Histology of the Nervous System

The Nervous System is comprised of the Central Nervous System (CNS)

and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). The CNS is comprised of the
brain and spinal cord, whereas the PNS is comprised of the dorsal root
ganglia, cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
The PNS and CAN have two major components, the somatic nervous
system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system
comprises the sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons. The main
functions of the somatic nervous system are touch, pain, sensation and
movement. The autonomic nervous system is comprised of the sympathetic,
parasympathetic and enteric nervous systems, which are mainly used for
controlling internal body processes.
Nervous Tissue
Nervous Tissue can fall into one of two categories: neurons and neuroglia
(supporting cells).
Neurons
Neurons have the potential to transmit action potentials along their cell
surface through the depolarization of the cell membrane. They are present in
a variety of shapes, but are always very elongated. A neuron is composed of
the dendrites, soma (cell body), axon hillock, axon and axon terminals.
Thus they have a section each for reception (dendrites and soma),
conduction (axon) and transmission (axon terminals).
A vast majority of neurons are generated before birth, but persisting stem
cells can give rise to a small number of new neurons during a lifetime. The
neurons themselves are intended to last a lifetime, and there is very little
capacity for regeneration.
The soma is the main part of the nerve cell, containing the normal organelles
and carrying out cell functions. It has a large round nucleus with a prominent
nucleolus. The cytoplasm is abundantly supplied with Nissl Bodies, a unique
variant of endoplasmic reticulum in neurons. The dendrites and axons are
considered specialized extensions of the cell wall. The cytoplasm also
contains many golgi bodies, sER, Mitochondria and cytoskeletal elements.
The dendrites are cell processes that are receptive to stimuli from other cells.
They can be covered with tiny dendritic spines, each the site of one
synapse. Dendrites and the soma typically receive synaptic contacts from
many other nerve cells. The dendrites are not myelinated. Synaptic Potential
is the nerve signals that arise at the synapse on the dendrites, should these
synaptic potentials be conducted all the way to the axon hillock an action
potential may occur.
The axon consists of a single long process (up to 100cm) extending away
from the cell body, functioning to conduct a signal to another neurons or
effector cells, over a long distance. The diameter of an axon is uniform
across its entire length. The axons are not easily visualized due to the lack of
basophilic Nissl Bodies in the axoplasm. The plasma membrane of the axon
is termed the axolemma. The un-myelinated section between the axon hillock
and the first myelin sheath is termed the initial segment. The distal portion
of the axon usually branches into many axon terminals to innervate many
cells at the synapse.
Axonal nerve signals are initiated at the axon hillock, which when it reaches
a certain threshold of membrane voltage, will propagate the action
potential down the axon fibre and to the effector cells. An action potential
does not weaken as it travels down the axon, and myelinated axons will have
a greater speed than un-myelinated axons. The axon hillock is also not
easily visualized, due to the lack of basophilic Nissl Bodies in the axoplasm.
Myelin is the wrapping of an axon by cell membrane of an oligodendricyte
or Schwann Cell, forming a protective lipoprotein complex around the axon
and increasing the speed of signal transduction.
Synapses exist at axon terminal and allow signals to pass from cell to cell.
These interactions can either be axo-dendritic, axo-axonic, axo-somatic or
neuromuscular. The transmission at a synapse is usually chemical with
neurotransmitters released from the pre-synaptic cell, crossing the synaptic
cleft and binding to receptors on the post-synaptic cell membrane. The
neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic vesicles in the pre-synaptic
terminal, and are released by changes in membrane polarity at the arrival of
an action potential.
Neuronal Cell bodies are found in the CNS in the gray matter of both the
brain and spinal cord (particularly in the ventral horn).
A ganglion is a collection of neuronal cell bodies in the PNS. Ganglia are
either part of the sensory (afferent) somatic NS or the autonomic nervous
system. Thus we have:
Dorsal Root Ganglia Lateral to Spinal Cord (sensory)
Sympathetic Ganglia Runs parallel to thoracic vertebrae + in
major blood vessels
Parasympathetic Ganglia Found within the organs (eg. mucosa
plexus)
Each ganglion contains neuronal cell bodies and can also contain sattelite
cells and Schwann Cells around the neurons. Lipofuscin granules are only
in sympathetic ganglia, accumulate over time from intracellular processes
and as they cannot be expelled through mitosis (non occurring in neurons)
they can cause some disease states.
Classification of Neurons
Neurons are classified as multipolar, bipolar or pseudo-unipolar.
Multipolar neurons are the ones we are used to seeing, and have many
connections to the cell body (soma). Bipolar Neurons only have two
processes, one axon and one branching dendrite; they are found in special
sensory structures like the retina, olfactory and vestibulocochlear nerves.
Pseudo-unipolar Neurons appear to have only one process, which branches
into an axon and dendrite. These neurons are found in dorsal root ganglia as
part of the sensory system.
Neurons can also be classified as sensory, motor, interneuron or
neurosecretory (specialized to synthesise hormones).
Neuroglia
Neuroglia are a category of neural support cells that cannot transmit action
potentials and do not have synapses or axons. Neuroglia are able to readily
divide and proliferate. Their main functions include the myelination of axons,
immune functions and formation of the blood brain barrier. The CNS
neuroglia include oligodendricites, astrocytes, ependymal cells and
microglia; whereas the PNS neuroglia include Schwann Cells and Satellite
Cells.
Oligodendricytes and Schwann Cells are involved in the myelination of
axons, through the formation of concentric layers of plasma membrane. Each
oligodendricyte can myelinate a number of parts on many axons, whereas
a Schwann Cell can only myelinate a single part of one axon. Therefore a
long axon can have thousands of Schwann Cells on it.
Gaps between the myelin sheaths are called the Nodes of Ranvier, but in the
CNS, the pedicles of an astrocyte cover these nodes. In the PNS they are
only covered by extensions of the Schwann cell cytoplasm.
Non Myelinated Axons do also exist; these are structurally supported by
astrocytes in the CNS, and in the PNS become enveloped in a bundle inside
Schwann Cells, but are not myelinated by it.
Satellite Cells surround cell bodies in the ganglia and supply metabolic
support as well as electrical insulation.
Conduction of Signal
If an axon is myelinated, the signal is conducted faster due to salutatory
conduction, where the signal jumps from one Node of Ranvier to the other,
instead of traveling down the length of the whole axon. A larger diameter
axon will also have a faster conduction rate than a thinner axon.
NB: a non myelinated axon is normally thinner
Neuroglia Cont.
Astrocytes are only present in the CNS and are very important for structural
support, K+ ion balance and using its pedicles to contribute to the blood
brain barrier. Protoplasmic Astrocytes have thicker processes and are
located in the grey matter, whereas Fibrous Astrocytes have thinner
processes and are located in white matter.
Oligodendticites are smaller than astrocytes and have fewer and shorter
processes. They are located in both the white and grey matter of the CNS.
Microglia are small cells with elongated bodies and few processes, they
function as Macrophages of the CNS. They are often hard to visualize, but
can be found near blood vessels in the white and grey matter.
Ependymal Cells are neuroglia that line the ventricles of the brain and spinal
cord, they produce CSF that protects the brain. Histologically they appear
similar to simple cuboidal epithelium with cilia and microvilli.
Peripheral Nerves
Peripheral Nerves run to and from the spinal cord and an organ. Most
contain both sensory and motor pathways. Ganglia are part of peripheral
nerves but are sensory only. Peripheral nerves contain: axons, epineurium,
perineurium, endoneurium, schwann cells and fibroblasts. There are no
neuron cell bodies in a peripheral nerve.
Layers of The Meninges
Dura Mater
Arachnoid
CSF
Pia