remote parts of the country into
a national mar/et economy%
&ndustrial gro!th transformed $merican society% &t produced a ne! class of
!ealthy industrialists and a prosperous middle class% &t also produced a 0astly
expanded blue collar !or/ing class% 1he labor force that made industrialization
possible !as made up of millions of ne!ly arri0ed immigrants and e0en larger
numbers of migrants from rural areas% $merican society became more di0erse
than e0er before%
#ot e0eryone shared in the economic prosperity of this period% 4any !or/ers
!ere typically unemployed at least part of the year, and their !ages !ere
relati0ely lo! !hen they did !or/% 1his situation led many !or/ers to support
and Eoin labor unions% 4ean!hile, farmers also faced hard times as technology
and increasing production led to more competition and falling prices for farm
products% ,ard times on farms led many young people to mo0e to the city in
search of better Eob opportunities%
$mericans !ho !ere born in the 19(0s and 19'0s !ould experience enormous
changes in their lifetimes% 2ome of these changes resulted from a s!eeping
technological re0olution% 1heir maEor source of light, for example, !ould change
from candles, to /erosene lamps, and then to electric light bulbs% 1hey !ould
see their transportation e0ol0e from !al/ing and horse po!er to steam7po!ered
locomoti0es, to electric trolley cars, to gasoline7po!ered automobiles% 5orn into
a society in !hich the 0ast maEority of people !ere in0ol0ed in agriculture, they
experienced an industrial re0olution that radically changed the !ays millions of
people !or/ed and !here they li0ed% 1hey !ould experience the migration of
millions of people from rural $merica to the nation8s rapidly gro!ing cities%
Progressive Era to New Era
1he early 20th century !as an era of business expansion and progressi0e
reform in the Cnited 2tates% 1he progressi0es, as they called themsel0es,
!or/ed to ma/e $merican society a better and safer place in !hich to li0e% 1hey
tried to ma/e big business more responsible through regulations of 0arious
/inds% 1hey !or/ed to clean up corrupt city go0ernments, to impro0e !or/ing
conditions in factories, and to better li0ing conditions for those !ho li0ed in slum
areas, a large number of !hom !ere recent immigrants from 2outhern and
"astern "urope% 4any progressi0es !ere also concerned !ith the en0ironment
and conser0ation of resources%
1his generation of $mericans also hoped to ma/e the !orld a more democratic
place% $t home, this meant expanding the right to 0ote to !omen and a number
of election reforms such as the recall, referendum, and direct election of
2enators% $broad, it meant trying to ma/e the !orld safe for democracy% &n
1>1;, the Cnited 2tates Eoined Freat 5ritain and )rance77t!o democratic
nations77in their !ar against autocratic Fermany and $ustria7,ungary% 2oon
after the Freat War, the maEority of $mericans turned a!ay from concern about
foreign affairs, adopting an attitude of li0e and let li0e%
1he 1>20s, also /no!n as the @roaring t!enties@ and as @the ne! era,@ !ere
similar to the *rogressi0e "ra in that $merica continued its economic gro!th
and prosperity% 1he incomes of !or/ing people increased along !ith those of
middle class and !ealthier $mericans% 1he maEor gro!th industry !as
automobile manufacturing% $mericans fell in lo0e !ith the automobile, !hich
radically changed their !ay of life% Gn the other hand, the 1>20s sa! the
decline of many reform acti0ities that had been so !idespread after 1>00%
Great epression and World War !
1he !idespread prosperity of the 1>20s ended abruptly !ith the stoc/ mar/et
crash in Gctober 1>2> and the great economic depression that follo!ed% 1he
depression threatened people8s Eobs, sa0ings, and e0en their homes and farms%
$t the depths of the depression, o0er one76uarter of the $merican !or/force
!as out of !or/% )or many $mericans, these !ere hard times%
1he #e! Deal, as the first t!o terms of )ran/lin Delano :oose0elt8s presidency
!ere called, became a time of hope and optimism% $lthough the economic
depression continued throughout the #e! Deal era, the dar/est hours of
despair seemed to ha0e passed% &n part, this !as the result of )D: himself% &n
his first inaugural address, )D: asserted his @firm belief that the only thing !e
ha0e to fear is fear itself77nameless, unreasoning, unEustified terror%@ $s )D:
pro0ided leadership, most $mericans placed great confidence in him%
1he economic troubles of the 1>D0s !ere !orld!ide in scope and effect%
"conomic instability led to political instability in many parts of the !orld% *olitical
chaos, in turn, ga0e rise to dictatorial regimes such as $dolf ,itler8s in Fermany
and the military8s in .apan% +1otalitarian regimes in the 2o0iet Cnion and &taly
predated the depression%- 1hese regimes pushed the !orld e0er7closer to !ar
in the 1>D0s% When !orld !ar finally bro/e out in both "urope and $sia, the
Cnited 2tates tried to a0oid being dra!n into the conflict% 5ut so po!erful and
influential a nation as the Cnited 2tates could scarcely a0oid in0ol0ement for
long%
When .apan attac/ed the C%2% #a0al base at *earl ,arbor, ,a!aii, on
December ;, 1>(1, the Cnited 2tates found itself in the !ar it had sought to
a0oid for more than t!o years% 4obilizing the economy for !orld !ar finally
cured the depression% 4illions of men and !omen Eoined the armed forces, and
e0en larger numbers !ent to !or/ in !ell7paying defense Eobs% World War 1!o
affected the !orld and the Cnited 2tates profoundly3 it continues to influence us
e0en today%
"#$%&"#%'
1he entry of the Cnited 2tates into World War && caused 0ast changes in 0irtually
e0ery aspect of $merican life% 4illions of men and !omen entered military
ser0ice and sa! parts of the !orld they !ould li/ely ne0er ha0e seen other!ise%
1he labor demands of !ar industries caused millions more $mericans to mo0e77
largely to the $tlantic, *acific, and Fulf coasts !here most defense plants
located% When World War && ended, the Cnited 2tates !as in better economic
condition than any other country in the !orld% "0en the D00,000 combat deaths
suffered by $mericans paled in comparison to any other maEor belligerent%
5uilding on the economic base left after the !ar, $merican society became
more affluent in the post!ar years than most $mericans could ha0e imagined in
their !ildest dreams before or during the !ar% *ublic policy, li/e the so7called F&
5ill of :ights passed in 1>((, pro0ided money for 0eterans to attend college, to
purchase homes, and to buy farms% 1he o0erall impact of such public policies
!as almost incalculable, but it certainly aided returning 0eterans to better
themsel0es and to begin forming families and ha0ing children in unprecedented
numbers%
#ot all $mericans participated e6ually in these expanding life opportunities and
in the gro!ing economic prosperity% 1he image and reality of o0erall economic
prosperity77and the up!ard mobility it pro0ided for many !hite $mericans77!as
not lost on those !ho had largely been excluded from the full meaning of the
$merican Dream, both before and after the !ar% $s a conse6uence, such
groups as $frican $mericans, ,ispano $mericans, and $merican !omen
became more aggressi0e in trying to !in their full freedoms and ci0il rights as
guaranteed by the Declaration of &ndependence and C2 Constitution during the
post!ar era%
1he post!ar !orld also presented $mericans !ith a number of problems and
issues% )lushed !ith their success against Fermany and .apan in 1>(', most
$mericans initially 0ie!ed their place in the post!ar !orld !ith optimism and
confidence% 5ut !ithin t!o years of the end of the !ar, ne! challenges and
percei0ed threats had arisen to erode that confidence% 5y 1>(9, a ne! form of
international tension had emerged77Cold War77bet!een the Cnited 2tates and
its allies and the 2o0iet Cnion and its allies% &n the next 20 years, the Cold War
spa!ned many tensions bet!een the t!o superpo!ers abroad and fears of
Communist sub0ersion gripped domestic politics at home%
&n the t!enty years follo!ing 1>(', there !as a broad political consensus
concerning the Cold War and anti7Communism% Csually there !as bipartisan
support for most C2 foreign policy initiati0es% $fter the Cnited 2tates inter0ened
militarily in Vietnam in the mid71>0s, ho!e0er, this political consensus began
to brea/ do!n% 5y 1>9, strident debate among $merican about the Vietnam
War signified that the Cold War consensus had shattered, perhaps beyond
repair%
(ate !)th Centur*
1he end of the Vietnam War helped to end debates about that !ar% 1he &ran
,ostage Crisis and the failure of the *residency of .immy Carter helped
$mericans to realize the dangers of the &slamic !orld and the ho! dependent
they had become on foreign oil% :onald :eagan led the Cnited 2tate to a
0ictory o0er the 2o0iet Cnion in the Cold War% Feorge 5ush helped to liberate
the nation of Au!ait and to frustrate &ra6i aggression in 1>>071>>1% *resident
Clinton o0ersa! a successful economy and !ar in =ugosla0ia but ultimately
!as impeached +but not con0icted- for perEuring himself in a sexual harassment
la!suit%
!"st Centur*
$s the 2o0iet Cnion collapsed and the "astern bloc shattered, the !ealth of the
Cnited 2tates gre! to unprecedented proportions, as did its debt and
international entanglements% 2ocial change continued, albeit more slo!ly than
in the 80s, as the baby boomers put the finishing touches on their re0olution%
$nd as the 21st century !as born, the Cnited 2tates came to realize that its
Cold War 0ictory !as anything but the end of history, as battling islamic
terrorism, at home and abroad, became the country8s ne!est raison d8Htre% $t
the start of the 21st Century, the C2$ !as the greatest nation +militarily,
economically, scientifically and culturally- that the !orld had e0er seen leading
to the description of the current !orld as Pax Americana%