Olevels Chemistry Notes - Pure Chemistry

2014 Marcus Ng Chemistry Notes for Secondary School O-Levels Pure Chemistry
2014 Chemistry Notes

For Secondary School
Pure Chemistry

O-Levels

By Marcus Ng

Chapter 1
Experimental Chemistry

1.1 Measurements

Physical Quantity SI Unit Apparatus Accuracy
Time Second (s)
Digital Stopwatch 0.01 s
Analog Stopwatch 0.1s
Temperature Kelvin (K)
Mercury Thermometer 0.01 K
Alcohol Thermometer 0.01 K
Mass Kilogram (kg)
Electronic Balance
Beam Balance
Length Meter (m)
Ruler 0.1 cm (1mm)
Vernier Calipers 0.01 cm (0.1mm)
Micrometer 0.001 cm (0.01mm)
Volume Cubic Meter (m
3
)
Beaker
Measuring Cylinder 1 cm
3
(1 ml)
Pipette* 0.1 cm
3
(0.1 ml)
Burette 0.1 cm
3
(0.1 ml)

How to read a Vernier Caliper reading & A Micrometer reading

Important Points to remember:
1. When measuring Time: Digital Stopwatch is more accurate than Analog Stopwatch

2. When measuring Length: Micrometer is more accurate than Vernier Calipers, which
are both more accurate than a Ruler

3. When measuring Volumes: Pipettes are only used for specific volumes
(10 cm
3
, 25 cm
3
or 50 cm
3
)

4. When measuring Volumes: Burettes are the most accurate, followed by a Measuring
Cylinder and lastly a Beaker

5. When measuring Temperature: Maximum upper limit for Alcohol Thermometer is
351.15K (78
0
C)

6. When measuring Temperature: Mercury Thermometers are more expensive and toxic
then Alcohol Thermometers.

1.2 Separation Techniques

Technique Purpose
Filtration Used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid
Crystallization Used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid
Distillation Used to separate a liquid from a soluble solid
Fractional Distillation Used to separate a liquid from a mixture of Miscible Liquids*
Separating Funnel Used to separate a liquid from a mixture of immiscible liquids*
Sublimation Used to separate a sublimable solid from a mixture of solids
Magnetic Attraction Used to separate a Solid that can be magnetized
*Miscible Liquids refer to liquids that can be completely mixed

Filtration

Crystallization

Distillation

Fractional Distillation

Separating Funnel

Sublimation

1.3 Collection of Gases

Properties of Gases

Gas Solubility Density
Ammonia Soluble in Water Less dense than air
Argon Insoluble in Water More dense than air
Carbon Dioxide Soluble in Water More dense than air
Carbon Monoxide Insoluble in Water Less dense than air
Chlorine Soluble in Water More dense than air
Helium Insoluble in Water Less dense than air
Hydrogen Insoluble in Water Less dense than air
Hydrogen Bromide Soluble in Water More dense than air
Hydrogen Chloride Soluble in Water More dense than air
Methane Insoluble in Water Less dense than air
Oxygen Insoluble in Water Similar density to air
Neon Insoluble in Water Less dense than air
Nitrogen Insoluble in Water Similar density to air
Nitrogen Dioxide Soluble in Water More dense than air
Sulphur Dioxide Soluble in Water More dense than air

1.4 Purity of a Substance

Important Points/Concepts to remember:

1. A Pure Substance melts and boils at a fixed and constant temperature

2. Impurities decreases the melting point of a substance

3. Impurities increases the boiling point of a substance

Methods to check the purity of a substance

1. Melting Point Determination

2. Boiling Point Determination

3. Chromatography

Chromatography

1. Chromatography can be used to determine the purity of a substance

2. Chromatography can be used to identify the substance

3. Chromatography can be used to separate components of a substance with different
solubilities in the same solvent and identify them.

4. There are 2 types of Paper Chromatography: Ascending and Descending

5. There can be 3 types of results (chromatograms that can be developed)

a. Only one spot is seen - A Pure Substance (one solute in sample)

b. More than one spot is seen - A Mixture (more than one solute in sample)

c. No spots are seen - No soluble* solute in mixture (*in the solvent used)
Note: Some compounds are colourless and thus a locating agent need
to be used. An example of a locating agent is Ninhydrin, used for
locating amino acids.

6. R
f
Value (Retention Factor) =

solvent line
start line

1.5 Tests for Cations

Cation Symbol
Test
Add dilute sodium
hydroxide solution to a
solution of the substance.
Add dilute ammonia solution
to a solution of the
substance.
Flame Test
Aluminum Al
3+

White precipitate

that dissolves in excess
sodium hydroxide
White precipitate

that is insoluble in excess
ammonia.

Ammonium NH
4
+

Ammonia gas is
produced
No Chemical Reaction

Calcium Ca
2+

White precipitate

that is insoluble in
excess sodium
hydroxide.
No Chemical Reaction
Red Flames are
produced
Copper (II) Cu
2+

Pale Blue precipitate

sodium hydroxide
Pale blue precipitate

changing to deep blue
solution in excess
ammonia.
Green Flames are
produced
Iron(II) Fe
2+

Pale green precipitate

excess sodium
hydroxide.
Pale green precipitate

ammonia.

Iron(III) Fe
3+

Red-brown precipitate

excess sodium
hydroxide.
Red-brown precipitate

ammonia..

Lead(II) Pb
2+

White precipitate

sodium hydroxide
White precipitate

ammonia.
Blue Flames are
produced
Magnesium Mg
2+

White precipitate

excess sodium
hydroxide.
White precipitate

ammonia.

Zinc Zn
2+

White precipitate

sodium hydroxide
White precipitate

ammonia


1.6 Tests for Anions

Anion Symbol Test Results
Chloride Cl
-

Add aqueous silver nitrate solution to a
solution of substance

Or

Add acidified lead (II) nitrate solution to
a solution of substance
White precipitate that is soluble in
ammonia solution.
Bromide Br
-

Cream precipitate, that is slightly
soluble in ammonia solution.
Iodide I-
Pale yellow precipitate, that is
insoluble in ammonia solution.
Carbonate CO
3
2-

Add dilute hydrochloric acid to the
substance.
Carbon dioxide gas is produced
Nitrate NO
3
-

Add dilute sodium hydroxide solution,
followed by Aluminum powder and
warm
Ammonia gas is produced
Sulphate SO
4
2-

Acidify the solution of the substance
(Either HCl or HNO
3
)

Add solution of barium cations (BaCl or
BaNO
3
) to the solution.
White precipitate, does
not dissolve in excess dilute acid.

1.7 Tests for Gases
Gas Symbol Properties Litmus Test Splint Test Limewater test
Hydrogen H
2

Colourless &
Odourless

Extinguish a
lighted splint
with a pop
sound

Oxygen O
2

Colourless &
Odourless

Relights a
glowing splint

Carbon
Dioxide
CO
2

Colourless &
Odourless
Turns moist Blue
litmus Red

Forms a White
precipitate
Chlorine Cl
2

Greenish-yellow
with a Choking Smell
Turns moist Blue
litmus Red

and eventually
bleaches White

Ammonia NH
3

Colourless with a
Pungent Smell
Turns moist Red
litmus Blue

Sulphur
Dioxide
SO
2

Colourless with a
Choking Smell
Turns moist Blue
litmus Red

Chapter 2
Kinetic Particle Theory

2.1 Three States of Matter

Properties Solid Liquid Gas
Volume Fixed Volume Fixed Volume No Fixed Volume
Shape Fixed Shape No Fixed Shape No Fixed Shape
Compressibility Incompressible Negligibly compressible Very compressible
Packing
Particles are very
closely packed
Particles are closely
packed
Particles are very
far apart
Forces of
Attraction
Very strong forces
of attraction
between particles
Strong forces of
attraction between
particles
Very weak forces
of attraction
between particles
Motion
Particles vibrate
about a fixed
position
Particles can slide over
each other
Particles are in
random motion
Diagrammatic
Representation


2.2 Melting & Freezing

Important Explanation: Melting

During melting, the particles of a solid gain energy and vibrate until they overcome the
forces of attraction between the particles, moving faster and further apart. At this
point, there is no rise in temperature as all heat energy is used to separate the particles
at this point.

This is the melting point, at which the temperature remains constant until the whole solid
has melted into a liquid.

Important points to include:
1. Gaining/Losing Energy
2. Motion of particles
3. Forces of attraction
4. New motion of particles
5. No rise/drop in temperature as all heat energy is used to separate/combine the
particles
6. _____ Point where temperature remains constant

Graphical Representation


1. Between points a and b, the substance is in the Solid state
2. Between points b and c, the substance is in a mixture of Solid & Liquid states
3. Between points c and d, the substance is in the Liquid state

a
b
c
d
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
/

K

Time/min

2.3 Boiling & Condensation

During boiling, the particles of a liquid gain energy, sliding over each other until they
overcome the forces of attraction between the particles, moving faster, randomly and
very far apart. At this point, there is no rise in temperature as all heat energy is used to
separate the particles at this point.

This is the boiling point, at which the temperature remains constant until the whole liquid
has boiled into a gas.

Difference between Boiling & Evaporation

Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at boiling point Occurs at any temperature below boiling point
Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs only at the surface of the liquid
Bubbles observed No bubbles observed
Occurs quickly Occurs slowly

2.4 Sublimation
Example of Substances that sublimes are Carbon Dioxide, Naphthalene (Mothballs) and
Iodine

2.5 Diffusion
1. Diffusion of a substance is the movement of particles from a region of higher
concentration of a substance to a lower concentration of the same substance down
a concentration gradient.
Examples include a teabag in a cup of water, or perfume in a room

2. The rate of diffusion is dependent on two factors: Temperature and Molecular size of
the particle.
At a higher temperature, particles have more kinetic energy, resulting in them
moving faster. Hence they will be able to move at greater speeds from a
region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration.
Smaller particles are able to move faster, resulting in a faster rate of diffusion.


Chapter 3
Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding

3.1 Atomic Structure (& Symbols to represent Atomic Structure)

Atoms are the basic building blocks of all matter.

Particle Relative Charge Relative Mass Location
Proton +1 1 Nucleus
Neutron 0 1 Nucleus
Electron -1 0.0005 Electronic Shells outside the Nucleus

1. Atomic Number (or Proton Number) The number of Protons in an atom
The number of Protons in an atom = The number of electrons
2. Mass number (or Nucleon Number) The number of Protons + Neutrons
3. Atoms with same number of electrons and protons but different number of neutrons
= isotopes

()
()

Common Isotopes

Element Isotope
Proton
Number
Number of
Electrons
Nucleon
Number
Number of
Neutrons
Hydrogen
Protium 1 1 1 0
Deuterium 1 1 2 1
Tritium 1 1 3 2
Carbon
Carbon-12 6 6 12 6
Carbon-13 6 6 13 7
Carbon-14 6 6 14 8
Chlorine
Chlorine-35 17 17 35 18
Chlorine-37 17 17 37 20

3.2 Electron Arrangement

1. Electrons in an atom are arranged in energy shells
2. The arrangement of the electrons is call its electronic configuration
3. The first shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
4. The second and third shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons
5. The outermost shell is called the valence shell. the electrons in this shell is called
valence electrons.
6. The shells & the no. of electrons can be represented by a dot-and-cross diagram.

Electronic Configuration & Dot-and-cross Diagram Examples

Element Electronic Configuration Dot-and-cross Diagram
Hydrogen 1

Carbon 2.4

Oxygen 2.6

Silicon 2.8.4

Easy Reference Table (Please try to not rely on this. learn to derive these information from a periodic table)

Symbol Element Proton Number Electronic Configuration
Hydrogen 1 1
Helium 2 2
Lithium 3 2.1
Beryllium 4 2.2
Boron 5 2.3
Carbon 6 2.4
Nitrogen 7 2.5
Oxygen 8 2.6
Fluorine 9 2.7
Neon 10 2.8
Sodium 11 2.8.1
Magnesium 12 2.8.2
Aluminum 13 2.8.3
Silicon 14 2.8.4
Phosphorus 15 2.8.5
Sulphur 16 2.8.6
or
Chlorine 17 2.8.7
Argon 18 2.8.8
Potassium 19 2.8.8.1
Calcium 20 2.8.8.2

3.3 Formation of Ions

1. Atoms are generally naturally unstable. (With the exception of Group 0/ Group 8
elements)
2. This is due to the lack of a stable octet (or duplet) structure, with fully filled shells.
3. Atoms can form ions by gaining or losing valence electrons, in their attempt to obtain
a stable octet (or duplet) structure, with fully filled shells.
4. Metals usually lose electrons, forming Positive Ions, also known as Cations.
5. Non-Metals usually gain electrons, forming Negative Ions, also known as Anions.

Example
Lithium can lose a valence electron to form Li
+
, a positive ion (cation) with a fully
filled valence shell of 2 electron, with an electronic configuration of 2.
Magnesium can lose two valence electrons to form Mg
2+
, a positive ion (cation) with
a fully filled valence shell of 8 electron, with an electronic configuration of 2.8
Oxygen can gain two valence electrons to form O
2-
, a negative ion (anion) with a
fully filled valence shell of 8 electron, with an electronic configuration of 2.8


3.4 Ionic Bonding

1. Ionic Bonds are formed when metallic atoms give their valence electrons to non-
metallic atoms. This enables both the metallic and the non-metallic atoms to achieve
a stable octet (or duplet) structure, with fully filled valence shells.
2. These ions formed are oppositely charged, and attract each other through strong
electrostatic forces of attraction, thus forming the ionic bond.

Examples
Na + Cl NaCl

Sodium (Na) can lose a valence electron to Chlorine (Cl), forming NaCl, with the
positively charged Na
+
ion, and the negatively charged Cl
-
ion.

Mg + O MgO

Magnesium (Mg) can lose two valence electrons to Oxygen (O), forming MgO, with the
positively charged Mg
2+
ion, and the negatively charged O
2-
ion.

Mg + 2 Cl MgCl
2

Magnesium (Mg) can lose two valence electrons, one to each Chlorine (Cl), forming
MgCl
2
, with the positively charged Mg
2+
ion, and 2 negatively charged Cl
-
ions.


3.5 Structure of Ionic Compounds

1. A solid ionic compound has a giant lattice structure with alternating positively and
negatively charged ions.
2. The ions are held in fixed positions by strong electrostatic forces of attraction.

3.6 Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds

Physical Properties of Ionic
Compounds
Explanation in terms of their structure and
bonding
Ionic compounds are usually
crystalline solids at room
temperature
The ions are arranged in a highly regular fashion,
with strong electrostatic forces of attraction (ionic
bonds) between the ions.
Ionic compounds have high
melting and boiling points
The electrostatic forces of attraction between the
oppositely charged ions is very strong and extends
over the entire crystalline structure. Large amounts
of energy is required to separate the ions
Ionic compounds cannot conduct
electricity when solid, but do so in
molten or in aqueous form.
In the solid structure, the ions are held in fixed
positions. When molten or in aqueous solution, the
ions are mobile, so a flow of charge is possible.
Most ionic compounds are water
soluble, but insoluble in organic
solvents.
Water molecules are polar, and are attracted to the
charged ions in the ionic compound. This helps to
pull the crystalline structure as the solid dissolves.

3.7 Covalent Bonding

1. Covalent bonding occurs when the electrons are shared, so as to achieve a stable
octet/duplet structure.
2. Each pairs of shared electrons forms one covalent bond.
3. Covalent bonding occurs mainly between non-metals

Examples
H + H H
2

Two hydrogen atoms can share an electron each to form a covalent H-H bond, giving
both atoms a stable duplet structure.

O + O O
2

Two oxygen atoms can share two electrons each to form two covalent O-O bonds,
giving both atoms a stable octet structure.

H + H + O H
2
O

Each hydrogen atom shares one electron with the oxygen atoms, forming 2 O-H
covalent bonds.


3.8 Physical Properties of Simple Covalent Compounds

Physical Properties of Simple
Covalent Compounds
Explanation in terms of their structure and
bonding
Simple Covalent Compounds
have low boiling and melting
points.
The inter-molecular forces of attraction are very
weak, hence very little energy is required to break
the forces apart.
Simple Covalent Compounds
cannot conduct electricity in any
state.
There are no mobile ions or electrons in simple
covalent compounds in any states.
Simple Covalent Compounds are
soluble in organic solvents but
not in water.
Simple Covalent Compounds have generally non-
polar molecules, and thus would be unable to
dissolve in a solvent like water with strong hydrogen
bonding, but would be soluble in a organic solvent
like ethanol, petrol or trichloromethane.

3.9 Metallic Bonding

1. Metals can give away their valance electrons to form ions stable octet/duplet
structures.
2. These valence electrons then form a sea of electrons which can move freely
among the metal cations, holding them in place in a metallic lattice structure.

3.10 Physical Properties of Metals

Physical Properties of
Simple Covalent
Compounds
Explanation in terms of their structure and bonding
Metals have high boiling
and melting points.
The electrostatic forces of attraction between the cations
and the delocalized electrons are very strong, and
would high temperatures to overcome them.
Metals can conduct
electricity and heat in any
state.
Metals can conduct heat and electricity in any state due
to the presence of the free electrons available to carry
electrical and thermal energy.

Metals are soft and
malleable.
Due to the sea of electrons, the cations can easily slide
over each other.
3.11 Giant Molecular Structure/ Macromolecules

1. Macromolecules contain billions of atoms per molecules, covalently bonded to each
other.
2. Examples of Macromolecules include diamond, graphite, silicon, silicon dioxide and
polymers (to be covered in greater detail in organic chemistry).

3.12 Diamond and Graphite

1. Diamonds and Graphite are macromolecules with giant structures.
2. Diamonds and Graphite are allotropes of carbon (Allotropes are different structural
arrangement of the same element).

Diamond Graphite
Structure

Every carbon atom is part of a
giant molecule.
The carbon atoms forms layers,
which are held together by weak
van der waals forces of
attractions.

Each layer is a flat (planar)
macromolecule.
Each carbon atom is bonded to
four other carbon atoms in a
tetrahedral arrangement.
Each carbon atom is connected to
only 3 other carbon atoms, with
one free electron per atom.
Properties
Very high boiling and melting point. Very high boiling and melting point.
Very poor conductor of electricity. Good conductor of electricity of
heat, due to the free electrons.
Very hard the hardest substance
in the world. (Hardness: physically
resistant to change when force is
applied).
Very soft, due to weak Van Der
Waals forces between layers;
layers can easily slide over each
other.
Others
Silicon and Silicon Dioxide have
similar structures and similar
properties.


3.13 Elements, Compounds and Mixtures.

1. Elements are made up of only one kind of atoms, and can be found directly in the
periodic table.
2. Elements cannot be further broken down by physical or chemical means (at least for
O-levels syllabus).
3. Compounds are made of two or more different kinds atoms chemically combined in
a fixed proportion.
E.g. Hydrochloric acid comprises of hydrogen atoms and chlorine atoms in a
1:1 fixed proportion only.
4. A mixture is made up of two or more elements and/or compounds physically
combined. They can be physically separated by physical means and do not have a
fixed proportion.
E.g. Saltwater can be 50% salt 50% water, or 40% salt 60% water or 30% salt
70% water

Mixture Compounds
Composition No fixed composition/ proportion.
The percentage of one
element/compound to another in a
mixture can vary.
Fixed composition/ proportion.
The percentage of one element to
another in a particular compound
is always the same.
Properties No set of properties of its own. It
exhibits a combination of the
properties of the constituent
components.
It has its own set of properties.
Melting Point
& Boiling Point
No fixed M.P. or B.P. A fixed M.P. and B.P.
Preparation No chemical reaction has to
occur.
A chemical reaction has to occur.
Separation Can be separated into its
components by physical means
Can only be separated into its
components by chemical means

Chapter 4
Stoichiometry & Mole Concept

4.1 Chemical Formulae
Number of Atoms/Ions are denoted by subscript.
Charge of ions are denoted by superscript.
Metals and/or positive cations are placed first in the chemical formula.
Brackets are used for repeated clusters of atoms (like anions)
o E.g. Magnesium Nitrate = Mg(NO
3
)
2

Mono- is a prefix for indicating only 1 of a particular atom/ cluster of atoms
o Carbon Monoxide = CO
Di- is a prefix indicating 2 of a particular atoms/cluster of atoms
o Carbon Dioxide = CO
2

Tri- is a prefix indicating 3 of a particular atoms/cluster of atoms
o Dinitrogen Trioxide = N
2
O
3

Prefixes are only used for covalent molecules. For ionic compounds, the formulae have to be
deduced from the valency of the components.
For transition metals, the valency is indicated in brackets
o Iron (II) has a valency of 2, Iron (III) has a valency of 3.

Common Ions
Name Formulae Name Formulae
Ammonium NH
3
+
Nitrate NO
3
-

Carbonate CO
2
2-
Nitrite NO
2
-
Chromate (VI) CrO
4
2-
Oxide O
2-

Dichromate (VI) Cr
2
O
7
2-
Phosphate PO
4
3-

Ethanoate CH
3
CO
2
-
Sulphate / Sulfate SO
4
2-

Hydrogencarbonate HCO
2
-
Sulphite / Sulfite SO
3
2-
Hydroxide OH
-
Sulphide / Sulfide S
2-

4.2 Balancing Equations (With state symbols)
A chemical equation is used to shows information in a chemical reaction.
o What chemicals are used (Reactants).
o What chemicals are created (Products).
o What states they are in: (s), (l), (g) or (aq)
The reactants are always on the left, and the products on the right.
Ensure the left side of the equation equals the right side.

Example 1:
Fe
(s)
+ 2 C
5
H
6(g)
Fe(C
5
H
5
)
2(s)
+ H
2(g)

There is 1 Iron atom on both sides.
There are 10 Carbon atoms on both sides.
There are 12 Hydrogen atoms on both sides.

Example 2:
CH
3
CH
2
OH + CH
3
CO
2
H CH
3
CO
2
CH
2
CH
3
+ H
2
O
There are 4 Carbon atoms on both sides.
There are 10 Hydrogen atoms on both sides.
There are 4 Oxygen atoms on both sides.
*The catalyst HCl is not included in the equation as it appears in the same form on both sides.


4.3 Ionic Equations
An ionic equation only shows the ions involved in the reaction
o An ion is involved in the reaction if its charge changes during the reaction.
o Ions uninvolved are called spectator ions
o Note: Insoluble compounds should not be broken up into its component ions
Ensure the total charge on the left side of the equation equals the total charge on the right side.

Example 1:

Chemical Equation: CuCO
3 (s)
+ 2 HCl
(aq)
CuCl
2(aq)
+ CO
2(g)
+ H
2
O
(l)

Ionic Equation: CuCO
3 (s)
+ 2 H
+
(aq)
Cu
2+
(aq)
+ CO
2(g)
+ H
2
O
(l)

Charge on the left side 2 x (+1) = +2
Charge on the right side +2 = Charge on the left side

Example 2:

Chemical Equation: NaOH
(aq)
+ HCl
(aq)
NaCl
(aq)
+ H
2
O
(l)

Ionic Equation: OH
-
(aq)
+ H
+

(aq)
H
2
O
(l)

Charge on the left side - 1 +1 = 0
Charge on the right side 0 = Charge on the left side

4.4 Relative Atomic Mass (Element) & Relative Molecular Mass

The relative atomic mass (A
r
) of an element is the average mass of one atom of an element compared to
of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

Relative Atomic Mass (A
r
) may sometimes have the same values as the mass number, but they are
conceptually DIFFERENT from each other.
o Mass number refer to the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. They can differ betweens
isotopes of the same elements. Atoms of different elements can have the same mass number.
o Relative Atomic Mass (A
r
) refers to the AVERAGE mass of atoms of a particular element in
accordance with isotopic composition.
Relative Atomic Mass (A
r
) has no units.

The relative molecular mass (M
r
) of a substance is the average mass of one molecule of the substance
compared with
of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

4.5 % by Mass of an Element in a Compound

% by Mass of an Element in a Compound =
()
()
x 100%

Example 1:
% by Mass of Oxygen in Carbon Dioxide (CO
2
) =
()
()
x 100%
=

x 100%
= 72.73% (2 decimal points)

4.6 Mole Concept
A mole is the number of particles which contains the same number of atoms in a 12.0g sample of
carbon-12.
o This number is 6.02 x 10
23
. This number is also known as Avogadro's number.
Mole can be abbreviated as mol.

4.7 Molar Mass and Molar Volume
The mass (in grams) of 1 mole of a substance, is called its molar mass.
o The molar mass of a substance is equal to its relative atomic mass or relative molecular mass.
E.g. The relative atomic mass (A
r
) of Helium is 4.0. The molar mass of Helium is 4.0 g. The
mass of 1 mole of Helium atoms is 4.0 g. The mass of 6.02 x 10
23
Helium atoms is 4.0 g.
E.g. The relative molecular mass (M
r
) of Carbon Dioxide is 44.0. The molar mass of Carbon
Dioxide is 44.0 g. The mass of 6.02 x 10
23
Carbon Dioxide molecules is 44.0 g.
The volume occupied by 1 mole of a Gas, is called the molar volume.
o The molar volume of ALL gases at r.t.p. is 24.0 dm
3
= 24 000.0 cm
3

r.t.p refers to Room Temperature and Pressure
r.t.p: Temperature = 25
o
C and Pressure = 1 atm
o The molar volume of ALL gases at s.t.p. is 22.4 dm
3
= 22 400.0 cm
3

r.t.p refers to Standard Temperature and Pressure
s.t.p: Temperature = 0
o
C and Pressure = 1 atm
o E.g. 1 mole of Chlorine gas at r.t.p. has a volume of 24.0 dm
3
. 1 mole of Bromine gas at r.t.p. also
has a volume of 24.0 dm
3
, despite having a larger atom than Chlorine.

Mole =

The number of moles present in a sample =

Example 1: Calculate the number of moles in a 142.0g sample of Chlorine gas.

Molar Mass of Chlorine gas (Cl
2
) = 2 x 35.5g
= 71.0g

Number of moles of Cl
2
present =

=

= 2 mols

Example 2: Calculate the number of moles in a 100.0g sample of NaCl.

Molar Mass of NaCl

= 23.0g + 35.5g
= 58.5 g

Number of moles of Cl
2
present =

=

= 1.71 mols (3.s.f)

4.8 Molar Solutions (Concentration)
The concentration of a solution refers to the amount of solute in 1 dm
3
of solution.
o 1 000 cm
3
= 1 dm
3

Concentration can be presented in 2 ways: Concentration or Molarity

Concentration in (g dm
-3
)=
()
()

Molarity (mol dm
-3
or M) =
()
()

Molarity (mol dm
-3
or M) =
( )
()

Example 1: A 100 cm
3
solution of HCl contains 1g of HCl.

Concentration of Solution =
()
()

=

= 0.1 g dm
3

Number of Moles of HCl =

= 0.0274 mols (3.s.f)
Molarity of Solution =
()
()

=

= 0.00274 mol dm
-3

Molarity of Solution =
( )
()

=

= 0.00274 mol dm
-3

The concentration of a solution changes when diluted

M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2

M
1
= Original Molarity
V
1
= Original Volume
M
2
= New Molarity
V
2
= New Volume

Example 1: a 10 cm
3
sample of a 1M HCl solution is diluted to 50cm
3

M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2

(1 M) x (10 cm
3
) = M
2
x (50cm
3
)
M
2
=

= 0.20 M


4.9 Empirical Formulae
The empirical formulae shows the simplest integer ratio of the different types of atoms in a
compound.
o The empirical formulae for Benzene (C
6
H
6
) is CH
o The empirical formulae for Butane (C
4
H
10
) is C
2
H
5

The empirical formulae may be determined using the following table if the mass of each individual
constituent elements are given:

Element X Element Y
Mass of each Individual Element
Molar Mass
Number of Moles
Smallest Mole
Divide by the smallest Mole
Ratio

Example 1: A Sample of Iron Sulphide contains 5.373g of iron and 4.627g of sulphur.

Iron Sulphur
Mass of each Individual Element 5.373g 4.627g
Molar Mass 56.0 32.0
Number of Moles
= 0.0959 mol
= 0.145 mol
Smallest Mole 0.0959 mol 0.0959 mol
Divide by the smallest Mole
= 1
= 1.51
Ratio 2 3

Empirical Formulae = Fe
2
S
3

Example 2: A compound contained (by mass) 23.3% Magnesium, 30.7% Sulphur and 46.0% Oxygen.

Magnesium Sulphur Oxygen
Mass of a 100g Sample 23.3g 30.7 g 46.0 g
Molar Mass 24.0 32.0 16.0
Moles
= 0.97 mol
= 0.96 mol
= 2.88 mol
Smallest Mole 0.96 mol 0.96 mol 0.96 mol
Divide
= 1
= 1
= 3
Ratio 1 1 3

Empirical Formulae = MgSO
3

4.10 Molecular Formulae
The molecular formulae shows the actual number of atoms of each element in each molecule of a
compound
Molecular Formulae = n x Empirical Formulae
o n =

Example 1: A Compound contained (by mass) 26.67% Carbon, 2.22% Hydrogen and 71.11% Oxygen.
One mole of the compound has a mass of 90.1g.

Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
Mass of a 100g Sample 26.67 g 2.22 g 71.11 g
Molar Mass 12.0 1.0 16.0
Moles
= 2.22 mol
= 2.22 mol
= 4.44 mol
Smallest Mole 2.22 mol 2.22 mol 2.22 mol
Divide
= 1
= 1
= 2
Ratio 1 1 2

Empirical Formulae = CHO
2

Empirical Mass = 12.0g + 1.0g + (2 x 16.0)g
= 45.0g

n =

=

= 2

Molecular Formulae = 2 x CHO
2
= C
2
H
2
O
4

Example 2: The empirical formulae of a compound is C
2
H
4
O. Its relative molecular mass is 88

Empirical Formulae = C
2
H
4
O

Relative mass = (2 x 12.0) + (4 x 1.0) + 16.0
= 44.0

n

=

= 2

Molecular Formulae = 2 x C
2
H
4
O

= C
4
H
8
O
2

4.11 Theoretical Product Yield
The theoretical product yield of a chemical reaction can be calculated from the mass (or volume for
gases) of the reactants, using a balanced equation

Example 1: 4.0g of Methane is completely burnt in excess oxygen to yield Carbon Dioxide and Water.

CH
4 (g)
+ 2 O
2 (g)
= CO
2 (g)
+ 2 H
2
O
(l)

Number of moles of Methane =

=

( )

=

= 0.25 mol
Mole Ratio
CH
4
: CO
2

1 : 1

Number of moles of CO
2
to be produced = Number of moles of Methane
= 0.25 mol

Mass of CO
2
produced = Moles x Molar Mass
= 0.25 mols x [12.0g + (16.0g x 2)]
= 0.25 mols x 44.0g
= 11.0 g

Volume of CO
2
produced at r.t.p = Moles x 24.0 dm
3
= 0.25 x 24.0 dm
3
= 6.0 dm
3

Mole Ratio
CH
4
: H
2
O
1 : 2

Number of moles of H
2
O to be produced = 2 x Number of moles of Methane
= 2 x 0.25 mol
= 0.5 mol

Mass of H
2
O produced = Moles x Molar Mass
= 0.5 mols x [(1.0g x 2) + 16.0g]
= 0.25 mols x 18.0g
= 9.0 g

4.12 Limiting Reagent
A limiting reagent is a reactant that causes a reaction to stop once it's completely consumed. It limits
the amount of products to be formed.
The limiting reagent can be identified by comparing the number of moles of each reactants with the
mole ratio of the reactants in the chemical equation.

Example 1: 5.6g of iron is burnt in 6.4g of sulphur to form iron (III) sulphide.

2Fe
(s)
+ 3S
(s)
= Fe
2
S
3 (s)

Number of moles of Iron =

=

= 0.1 mol
Number of moles of Sulphur =

=

= 0.2 mol
Mole Ratio
Fe : S
2 : 3
0.1 : 0.15 < 0.2

The limiting reagent is Iron

Number of moles of Fe
2
S
3
produced =
x Number of moles of Iron

=
x 0.1 mol
= 0.05 mols

Mass of Fe
2
S
3
= 0.05 mols x [(56.0g x 2) + (32.0g x 3)]
= 0.05 mols x 208.0g
= 10.4 g

Example 2: 0.05 moles of Zinc is added to 0.075 moles of HCl. Zinc (II) Chloride and H
2
gas is produced.

Zn
(s)
+ 2HCl
(aq)
= ZnCl
2(aq)
+ H
2(g)

Number of moles of Zinc = 0.05 mol
Number of moles of HCl = 0.075 mol

Mole Ratio
Zn : HCl
1 : 2
0.05 : 0.10 > 0.075

The limiting reagent is HCl

Number of moles of ZnCl
2
produced =
x Number of moles of HCl

=
x 0.075 mol
= 0.0375 mols

Mass of ZnCl
2
= 0.0375 mols x [65.0g + (32.0g x 3)]
= 0.0375 mols x 129.0g
= 4.84 g (3 significant figures)

4.13 Percentage Yield
The actual yield of a reaction is usually lesser than the theoretical yield. Thus the percentage yield
can be used to determine the effectiveness of the process.

Percentage yield =

x 100%

Example 1: 50.0 cm
3
of a 0.105 mol dm
-3
aqueous calcium chloride solution is treated with 2.0g of Silver
Nitrate to form Silver Chloride. 1.45g of Silver Chloride is recorded

CaCl
2(aq)
+ 2AgNO
3(aq)
= 2 AgCl
(aq)
+ Ca(NO
3
)
2 (aq)

Number of moles of CaCl
2
= 50.0 cm
3
x 0.105 mol dm
-3

= 0.050 dm
3
x 0.105 mol dm
-3

= 0.00525 mol

Number of moles of AgNO
3
=

=

( )

=

= 0.0118 mol (3.s.f)
Mole Ratio
CaCl
2
: AgNO
3

1 : 2
0.00525 : 0.0105 < 0.0118

The limiting reagent is CaCl
2

Number of moles of AgCl produced = 2 x Number of moles of CaCl
2

= 2 x 0.00525 mols
= 0.0105 mols

Theoretical Mass of AgCl produced = Moles x Molar Mass
= 0.0105 mols x [108.0g + 35.5g]
= 0.0105 mols x 143.5g
= 1.51 g (3.s.f)
Actual mass of AgCl produced = 1.45 g
Percentage Yield =

x 100%
= 96.03% (2 Decimal Places)

4.14 Percentage Purity
Percentage purity indicates the amount of pure substance present in a sample of chemical
substance.

Percentage Purity =

x 100%

Example 1: 4.35g of impure manganese (IV) oxide reacted with 48 cm
3
of 1.0 mol dm
3
of HCl.

MnO
2(s)
+ 4HCl
(aq)
= MnCl
2(aq)
+ 2 H
2
O
(l)
+ Cl
2 (g)

Number of moles of HCl = 48.0 cm
3
x 1.0 mol dm
-3

= 0.048 dm
3
x 1.0 mol dm
-3

= 0.048 mol

Mole Ratio
MnO
2
: HCl
1 : 4

Number of moles of MnO
2
present =
x Number of moles of HCl

=
x 0.048 mols
= 0.012 mols
Mass of Pure MnO
2
present = 0.012 mols x Molar Mass of MnO
2

= 0.012 mols x [55.0g + (16.0g x 2)]
= 0.012 mols x 87.0g
= 1.044g

Percentage Purity of MnO
2
=

x 100%
= 24.00%

Chapter 5
Energy and Chemical Reactions

5.1 Chemical Energy
All chemical substances store chemical energy
o This energy can be converted into heat, light, electrical or sound energies
A reaction that gives out heat to the surrounding is an exothermic reaction
A reaction that takes in heat from the surrounding is an endothermic reaction
H represents the change in heat energy of the reaction.
o It is the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants.
o Exothermic Reactions have a negative H
o Endothermic Reactions have a positive H

5.2 Bond Energies
Bond Energies measures the strength of a covalent bond.
When two atoms are joined together by a chemical bond, heat energy is released.
o Hence, bond forming is exothermic
When a chemical bond is broken, heat energy is consumed.
o Hence, bond breaking is endothermic
The amount of energy consumed in breaking a chemical bond is known as the bond energy
o The same amount of energy is produced when the same bond is formed

H (Heat of reaction) = Total Heat Energy Absorbed - Total Heat Energy Released

Covalent Bond Bond Energy / kJmol
-1

H - H 436
Cl - Cl 242
C - C 348
C - H 412
O - H 463
Cl - H 431
N - H 388
O = O 496
C = O 743
N N 945
C = C 838

Example 1: Combustion is an Exothermic Reaction

CH
4
+ 2O
2
CO
2
+ 2H
2
O

Covalent Bonds in reactants = (4 x C - H bonds) + (2 x O = O bonds)
Sum of Bond Energies in Reactants (E
r
) = (4 x 412kJ) + (2 x 496kJ)
= 2240 kJ
Covalent Bonds in Products = (2 x C = O bonds) + (4 x O - H bonds)
Sum of Bond Energies in Product (E
p
) = (2 x 743 kJ) + (4 x 463 kJ)
= 3338 kJ
Overall Heat of Reaction (H) = Total Heat Energy Absorbed - Total Heat Energy Released
= 2240 kJ - 3338 kJ
= -1098 kJ

5.3 Energy Profile Diagrams

5.4 Collision Theory
Collision Theory states that a chemical reaction occurs when reactant particles collide with each
other. However, Not all collisions will result in the formation of products.
A collision is effective only when the reactant particles have enough energy to overcome the
activation energy of the reaction, as well as having to collide in the proper orientation.
Therefore, the speed of the reaction will depend on the number of effective collisions between the
reactants.

5.5 Speed of reaction
The speed of reaction refers to how fast reactants are used up or how fast products are formed
Speed of reaction =

Factors that affect the speed of reactions include:
o Concentration of chemicals involved
An increase in concentration results in a higher speed of reaction
More particles in a given volume results in an increase in frequency of effective collisions
o Temperature
An increase in temperature results in a higher speed of reaction
At higher temperatures, the particles have more kinetic energy and thus move faster, this
leads to an increase frequency of effective collisions
At higher temperatures, more particles have the necessary energy to overcome the
activation energy needed for an effective collision.
o Pressure
Changes in pressures only affects reactions where gases are involved.
An increase in pressure results in a higher speed of reaction
The same number of particles in a smaller volume results in an increase in frequency of
effective collisions
o Particle Size
A decrease in particle size results in a higher speed of reaction
Breaking up the particles results in greater total surface area, which in turn results in more
particles being able to collide per unit time
o Catalysts
Three experimental methods to determine the speed of a reaction include:
o Measuring time for reaction to be completed
o Measuring quantity of products formed over a fixed time interval
By volume of gas produced
By mass of product
o Measuring quantity of reactants left over a fixed time interval
By mass of Reactants
Titration For acidic or basic reactants

5.6 Catalysts
A catalyst is a substance that changes the rate of reaction, but itself is chemically unchanged at the
end of the reaction.
A catalyst changes the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy of a reaction
o Because the catalysed activation energy is lower than the uncatalysed activation energy, the
reaction will take place more quickly.

Different reaction will require different type of catalysts.
o Each catalyst is usually specific to a particular reaction
Catalysts are usually transition metals, or transition metal compounds
Enzymes are an example of biological catalysts found in living cells, used to speed up the breaking
down of giant molecules such as proteins or starch.
A catalyst does not change the amount of products obtained
A catalyst does not change the H of a reaction.

5.7 Redox Reactions
Redox is reaction where reduction and oxidation occurs simultaneously
Reduction occurs when a substance
o Gains Hydrogen
o Or Loses Oxygen
o Or Gains Electrons
o Or Decrease in oxidation state
A Reducing Agent causes another substance to be reduced
o Hence a substance being reduced is an oxidising agent
Oxidation occurs when a substance
o Loses Hydrogen
o Or Gains Oxygen
o Or Loses Electrons
o Or Increase in oxidation state
An Oxidizing Agent causes another substance to be oxidized
o Hence a substance being oxidized is a Reducing agent

OIL RIG

Oxidation is Lose, Reduction is Gain

Example 1:
H
2 (g)
+ CuO
(s)
Cu
(s)
+ H
2
O
(l)

The hydrogen gas gains oxygen, and thus is oxidized. (Undergoes oxidation)
o The hydrogen gas is a Reducing agent
The copper oxide loses oxygen, and thus is reduced. (Undergoes reduction)
o The copper oxide is an Oxidizing agent

Example 2:
4CO
(g)
+ Fe
2
O
3

(s)
3Fe
(s)
+ 4CO
2 (g)

The carbon monoxide gas gains oxygen, and thus is oxidized. (Undergoes oxidation)
o The CO gas is a Reducing agent
The iron (III) oxide loses oxygen, and thus is reduced. (Undergoes reduction)
o The Iron (III) oxide is an Oxidizing agent

Example 3:
4H
2
S
(g)
+ Cl
2

(g)
2HCl
(g)
+ S
(s)

The chlorine gas gains hydrogen, and thus is reduced. (Undergoes reduction)
o The chlorine gas is a oxidizing agent
The hydrogen sulphide loses hydrogen, and thus is oxidized. (Undergoes oxidation)
o The hydrogen sulphide is an reducing agent

Example 4:
FeSO
4 (aq)
+ Zn
(s)
ZnSO
4 (aq)
+ Fe
(s)

The iron gains electrons (From oxidation state +2 to 0), and thus is reduced. (Undergoes reduction)
o The iron is a oxidizing agent
The zinc loses electrons (From oxidation state 0 to +2), and thus is oxidized. (Undergoes oxidation)
o The zinc is an reducing agent

Example 5:
2 Na
(s)
+ Cl
2

(g)
2NaCl
(s)

The chlorine gas gains electrons (From oxidation state 0 to -1), and is reduced. (Undergoes
reduction)
o The chlorine gas is a oxidizing agent
The sodium loses electrons (From oxidation state 0 to +1), and is oxidized. (Undergoes oxidation)
o The sodium is an reducing agent

5.8 Test for Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
Type Agent Half Equation Colour Change
Oxdizing
KMnO
4
MnO
4
-
(aq)
+ 8H
+
(aq)
+ 5e
-
Mn
2+
(aq)
+ 4H
2
O
(l)
Purple to
colourless
Acidified Potassium
Manganate (VII)
Oxdizing
K
2
Cr
2
O
7

Cr
2
O
7
2-
(aq)
+ 14 H
+
(aq)
+ 5 e
-
2Cr
3+
(aq)
+ 7H
2
O
(l)

Orange to Green
Acidified
Oxdizing
Cl
2

Cl
2(g)
+ 2 e
-
2Cl
-
(aq)
Greenish Yellow
to Colourless Chlorine
Reducing
KI
I
-
(aq)
I
2(aq)
+ 2 e
-

Colourless to
Reddish Brown Aqueous

Potassium Iodide
Reducing
FeSO
4

Fe
2+
(aq)
Fe
3+
(aq)
+ e
-

Greenish to
Yellow
Aqueous Iron (II)
Sulphate
Chapter 6
Acid, Bases and Salts

6.1 pH
pH measures the concentration of H
+
ions in a solution
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14
o Acids have a pH value of less than 7
The lower the pH, the stronger the acid
Sulphuric Acid in Car Batteries (pH 1) is a much stronger acid than lemon juice (pH 2)
o Bases and Alkalis have a pH value of greater than 7
The higher the pH, the stronger the base/ alkali
Sodium Hydroxide in bleach (pH 13) is a much stronger base than ammonia in fertilizer (pH 11)
o Neutral solutions (like water) have a pH of exactly 7

6.2 pH Indicators
The most accurate way of measuring pH is using a pH meter
An approximate way of measuring pH is using an indicator
An indicator can tell the pH by with colour changes

Universal Indicator

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Red Orange Yellow Green Green-Blue Blue Violet

Litmus

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Red Blue

Phenolphthalein

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Colourless Pink - Purple

Methyl Orange

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Red Yellow

Screened Methyl Orange

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Red Grey Green

Bromothymol Blue

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Yellow Blue


6.3 Acids

Acids are substances that produces H
+
ions in Water.

Properties of Acids
Acids are sour
o Lemon's sourness is from citric acid
o Vinegar's sourness is from ethanoic acid
Acids have pH of less than 7
o Acids change Blue Litmus paper Red
Organic acids are acids that contain the -COOH group
o Examples of organic acids are Ethanoic Acid and Citric Acid
Mineral acids are acids that are not organic
o Mineral acids are much stronger acids than organic acids
o Examples of mineral acids are Hydrochloric Acid and Nitric Acid

6.4 Reactions of Acids

Reaction of Acids with Bases
Acids will react with bases to form an inorganic Salt and water only
This reaction is called Neutralization

HX
(aq)
+ ZOH
(aq)
ZX
(aq)
+ H
2
O
(l)

Example 1
HCl
(aq)
+ NaOH
(aq)
NaCl
(aq)
+ H
2
O
(l)

Example 2
H
2
SO
4(aq)
+ Ca(OH)
2(aq)
CaSO
4(aq)
+ 2 H
2
O
(l)

Reaction of Acids with Metals
Acids will react with Metal to form an inorganic Salt and Hydrogen Gas only
This is due to displacement (to be covered under the Reactivity Series in the topic of Metals)

2 HX
(aq)
+ 2 M
(s)
2 MX
(aq)
+ H
2(g)

Example 1
2 HCl
(aq)
+ 2 Na
(s)
2 NaCl
(aq)
+ H
2(g)

Example 2
H
2
SO
4(aq)
+ Mg
(s)
MgSO
4(aq)
+ H
2(g)

Reaction of Acids with Carbonates
Acids will react with Carbonates to form an inorganic salt, carbon dioxide and water.

2 HX
(aq)
+ ZCO
3(aq)
ZX
2(aq)
+ CO
2(g)
+ H
2
O
(l)

Example 1
2 HCl
(aq)
+ Na
2
CO
3(s)
2 NaCl
(aq)
+ CO
2(g)
+ H
2
O
(l)

Example 2
H
2
SO
4(aq)
+ CaCO
3(s)
CaSO
4(s)
+ CO
2(g)
+ H
2
O
(l)

Common Acids

Acids Formulae Cation Anion
Hydrochloric Acid HCl H
+
Cl
-
Sulphuric Acid H
2
SO
4
H
+
SO
4
2-

Nitric Acid HNO
3
H
+
NO
3
-

Ethanoic Acid CH
3
COOH H
+
CH
3
COO
-

Phosphoric Acid H
3
PO
4
H
+
PO
4
3-

Hydrofluoric Acid HF H
+
F
-

Hydrobromic Acid HBr H
+
Br
-

Hydroiodic Acid HI H
+
I
-

Carbonic Acid H
2
CO
3
H
+
CO
3
2-

6.5 Bases and Alkalis

Bases are substances that react with an Acid to form a Salt and Water Only

Properties of Bases
Edible bases taste bitter
Alkalis feel slippery
Bases have pH of more than 7
o Bases change Red Litmus paper Blue
Bases are usually Metal oxides or Metal hydroxides
Soluble Bases are called alkalis
o Group I hydroxides are readily soluble
o Group II hydroxides are sparingly soluble
o Group III or Transition Metal hydroxides are generally insoluble

6.6 Reactions of Bases

Reaction of Bases with Ammonium Salts
Bases will react with Ammonium Salts to form an inorganic salt, ammonia gas and water

NH
4
X
(aq)
+ ZOH
(aq)
ZX
(aq)
+ NH
3(g)
+ H
2
O
(l)

Example 1
NH
4
Cl
(aq)
+ NaOH
(aq)
NaCl
(aq)
+ NH
3(g)
+ H
2
O
(l)

Example 2
(NH
4
)
2
SO
4(aq)
+ Ca(OH)
2(aq)
CaSO
4(aq)
+ NH
3(g)
+ 2 H
2
O
(l)

Precipitation of Insoluble hydroxides
Alkalis are used to precipitate out insoluble hydroxides from solutions of their salt

Example 1
2 NaOH
aq)
+ CuSO
4(s)
Na
2
SO
4(aq)
+ Cu(OH)
2(s)
(Blue precipitate)

Example 2
2 NaOH
aq)
+ MgCl
2(s)
2 NaCl
(aq)
+ Mg(OH)
2(s)
(White precipitate)

Common Bases

Bases Formulae Cation Anion
Sodium Hydroxide NaOH

Na
+
OH
-

Potassium Hydroxide KOH K
+
OH
-
Ammonium Hydroxide NH
4
OH NH
4
+
OH
-
Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)
2
Ca
2+
OH
-
Magnesium Hydroxide Mg(OH)
2
Mg
2+
OH
-
Barium Hydroxide Ba(OH)
2
Ba
2+
OH
-
Aluminum Hydroxide Al(OH)
3
Al
3+
OH
-
Zinc Hydroxide Zn(OH)
2
Zn
2+
OH
-

6.7 Oxides
Oxides are formed when elements burn in Oxygen
There are 4 types of Oxides: Acidic, Basic, Amphoteric and Neutral
Non-Metallic oxides are acidic
o They have similar properties as acids, as well as undergo similar reactions as acids
o They form acids when dissolved in water
Carbon Dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid (H
2
CO
3
)
Metallic oxides are basic
o They have similar properties as bases, as well as undergo similar reactions as bases
Some Metallic oxides are amphoteric
o They show both acidic and basic properties
They can neutralize both acids and bases.
Aluminum oxide can react with hydrochloric acid to form aluminum chloride and water
Aluminum oxide can react with sodium hydroxide to form sodium aluminate and water
o Some examples are Aluminum Oxide (Al
2
O
3
), Zinc Oxide (ZnO) and Lead (II)
Some Non-Metallic oxides are neutral (Pure)
o They show neither acidic nor basic properties
o Some examples are Dihydrogen Oxide, Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Nitrogen Oxide (NO)

6.8 Solubility of Various Salts

Soluble Salts Insoluble Salts
All Nitrates
All Lead (II) Salts except Lead (II) Nitrate All Chlorides except Lead (II) Chloride
All Sulphate except Lead (II) Sulphate
All Group I and Ammonium Salts
All Carbonates except for Group I and
Ammonium Carbonates
All Sulphides (s
2-
) except for Group I and
Ammonium Sulphides
All hydroxides except for Group I and
Ammonium hydroxides
All oxides except for Group I and
Ammonium Oxides

Also Insoluble: Barium Sulphate, Calcium Sulphate and Silver Chloride
Sparingly soluble: Group II Hydroxides and Oxides

6.9 Preparation of Salts
The method to prepare a salt depends on its solubility

6.10 Precipitation method
The precipitation method to prepare an Insoluble salt

Step 1: Choosing the reactants. (They must be soluble)

Step 2: Mix the reactants.

Step 3: Wait for the insoluble salt to precipitate out. Stirring or heating may speed the reaction along.

Step 4: Filter out the insoluble salt.

Salt
Insoluble
Precipitation
Method
Soluble
Group I or
Ammonium
Salt
Titration
NOT Group I
or Ammonium
Salt
Crystalization
React Metal
with Acid
React Metal
Carbonate
with Acid
React Metal
Oxide with
Acid

6.11 Crystallization method
The crystallization method is used to prepare a soluble salt that does not contain Group I or
Ammonium ions.

Step 1: Choosing the reactants. (Use the acid containing the anion, and the metal/ oxide/ carbonate.)

Step 2: Mix the reactants. Let the metal/ metal oxide/ metal carbonate be in excess.

Step 3: Wait for the reaction to complete. Stirring or heating may speed the reaction along.

Step 4: Filter out the excess metal/ metal oxide/ metal carbonate

Step 5: Heat the filtrate till saturated (when a thin layer of crystals are formed.

Step 6: Leave the filtrate to cool for more crystals to form.

Step 7: Filter out the crystals and dry

6.12 Titration method
The Titration method is used to prepare a soluble salt that contains Group I or Ammonium ions.
This method is based on the neutralization reaction.

Step 1: Choosing the reactants. (Use the acid containing the anion & the hydroxide containing the cation.)

Step 2: Pipette out 25 cm
3
of one of the reactants into a conical flask. Add a few drops of indicator

Step 3: Add the other reactant into a burette

Step 4: Add the reactant in the burette into the conical flask drop by drop. Stop when the colour changes.

Step 5: Heat the filtrate till saturated (when a thin layer of crystals are formed.

Step 6: Leave the filtrate to cool for more crystals to form.

Step 7: Filter out the crystals and dry

Chapter 7
Periodic Table

7.1 Periodic Trends (An Overview)
The Periodic Table is an arrangement of elements with an increasing number of Protons
o Number of valence electrons increases across a period (Left to right) from 1 to 8.
The Periodic Table is arranged in vertical groups and horizontal periods.
o Elements of the same period have the same number of electron shells.
o Elements of the same group have the same number of valence electrons.
o Elements of the same group have similar chemical properties & form compounds with similar
chemical formulae.
A zig-zag diagonal line divides the metals and non metals.
o Elements near the line are called metalloids & have characteristics of both metals & non-metals.

7.2 Electronegativity
Electronegativity refers to the ability to gain electrons
Less electronegative elements have a greater metallic character.
Elements become more electronegative across the period (Left to right)
o Elements become less metallic across the period
Elements become less electronegative down a group (Top to Bottom)
o Elements become more metallic down a group
Chlorine is the most electronegative element, while Francium is the least Electronegative.

Name of Various Groups of Elements

Note: Only Group I (Alkali Metals), Group VII (Halogens), Group VIII (Noble Gases) and Transition Metals are examinable.

7.3 Group I Metals: Alkali Metals
Group I Elements reacts with water to form Alkalis and hydrogen gas (Thus the name Alkali Metals).

2 Na
(s)
+ 2 H
2
O
(l)
2 NaOH
(aq)
+ H
2(g)

Group I Elements reacts with air to form Basic Oxides.
o These basic oxides dissolve in water to form alkalis

4 Na
(s)
+ O
2(g)
2Na
2
O
(s)

Hot Group I metals react with chlorine gas to form Metal Chlorides Salts

2 Na
(s)
+ Cl
2(g)
2NaCl
(s)

Group I Metals are very reactive (the most reactive in the periodic table)
o They easily react with cold water and air, and thus have to be stored in oil or vacuum.
o The reactivity of Group I metals increases down the group.
Lithium reacts violently with water
Sodium reacts very violently with water
Potassium reacts explosively with water.

Group I Metals are strong reducing agents

Physical properties of Group I Metals include:
o They easily react with cold water and air, and thus have to be stored in oil or vacuum.
o They have low densities.
The densities increases down the group.
o They have low melting points.
The melting point increases down the group.
o They are shiny and silvery solids.
o They are very soft and can be easily cut with a knife or razor.
o They are good conductors of electricity and heat.

7.4 Group VII: Halogens
Group VII Halogens form diatomic molecules with a single covalent bond

Trends of Group VII Halogens include:
o The melting and boiling point increases down the group.
Fluorine and Chlorine are gaseous at room temperature
Bromine is liquid at room temperature
Iodine and Astatine are solids at room temperature
o The colours of the Halogens get darker down the group.
Fluorine is pale yellow
Chlorine is yellowish green
Bromine is reddish brown
Iodine and Astatine are black
o The Halogens get less reactive down the group
Fluorine is the most reactive, and astatine is the least reactive

Group VII Halogens are strong oxidizing agents

Halogens undergo displacement reactions.
o A halogen in a salt can be displaced by a more reactive halogen
For example; Fluorine is the most reactive, and astatine is the least reactive, hence the
astatine in an astatine salt can be displaced by fluorine gas

2 NaAt
(s)
+ F
2(g)
2 NaF
(s)
+ At
2(s)

Group VIII Halogens reacts with water to form Acids or Acidic Solutions

Cl
2 (g)
+ 2 H
2
O
(l)
HCl
(aq)
+ HOCl
(aq)

Group VII Halogens react with metals to form ionic halides (Salts)

2 Na
(s)
+ Cl
2(g)
2NaCl
(s)

Group VII Halogens react with bases and alkalis to form ionic halides (Salts) due to its acidic nature.

2 NaOH
(s)
+ Cl
2(g)
NaOCl
(s)
+ NaCl
(s)
+ H
2
O
(l)

Physical properties of Group VII Halogens include:
o They have low boiling and melting points.
o They do not conduct heat or electricity in any state.
o They are sparingly soluble in water
o They are soluble in organic solvent like CCl
4
.

Some uses of Halogens
o Fluoride is used in toothpaste to prevent tooth decay
o Chlorine and Iodine is used to kill bacteria
o Iodine is needed by the human body for proper thyroid gland function

7.5 Group VIII: Noble Gases
Group VIII Noble Gases are chemically unreactive due to their stable octet structure (With fully filled
valence shells)

Noble Gases exists as monoatomic gases at room temperature.
o Noble gases have very low boiling and melting points

Some uses of Noble Gases
o Argon is used to fill light bulbs
o Neon is used to fill coloured glowing tubes
o Helium is used to fill weather balloons

7.6 Transition Metals
Properties of Transition Metals include:
o They are strong hard metals with high boiling and melting points.
o They have high density
o They form coloured compounds
Iron (II) oxide is green, while Iron (III) Oxide (Rust) is reddish brown.
o They form ions with variable charges
Iron can form Fe
2+
and Fe
3+
ions.
o They are used as catalyst
o They are used to make alloys
Steel is an alloy comprising of Iron and Carbon

Summary (Trends)

Chapter 8
Metals

8.1 Physical Properties of Metals
High Boiling and Melting point.
o General exception to these are Mercury and Group I and Group II Metals
Good Conductor of Heat and Electricity
o Due to sea of delocalized electrons
Malleable (Ability of being flattened) & Ductile (Ability to be pulled into wires)
o Due to metallic bonding, in which the layers of atoms can easily slide over each other.

8.2 Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of metal with another element
o This second element may be both either a metal or a non metal
Pure metals are usually too soft to be used.
Alloys strengthens metals to be used by disrupting the orderly arrangement of the metal atoms with
foreign atoms of different sizes.
Some metals, like iron, oxidize or rusts easily.
o Hence alloys of these metals may be used in place of the metals due to their resistance to
oxidization or corrosion.

Examples:

Alloys Constituent Elements Uses
Bronze Copper and Tin Trophies
Brass Copper and Zinc Musical Instruments and Electrical plug pins
Pewter Tin, Antimony and Copper Dinnerware like plates and teapots
Industrial Steel Iron and Carbon Scaffoldings
Stainless Steel Iron, Chromium and Nickel Cutlery and surgical instruments
Chromium Steel Iron and Chromium Ball Bearings
High Speed Steel Tungsten and Vanadium High Speed Drills

8.3 Reactivity Series
Metals differ greatly in their chemical reactivity
Very reactive metals are unstable as a metal, but form very stable compounds
o These metals are not found uncombined in nature
Less reactive metals are more stable as a metal.
o These metals can be found uncombined in nature

Most Reactive
Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminum Carbon Zinc Iron
K Na Ca Mg Al C Zn Fe
Potato Salad Can Make A Cunning Zebra Itchy

Tin Lead Hydrogen Copper Mercury Silver Gold
Sn Pl H Cu Hg Ag Au
These Large Helicopters Can Make Some Giddy
Least Reactive

8.4 Chemical Reactions of Metal
All metals undergo displacement reactions
o A more reactive metal is able to displace a less reactive metal from its compounds
o E.g. Displacement of the less reactive copper by the more reactive zinc

Zn
(s)
+ CuSO
4 (aq)
Cu
(s)
+ ZnSO
4 (aq)

o E.g. Displacement of the less reactive lead by the more reactive magnesium

Mg
(s)
+ PbO
(s)
Pb
(s)
+ MgO
(s)

Most Metals can react with water to produce hydrogen gas and either hydroxides or metal oxides.
o E.g. Reaction of Sodium with cold water

2Na
(s)
+ 2H
2
O
(l)
2NaOH
(aq)
+ H
2 (g)

o E.g. Reaction of Aluminum with steam

2Al
(s)
+ 3H
2
O
(l)
Al
2
O
3 (aq)
+ 3H
2 (g)

Most Metals can react with acids to produce salts and hydrogen gas
o E.g. Reaction of Calcium with Hydrochloric Acid

Ca
(s)
+ 2HCl
(aq)
CaCl
2 (aq)
H
2 (g)

Metals Reaction with Water Reaction with Acids
Potassium K Reacts vigorously with cold water to
produce hydroxides and hydrogen gas
Reacts explosively with acids to produce
salts and hydrogen gas Sodium Na
Calcium Ca
Reacts slowly with cold water to produce
hydroxides and hydrogen gas
Reacts vigorously with acids to produce
salts and hydrogen gas
Magnesium Mg
Reacts with Steam to produce metal oxides
and hydrogen gas
Reacts rapidly with warm acids to
produce salts and hydrogen gas
Aluminum Al
Reacts slowly with hot acids to produce
salts and hydrogen gas
Zinc Zn
Iron Fe
Tin Sn
Does not react to water or steam
Lead Pb
Copper Cu
Does not react with acids
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag
Gold Au

8.5 Chemical Reactions of Metal Compounds
The oxides of the less reactive metals can be reduced by carbon to produce the metal & CO
2
only.
o E.g. Reduction of Zinc oxide

C
(s)
+ 2ZnO
(s)
2Zn
(s)
+ CO
2 (g)

The oxides of the less reactive metals can be reduced by hydrogen to produce the metal & H
2
O only.
o E.g. Reduction of Lead oxide

PbO
(s)
+ H
2(g)
Pb
(s)
+ H
2
O
(l)

Some of the carbonates of the less reactive metals can be decomposed upon heating.
o E.g. Decomposition of Copper Carbonate

CuCO
3(s)
CuO
(s)
+ CO
2 (g)

o E.g. Decomposition of Silver Carbonate

2Ag
2
CO
3(s)
4Ag
(s)
+ O
2 (g)
+ 2CO
2 (g)

Metals
Reduction of Oxides
by Carbon
Reduction of Oxides
by Hydrogen
Decomposition of Metal
Carbonates
Potassium K
Does not reduce Does not reduce
Does not decompose
Sodium Na
Calcium Ca
Metal carbonate decomposes
upon heating into metal oxides
and carbon dioxide gas
Magnesium Mg
Aluminum Al
Zinc Zn
Metal Oxides get reduced
by carbon to form metal
and carbon dioxide only
Metal Oxides get reduced
by hydrogen to form
metal and water only
Iron Fe
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Copper Cu
Mercury Hg
Carbonate decomposes upon
heating into metal, O2 and CO2
gas
Silver Ag
Gold Au

8.6 Extraction of Metals
Metals high up in the reactivity series do not exist in the free state, but can be found in the form of
metal ores or metal salts
o These ores are normally in the form of oxides, sulphides or carbonates.
o Some common ores include

Metal Ore Compound in Ore
Aluminum Bauxite Aluminum Oxide
Iron Haematite Iron (III) Oxide
Zinc Zinc Blende Zinc Sulphide

Very reactive metals form very stable compounds, hence they can only be extracted by electrolysis.
o All metals above carbon on the reactivity series can only be extracted by electrolysis.
Less reactive metals can be extracted through reduction by carbon, hydrogen or more reactive metals
o All metals below carbon on the reactivity series can only be extracted through reduction
Metals with low reactivity can be found usually in the free state, or can be extracted through heating.
o This refers to metals like mercury, silver and gold.

8.7 Extraction of Iron
Iron is extracted from haematite (Fe
2
O
3
) through reduction in a blast furnace.

1. Haematite (Iron (III) Oxide), Limestone (Calcium Carbonate) and Coke (Carbon) are fed into the
blast furnace
2. Hot air is fed into the bottom of the furnace
3. The Coke burns in the hot air to form carbon dioxide.

C
(S)
+ O
2 (g)
CO
2 (g)

4. The carbon dioxide is further reduced to carbon monoxide

CO
2 (g)
+ C
(S)
2CO
(g)

5. The carbon monoxide reduces the haematite to iron

CO
(g)
+ Fe
2
O
3

(s)
2Fe
(s)
+ CO
2 (g)

6. The molten iron form is filled with sand particles, which can be removed using the limestone
7. The Limestone is decomposed by heat to produce calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.

CaCO
3 (g)
CaO
(s)
+ CO
2 (g)

8. The calcium oxide reacts with the sand to form slag (calcium silicate)

CaO
(g)
+ SiO
2 (s)
CaSiO
3 (s)

9. The slag is less dense than iron. Hence it floats on the molten iron & is removed from the top tap
10. The molten iron is removed from the bottom tap

8.8 Recycling of metals
Metal ores resources are finite and limited. Hence it is important to recycle metals
Some advantages of recycling include
o Recycling saves energy required to extract metals from ores
o Recycling reduce emission of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, produced in the extraction of
metals like iron from ores
o Recycling preserves scarce non-renewable raw materials
o Recycling reduces environmental air pollution and water pollution.
o Recycling reduced the amount of land required for the disposal of metals through landfills
o It is cheaper to recycle some metals like aluminum, than to extract them from the earth's crust
Some disadvantages of recycling include
o Recycling is a time consuming process
o Recycling takes up a high amount of effort and human resources.

8.9 Rusting of Iron
In the presence of water and oxygen, Iron rusts
Some methods of preventing rust include:
o Coating the iron with a substance to prevent air and water from coming into contact with the metal
surface. These substances include
Paint
Oil or grease
Electroplating the iron with a less reactive metal like tin or copper
o Sacrificial protection.

Chapter 9
Electrolysis

9.1 Electrochemical Cells
There are 2 main types of Electrochemical Cells:
o Electrolytic Cells
An Electrolytic cell has a battery or a direct current (D.C) supply to facilitate a chemical
reaction.
o Galvanic Cells (Also Known as Simple Cells)
A simple cell produces an electrical charge
It does not have a battery or a D.C Supply.
It usually has a voltmeter to measure the voltage produced

9.2 Introduction to Electrolysis: Set-up and Apparatus
Electrolysis is the process of decomposing an ionic compound into its constituent element through the
conduction of electricity through the ionic compound in the molten or aqueous state.
The electric current facilitates Redox reactions at the electrodes
Components of an Electrolytic cell:
o A Battery or D.C supply
The positive end is drawn as the longer line
o 2 Electrodes (one positive and one negative)
Terminals through which electrons enter or leave the electrolyte
The electrode attached to the positive end of the battery is positive and vice versa.
Some electrodes may be inert (is not involved in the electrolysis)
Graphite (Carbon) and platinum are inert electrodes
o Electrolyte
A Molten compound OR an aqueous solution which conducts electricity.
Aqueous solutions of Acids, Bases or Salts can be used as the electrolyte.
Molten Salts can be used as the electrolyte.
Strong conductors of electricity are classified as strong electrolytes
Examples include aqueous HCl, H
2
SO
4
, NaOH, KOH, NaCl and KI
Weak conductors of electricity are classified as weak electrolytes
Examples include weak acids and bases like Ethanoic Acid and Limewater
Non-conductors of electricity are known as non-electrolytes
Examples include Organic compounds like CCl
4
or Sugar, and pure water

The negative ions (Anions) are attracted to the positive electrode (Anode)
o The anions are oxidized at the anode
The positive ions (Cations) are attracted to the negative electrode (Cathode)
o The cations are reduced at the cathode.
Note: Electric charges travels from the positive end to the negative end, across the battery.

9.3 Electrolysis of Molten Electrolytes
A molten ionic compound is used as the electrolyte
Inert electrodes are used
The metallic cations are reduced at the cathode to form metal atoms
The non-metallic anions are oxidized at the anode to form a simple covalent molecule
Note: Heat may be necessary to keep the ionic compound molten

Example 1: Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

At the Carbon Cathode (Negative Electrode), Sodium metal is discharged

Na
+
(l)

+ e
-
Na
(s)

At the Carbon Anode (Positive Electrode), Chlorine gas is discharged

2Cl
-
(l)

Cl
2(g)
+ 2e
-

Overall Reaction
2NaCl
(l)

Cl
2(g)
+ 2Na
(s)

Example 2: Electrolysis of Molten Magnesium Oxide (MgO)

At the Carbon Cathode (Negative Electrode), Magnesium metal is discharged

Mg
2+
(l)

+ 2e
-
Mg
(s)

At the Carbon Anode (Positive Electrode), Oxygen gas is discharged.

2O
2-
(l)

O
2(g)
+ 4e
-

Overall Reaction
2MgO
(l)

O
2(g)
+ 2Mg
(s)

9.4 Uses of Electrolysis of Molten Electrolytes
Electrolysis of molten electrolytes can be used to extract reactive metals from their ores
o Metals more reactive than zinc is extracted by electrolysis

Example 1: Extraction of Aluminium from Bauxite

At the Carbon Cathode (Negative Electrode), Aluminium metal is discharged

Al
3+
(l)

+ 3e
-
Al
(l)

At the Carbon Anode (Positive Electrode), Oxygen gas is discharged.

2O
2-
(l)

O
2(g)
+ 4e
-

Overall Reaction
2Al
2
O
3(l)

3 O
2(g)
+ 4Al
(l)

9.5 Preferential Discharge
In the electrolysis of aqueous solutions, there are several cations or anions present.
When there are several cations or anions, the ions that are preferentially discharged are dependent
on the following few criteria:
o The position of the ion on the electrochemical series
An ion lower on the electrochemical series may be discharged first.
o Concentration of Ion
An ion of higher concentration may be discharged first

Electrochemical Series: Cations

Ease of Discharge
In Concentrated Solutions In Dilute Solutions
Cations Product Cations Product
Difficult K
+
, H
+
H
2
K
+
, H
+
H
2

Na
+
, H
+
H
2
Na
+
, H
+
H
2

Ca
2+
, H
+
H
2
Ca
2+
, H
+
H
2

Mg
2+
, H
+
H
2
Mg
2+
, H
+
H
2

Al
3+
, H
+
H
2
Al
3+
, H
+
H
2

Zn
2+
, H
+
H
2
Zn
2+
, H
+
H
2

Ni
2+
, H
+
Ni Ni
2+
, H
+
H
2

Pb
2+
, H
+
Pb Pb
2+
, H
+
H
2

H
+
H
2
H
+
H
2

Cu
2+
, H
+
Cu Cu
2+
, H
+
Cu
Easy Ag
+
, H
+
Ag Ag
+
, H
+
Ag

Electrochemical Series: Anions

Ease of Discharge
In Concentrated Solutions In Dilute Solutions
Anions Product Anions Product
Difficult SO
4
2-
, OH
-
O
2
(+ H
2
O)

SO
4
2-
, OH
-
O
2
(+ H
2
O)
NO
3
2-
, OH
-
O
2
(+ H
2
O) NO
3
2-
, OH
-
O
2
(+ H
2
O)
Cl
-
, OH
-
Cl
2
Cl
-
, OH
-
O
2
(+ H
2
O)
Br
-
, OH
-
Br
2
Br
-
, OH
-
O
2
(+ H
2
O)
I
-
, OH
-
I
2
I
-
, OH
-
O
2
(+ H
2
O)
Easy OH
-
O
2
(+ H
2
O) OH
-
O
2
(+ H
2
O)

Example 1: Electrolysis of Dilute Aqueous Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

At the Carbon Cathode (Negative Electrode),
The Na
+
and H
+
ions are attracted to the cathode
The H
+
ions are preferentially discharged (Hydrogen gas is discharged)

2H
+
(aq)

+ 2e
-
H
2(s)

At the Carbon Anode (Positive Electrode),
The Cl
-
and OH
-
The OH
-
ions are preferentially discharged (Oxygen gas is discharged)

4OH
-
(aq)

O
2(g)
+ 2H
2
O
(g)
+ 4e
-

Overall Reaction
2H
2
O
(l)

2H
2(g)
+ 2O
2(g)

Example 2: Electrolysis of Concentrated Aqueous Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

The Na
+
and H
+
The H
+

2H
+
(aq)

+ 2e
-
H
2(g)

The Cl
-
and OH
-
The Cl
-
ions are preferentially discharged (Chlorine gas is discharged)

2Cl
-
(aq)

Cl
2(g)
+ 2e
-

Overall Reaction
2H
+
(aq)

+ 2Cl
-
(aq)

H
2(g)
+ Cl
2(g)

2H
+
(aq)

+ 2OH
-
(aq)

+ 2Na
+
(aq)

+ 2Cl
-
(aq)

H
2(g)
+ Cl
2(g)
+ 2Na
+
(aq)
+ 2OH
-
(aq)

2NaCl
(aq)
+ 2H
2
O
(l)

2NaOH
(aq)
+ H
2(g)
+ Cl
2(g)

Example 3: Electrolysis of Concentrated Aqueous Copper Chloride (CuCl
2
)

The Cu
2+
and H
+
The Cu
2+
ions are preferentially discharged (Copper Metal is discharged)

Cu
2+
(aq)

+ 2e
-
Cu
(s)

The Cl
-
and OH
-
The Cl
-
ions are preferentially discharged (Chlorine gas is discharged)

2Cl
-
(aq)

Cl
2(g)
+ 2e
-

Overall Reaction
Cu
2+
(aq)

+ 2Cl
-
(aq)

Cu
(s)
+ Cl
2(g)

Observations: The bluish-green colour of the solution is discharged, and pink deposits are formed on the
cathode

9.6 Uses of Electrolysis of Aqueous Compounds
The electrolysis of aqueous solutions can be used to manufacture various chemical compounds

Example 1: Electrolysis of Concentrated Aqueous Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

At the Carbon Cathode (Negative Electrode), Hydrogen gas is discharged
At the Carbon Anode (Positive Electrode), Chlorine gas is discharged

Overall Reaction
2NaCl
(aq)
+ 2H
2
O
(l)

2NaOH
(aq)
+ H
2(g)
+ Cl
2(g)

Sodium hydroxide and chlorine gas is produced from the Electrolysis of Concentrated Aqueous Sodium
Chloride

9.7 Reactive Electrodes
If reactive (active) electrodes are used, the anode could be oxidized in place of the anions in the
electrolyte
o Note: the cation in the electrolyte would usually contain the cationic form of the reactive anode
o The cation would then be reduced at the cathode

Example 1: Electrolysis of Aqueous Copper Sulphate (CuSO4) with copper electrodes

At the Copper Anode (Positive Electrode),
The SO4
2-
and OH
-
ions are attracted to the cathode, but neither is discharged as the copper atoms in the
electrode loses electrons more readily than either anions
Cu atoms loses 2 electrons to form Cu
2+
ions.
The copper anode becomes smaller over time, and eventually completely dissolves in the electrolyte.

Cu(s)

Cu
2+
(aq) + 2e
-

At the Copper Cathode (Negative Electrode),
The Cu
2+
and H
+
The Cu
2+
ions are preferentially discharged (Copper metal is deposited on the cathode)
The copper cathode becomes larger over time

Cu
2+
(aq) + 2e
-
Cu(s)

Overall Reaction: There is no change in the electrolyte.

9.8 Uses of Reactive Electrodes: Electroplating
Electroplating can be used to prevent rust or corrosion of metals by covering the metal with a layer of
another metal (that is usually corrosion resistant.
o The item to be plated is to be the cathode
Galvanizing is a form of electroplating where an iron or steel item is covered in a layer of zinc
In the set-up for electroplating:
The item must be able to conduct electricity
o The metal used to coat the cathode is to be the anode
The electrolyte is to be an aqueous salt of the anode.

Example 1: Electroplating an aluminium statuette with copper

Electrode: Copper anode and Aluminium (statuette) cathode
Electrolyte: Aqueous Copper Sulphate

At the Copper Anode (Positive Electrode),
The copper atoms loses 2 electrons to form Cu
2+
ions.

Cu(s)

Cu
2+
(aq) + 2e
-

At the Aluminium (Statuette) Cathode (Negative Electrode),
The Cu
2+
and H
+
The Cu
2+
The Aluminium (statuette) cathode becomes coated in a layer of copper

Cu
2+
(aq) + 2e
-
Cu(s)

9.9 Galvanic Cell (Simple Cells)
A Galvanic Cell produces an electrical charge by converting chemical energy to electrical energy
A galvanic cell is also known as a simple cell
Components of a galvanic cell:
o NO Battery or D.C supply
o 2 Electrodes of different metals
The more reactive metal will oxidize, and be the negative electrode (the anode)
The less reactive metal will become the positive electrode (the cathode)
o An Electrolyte solution
Sometimes, 2 different electrolyte solutions can be used, connected by a salt bridge
o A Voltmeter is often included to measure the voltage produced by the galvanic cell
The voltage produced depends on the positions of the two metal electrodes in the reactivity
series
The further apart the metals are on the metal reactivity series, the greater the voltage
produced

Example 1: A Galvanic Cell with Copper and Zinc Electrodes, with Sulphuric Acid as the electrolyte

As zinc is more reactive than copper the zinc will lose 2 electrons and be oxidized.
o Hence the zinc electrode becomes the negative electrode (the anode)
o Therefore the copper electrode is the positive electrode (the cathode)

At the Zinc Anode (Positive Electrode),
The SO4
2-
and OH
-
ions are attracted to the cathode, but neither is discharged as the zinc atoms in the electrode
loses electrons more readily than either anions
The zinc atoms loses 2 electrons to form Zn
2+
ions.

Zn(s)

Zn
2+
(aq) + 2e
-

The Zn
2+
and H
+
The H
+

2H
+
(aq)

+ 2e
-
H
2(g)


Example 2: A Galvanic Cell with Copper and Zinc Electrodes, with Zinc sulphate and Copper sulphate as the
electrolyte solutions, connected by a salt bridge

As zinc is more reactive than copper the zinc will lose 2 electrons and be oxidized.
o Hence the zinc electrode becomes the negative electrode (the anode)
o Therefore the copper electrode is the positive electrode (the cathode)

At the Zinc Anode (Positive Electrode),
The SO4
2-
and OH
-
ions are attracted to the cathode, but neither is discharged as the zinc atoms in the electrode
loses electrons more readily than either anions
The zinc atoms loses 2 electrons to form Zn
2+
ions.

Zn(s)

Zn
2+
(aq) + 2e
-

The Cu
2+
and H
+
The Cu
2+

Cu
2+
(aq) + 2e
-
Cu(s)

Overall Reaction
Zn(s)

+ Cu
2+
(aq)

Zn
2+
(aq) + Cu
(s)


Chapter 10
Organic Chemistry

10.1 Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Organic Chemistry is the study of Carbon based compounds
o Except for Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide and metal Carbonates
Most organic compounds also have hydrogen, and some also have oxygen.
o Organic compounds with carbon and hydrogen atoms are called hydrocarbons
Important reminder: Carbon Atoms only can form 4 bonds around each one

In organic chemistry, there are many compounds with similar chemical properties, and have a general
formula
o This family of compounds is known as a homologeous series
o All compounds in a homologus series typically have a common functional group, and differ by a -
CH
2
unit.
o Compounds in a homologeous series have similar chemical properties but different physical
properties like boiling and melting points

4 Main homologeous series to be taught include
o Alkanes
Has no functional group
Has the suffix -ane
Has the general formula of C
n
H
2n + 2

o Alkenes
has a double bond between 2 carbon atoms
Has the C=C functional group
Has the suffix -ene
n
H
2n

o Alcohols
Has the -OH functional group
Has the suffix -anol
n
H
2n + 1
OH
o Carboxylic Acid
Has the -COOH functional group
Has the suffix -anoic Acid
n
H
2n
O
2
or C
n-1
H
2n-1
COOH

No. Of Carbons
1 2 3 4
Meth- Eth- Prop- But-
Functional
Groups
Alkanes
CnH2n + 2
-ane
Methane Ethane Propane Butane
CH
4
C
2
H
6
C
3
H
8
C
4
H
10

Alkenes
CnH2n
-ene
Ethene Propene Butene
C
2
H
4
C
3
H
6
C
4
H
8

Alcohol
CnH2n + 1OH
-anol
Methanol Ethanol Propanol Butanol
CH
3
OH C
2
H
5
OH C
3
H
7
OH C
4
H
9
OH
Carboxylic
Acid
CnH2nO2
- anoic
Acid
Methanoic Acid
Ethanoic
Acid
Propanoic
Acid
Butanoic Acid
HCOOH CH
3
COOH C
2
H
5
COOH C
3
H
7
COOH


10.2 Petroleum and Crude Oil
Crude oil is a mixture of many thousands of different hydrocarbons with different properties.
o To make crude oil useful, batches of similar compounds with similar properties need to be sorted
and separated by fractional distillation.
o In fractional distillation, the crude oil is heated to make it vaporise. The vapour is then
cooled.
o Different fractions of the oil are collected at different temperatures.

The larger hydrocarbons are not as useful as the smaller hydrocarbon
o Cracking is a process that can be used to break larger hydrocarbons into smaller ones
o Cracking is done by passing the vaporised hydrocarbon over a solid catalyst
o Cracking produces alkenes

10.3 Isomerism
Organic compounds with same chemical formula but different structural formula are known as
isomers

Example 1: Isomers of Butane Chemical Formula: C
4
H
10

Example 2: Isomers of Butanol Chemical Formula: C
4
H
9
OH

Example 3: Propane Chemical Formula: C
3
H
8

(EXAMPLE OF WHAT'S NOT A SET OF ISOMERS)
ALL 3 are the same structure

10.4 Alkanes
Alkanes are organic compounds with only Carbon and Hydrogen atoms with NO Functional groups
Alkanes have the general formula of C
n
H
2n + 2

Alkanes are generally unreactive.

Methane Ethane Propane Butane
HCH
3
CH
3
CH
3
CH
3
CH
2
CH
3

CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
CH
3

Or

CH
3
CHCH
3
CH
3

10.4a Combustion
Alkanes undergo Combustion
o Alkanes burn in Oxygen to form Carbon Dioxide and Water Vapour

Example 1: Combustion of Methane, CH
4

CH
4
+ 2O
2
CO
2
+ 2H
2
O

Example 2: Combustion of Butane, C
4
H
10

2C
4
H
10
+ 13O
2
8CO
2
+ 10H
2
O

10.4b Substitution Reaction
In the presence of light, Alkanes undergo Substitution reaction with halogens
o Observation: The coloured halogens will decolourise

Example 1: Substitution Reaction of Methane, CH
4
with chlorine gas, Cl
2

CH
4
+ Cl
2
CH
3
Cl + HCl

Example 2: Substitution Reaction of Butane, C
4
H
10
with bromine, Br
2

C
4
H
10
+ Br
2
C
4
H
9
Br + HBr

Note: The substitution reaction could proceed further

C
4
H
10
+ Br
2
C
4
H
9
Br + HBr
C
4
H
9
Br + Br
2
C
4
H
8
Br
2
+ HBr
C
4
H
8
Br
2
+ Br
2
C
4
H
7
Br
3
+ HBr

10.5 Alkenes
Alkenes are organic compounds with a double bond between 2 carbon atoms
Alkanes have the general formula of C
n
H
2n

Alkenes are unsaturated organic compounds (Has 1 or more double bonds)
o Alkanes are saturated organic compounds (Has no double bonds)

Ethene Propene Butene
H
2
C=CH
2
H
2
C=CHCH
3

H
2
C=CHCH
2
CH
3

Or

H
2
C=CCH
3
CH
3

Or

CH
3
CH=CHCH
3

10.5a Combustion
Alkenes undergo Combustion
o Alkenes burn in Oxygen to form Carbon Dioxide and Water Vapour

Example 1: Combustion of Butene, C
4
H
8

C
4
H
8
+ 6O
2
4CO
2
+ 4H
2
O

10.5b Substitution Reaction
In the presence of light, Alkenes can undergo Substitution reaction with halogens

10.5c Addition Reaction with Halogens
Alkenes can undergo addition reactions with halogens in the absence of light

Example 1: Addition of aqueous bromine, Br
2
to Ethene, C
2
H
4

C
2
H
4
+ Br
2
C
2
H
4
Br
2

Note: This can be used as a test to differentiate Alkanes from Alkenes. Alkenes can decolourise bromine
in the absence of light, while Alkanes cannot decolourise bromine in the absence of light
Example 2: Addition of aqueous bromine, Br
2
to Butene, C
4
H
8

C
4
H
8
+ Br
2
C
4
H
8
Br
2

Example 3: Addition of chlorine gas, Cl
2
to Butene, C
4
H
8

C
4
H
8
+ Cl
2
C
4
H
8
Cl
2


10.5d Addition Reaction with Hydrogen Gas
Alkenes can undergo addition reactions with Hydrogen Gas
o This process is known as hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is used to change vegetable oil into margarine
Hydrogenation is used to change Alkenes to Alkanes
Reaction Conditions: 200
o
C with Nickel Catalyst

Example 1: Addition of Hydrogen Gas, H
2
to Ethene, C
2
H
4

Temperature: 200
o
C
Pressure: 1 atm
Catalyst Used: Nickel Catalyst

C
2
H
4
+ H
2
C
2
H
6

10.5e Addition Reaction with Water Vapour
Alkenes can undergo addition reactions with Water vapour
o This process is known as Hydration
Hydrogenation is used to change Alkenes to Alcohol
Reaction Conditions: 300
o
C, 60 atm with Phosphoric Acid Catalyst

Example 1: Addition of Water Vapor, H
2
O to Ethene, C
2
H
4

Temperature: 300
o
C
Pressure: 60 atm
Catalyst Used: Phosphoric Acid (H
3
PO
4
)

C
2
H
4
+ H
2
O C
2
H
5
OH

10.5f Addition Polymerisation
Alkenes can undergo addition reactions with itself to form long chains of polymers
o This process is known as Polymerisation

Example 1: Polymerisation of Ethene to form polyethene

nC
2
H
4
- [C
2
H
4
]
n
-

Polyethene can be used to make plastic items like plastic bags, plastic bottles, etc...
10.6 Alcohol
Alcohols are organic compounds with a -OH functional group
Alcohols have the general formula of C
n
H
2n+1
OH
Like Alkanes and Alkenes, Alcohol can undergo combustion and substitution reactions.
Alcohol can be prepared through the hydration of alkenes (see 10.5e), or through the fermentation
(see 10.6a)
Alcohols can be used as an organic solvent, or as fuel.

Methanol Ethanol Propanol Butanol
CH
3
OH CH
3
CH
2
OH
CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
OH

Or

CH
3
CHCH
3

OH

4 Isomers

Check 10.3 Example 2

10.6a Fermentation
Alcohol can also be prepared through the fermentation
o Enzymes are added to break down the glucose in sugar or starch to produce ethanol and carbon
dioxide.
o The fermented mixture is then filtered and the alcohol is extracted through fractional distillation.
o Note: Fermentation must be carried out in an oxygen free environment to prevent the alcohol from
turning into carboxylic acids.

Temperature: 37
o
C
Pressure: 1 atm
Catalyst Used: Enzymes in Yeast

C
6
H
12
O
6
2C
2
H
5
OH + 2CO
2

10.6b Oxidation Reaction
Alcohols oxidize to form carboxylic acids and water
o For the oxidation, Acidified Potassium Dichromate (VI), Acidified Potassium Manganate (VII), or
even atmospheric oxygen can be used.

Example 1: Oxidation of Ethanol using Acidified Potassium Dichromate (VI)

Conditions: r.t.p
Observations: Orange Acidified Potassium Dichromate (VI) changes to green

C
2
H
5
OH + Cr
2
O
7
2-

+ 10H
+
CH
3
COOH + 2Cr
3+
+ 6H
2
O

Example 2: Oxidation of Propanol using Acidified Potassium Manganate (VII)

Conditions: r.t.p
Observations: Purple Acidified Potassium Manganate (VII) decolourises

C
3
H
7
OH + MnO
4
-
C
2
H
5
COOH + MnO
2
+ H
2
O

Example 3: Oxidation of Butanol using Atmospheric Oxygen

C
4
H
9
OH + O
2

C
3
H
7
COOH + H
2
O

10.6c Condensation Reaction: Esterification

See 10.7b

10.7 Carboxylic Acid
Carboxylic Acids are organic compounds with a -COOH functional group
Carboxylic Acids have the general formula of C
n
H
2n
O
2
or C
n-1
H
2n-1
COOH
Carboxylic Acids are weak acids
o Weak acids only partially dissociate in water to form H
+
ions
o As a (weak) acid, carboxylic acids also undergo all acid reactions

Methanoic Acid Ethanoic Acid Propanoic Acid Butanoic Acid
HCOOH CH
3
COOH CH
3
CH
2
COOH

CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
COOH

Or

CH
3
CHCH
3
COOH

10.7a Acid Reactions
Carboxylic Acids can undergo Neutralization
o Carboxylic Acids reacts with bases to form salt and water only
Carboxylic Acids can undergo reactions with metals
o Carboxylic Acids reacts with metals to form salt and hydrogen gas only
Carboxylic Acids can undergo reactions with metal carbonates
o Carboxylic Acids reacts with metal carbonates to form salt, water and carbon dioxide

10.7b Condensation Reaction: Esterification
Esterification is a condensation reaction
Alcohols and carboxylic acids react to form Esters
o Esters have the functional group -OCO-
Ester are named after the alcohol and the carboxylic acid used to prepare the ester
o The first term follows the alcohol used
Methanol used = methyl
Ethanol used = ethyl
o The second term follows the carboxylic acid used
Methanoic Acid used = methonate
Ethanoic Acid used = ethanoate
o Hence: E.g. Ethanol and butanoic acid produces Ethyl Butanoate
Esters are sweet-smelling compounds
Reaction Conditions: Sulphuric Acid Catalyst

Example 1: Preparation of Methyl Ethanoate

Reagents: Methanol and Ethanoic Acid
Conditions: Sulphuric Acid as Catalyst
Observations: A sweet smell is produced

CH
3
OH + CH
3
COOH CH
3
OCOCH
3
+ H
2
O

Example 2: Preparation of Methyl Propanoate

Reagents: Methanol and Propanoic Acid
Conditions: Sulphuric Acid as Catalyst
Observations: A sweet smell is produced

CH
3
OH + C
2
H
5
COOH CH
3
OCOCH
2
CH
3
+ H
2
O


10.8 Macromolecules
Macromolecules are giant molecules that are formed when thousands of smaller units of identical
molecules or atoms are joined together
o This smaller units are called monomers
o The process of joining these monomers into a macromolecule is called polymerisation
There are 2 types of macromolecules
o Natural Macromolecules
o Synthetic (man-made) Polymers
Synthetic polymers can be made through addition polymerisation (addition polymers) or
condensation polymerisation (Condensation Polymers)

10.8a Addition Polymers
Addition polymers are made from unsaturated monomers through an addition reactions
Alkenes undergo addition polymerisation to form polyalkenes

10.8b Condensation Polymers
Condensation polymers are made from condensation reactions
o A small molecule like water is produced through condensation reaction
Monomers used in condensation reactions have 2 functional group on both ends
o A Diol has 2 -OH functional group on either sides
o A Dicarboxylic Acid has 2 -COOH functional group on either sides
o A Diammine has 2 -NH
2
functional group on either sides

Diol Dicarboxylic Acid Diammine
HO OH HOOC COOH H
2
N NH
2

= -[CH
2
]
n
-

2 condensation reactions that can be used to produce condensation polymers are
o Esterification (Between diols and dicarboxylic acids)
The -OCO- functional group between the alcohol and the acid is called the ester linkage
Terrylene is a polymer with ester linkages, made from diols and dicarboxylic acids.
o Amide Condensation (Between diamine and dicarboxylic acids)
The -CONH- functional group between the acid and the amine is called the amide linkage
Nylon is a polymer with amide linkages, made from diamines and dicarboxylic acids.



Chapter 11
The Environment

11.1 Air
Air comprises of
o 78% Nitrogen Gas (N
2
)
o 21% Oxygen Gas (O
2
)
o 1% Argon Gas (Ar)
o Very small amounts of Carbon Dioxide and other rare gases.

11.2 Carbon Cycle & the Greenhouse Effect
The carbon cycle shows how carbon is circulated around the world
o All living creatures, plants, animals and humans, release carbon dioxide as part of respiration
o All living creatures, plants, animals and humans, also release carbon dioxide through decay and
decomposition
o Plants consume carbon dioxide during photosynthesis
o Animals and Humans consume carbon in the form of food (be it in the form of both plants or other
animals)
o Animals and Humans release carbon in the form of methane
These two gases, Carbon Dioxide and Methane, are major contributors to the green house effect.

Greenhouse gases, such as methane and carbon dioxide, are responsible for the green house effect,
which traps heat in our earth's atmosphere.
The green house effect is essential to sustaining life as the earth would otherwise be too cold to
survive.
However, too much greenhouse gas leads to global warming, which results in
o Melting of polar caps
o Rising sea levels causing floods in low lying land
o Changing weather patterns such as increase in rainfall in some areas, and possibly causing
floods
o Changing weather patterns such as decrease in rainfall in some areas, resulting in an increase in
number of deserts, as well as possible famine due to crop distruptions.

Some causes of the increase of Greenhouse gases are
o Increase in use of fossil fuel
o Deforestation
o Decay of vegetation due to deforestation
o increased farming of rice fields

11.3 Carbon Monoxide
Besides carbon dioxide, the burning of fossil fuels also produces Carbon Monoxide, especially when
there is insufficient oxygen.
o The major source of carbon monoxide is from the burning of petrol in vehicles
Carbon Monoxide is harmful as it is a poisonous gas
o It binds with the haemoglobin in our blood and prevents it from carrying the oxygen that the body
needs.
The release of Carbon Monoxide can be reduced by the use of catalytic converters in vehicles.
o The catalytic converter converts the carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide.

11.4 ChloroFluoroCarbons (CFCs)
The earth is protected by a layer of ozone which absorbs dangerous Ultra-Violet rays from the sun.
o The UV rays would otherwise cause severe damage to vegetations, as well as higher risk of skin
cancer.
The ozone layer is constantly being destroyed by CFCs used in aerosols, refrigerators and cleaning
solvents

As a result of this depletion, use of CFCs is banned in many countries
11.5 Sulphur Dioxide and Sulphuric Acid
Sulphur Dioxide is a strong Reducing Agent
o It is a good bleaching agent (The reducing properties reduces the coloured dyes)
o It is a good disinfectant (The reducing property effectively kill bacteria)
o It is a good food preservative (The reducing property effectively kill bacteria)
o It is used to manufacture Sulphuric Acid

Sulphuric Acid is a strong mineral acid
o It is used to make fertilizers
o It is used to make detergents
o It is used to make dyes
o It is used as en electrolyte in car batteries

Although Sulphur Dioxide has many uses, it is also a serious pollutant when released to the
environment
o As it is water soluble, it can dissolve to form acid rain

2SO
2 (g)
+ O
2 (g)
+ 2H
2
O
(l)
2H
2
SO
4(aq)

o Acid rain is harmful to the environment as it
Corrodes metal structures like bridges and vehicles
Corrodes limestone buildings
Endangers marine life as many aquatic life cannot survive in acidic waters
Reduces the pH of soil, which causes plant life to easily die
o Sulphur Dioxide also irritates the eyes and cause breathing difficulties

The main source of Sulphur Dioxide is from the combustion of fossil fuels
o Factories burning fossil fuels containing sulphur impurities
o Petrol and diesel engines burning fossil fuels containing sulphur impurities
Volcanos are also another secondary source of Sulphur Dioxide

We can cut down the emission of Sulphur Dioxide by
o Not using fossil fuels containing sulphur impurities
o Spray factory exhaust chimneys with CaO or Ca(OH)
2
to absorb the Sulphur Dioxide

CaO
(s)
+ SO
2 (g)
CaSO
3 (s)
Ca(OH)
2

(s)
+ SO
2 (g)
CaSO
3 (s)
+ H
2
O
(g)

o Solid calcium hydroxide or calcium oxides can be added to water bodies and soil to counter the
effects of acid rain

11.6 Nitrogen Oxide and Nitrogen Dioxide
At high temperatures, the nitrogen and oxygen in the air combine to form nitrogen oxide and/or
nitrogen dioxide.
o These high temperatures can be due to lightning, forest fires, or at industrial factories and cars.

N
2 (g)
+ O
2 (g)
2NO
(g)
2NO
(g)
+ O
2 (g)
2NO
2 (g)
These oxides are air pollutants as they can
o Damage lungs
o React with other air pollutants to form ozone, which irritates eyes and damage vegetation
o Dissolve in water to form acid rain


11.7 Summary of Air Pollutants

Pollutant Source Hazard Preventive measures
CO

Carbon
Monoxide
- Cars internal
combustion engine
- Forest fires

It is a poisonous gas that
combines with haemoglobin,
reducing the efficiency to
transport oxygen, leading to
cell death.
- Install catalytic converters in cars
- Reduce number of cars on road
- Create efficient engines to ensure
complete combustion

SO2

Sulphur Dioxide
- Combustion of
fossil fuels
containing sulphur
impurities
- Volcanic eruptions

- Lung irritant
- Eye irritant
- Acid rain

- Prevent using fuels containing
sulphur impurities, e.g. coal
- Use hydrated CaO/ Hydrated
Ca(OH)2 to absorb SO2 before its
released into the atmosphere
- Add CaO to soil and water bodies
to neutralize acid rain

NO & NO2

Oxides of
Nitrogen
- Lightning activity
- Forest fires
- Internal
combustion engines
- Power stations

- Eutrophication
- Lung damage
- Acid rain

- Design car engines which run at
lower temperatures
- Add CaO to soil and water bodies
to neutralize acid rain

Methane - Decomposition of
vegetable matter
- Rice field
- Cattle ranching
- Natural gas
- Mines

- Highly Flammable
- greenhouse gas

- Cattle and other ruminant animals
should be given improved diet
- Animal manure and rotting
vegetation can be used as biomass
fuel

Unburnt
hydrocarbons
- Internal
combustion engines

- Carcinogenic
- Forms photochemical smog
- Greenhouse Gases
contributing to global warming.

- Reduce number of cars on road
- Create efficient engines in cars to
ensure complete hydrocarbon
combustion

Ozone - It is formed when
an electrical spark
passes through air.

- It reacts with unburnt
hydrocarbons to form
photochemical smog that
causes headache, eye, nose
and throat irritation.
- It corrodes and kills plants
and trees

CFCs - CFC based
aerosol products

- Destroys the Ozone layer

- Use CFC-free products

Dust and
Smoke
- Building work
- Mining activities
- Forest fires
- Incomplete
combustion of fuels.

- Irritate lungs, causing
bronchitis and other lung-
related diseases.

Lead
compounds
- Combustion of
leaded petrol in car
engines
- lead compounds
are added to petrol
to make it heavier
so that it does not
ignite too soon.
- when breathed in can build
up inside the body and are
toxic and poisonous
- Causes lead poisoning which
leads to brain damage


11.8 Treatment of Water
The main steps in the treatment of raw water are:
o The water is first screened to remove large solids impurities
Alum is added to cause fine suspended particles to clump together and settle in the
sedimentation tank
Lime is added to reduce acidity
o Addition of activated carbon to remove foul smells and taste
Filtration removes any remaining solid particles
o Chlorination is carried out to disinfect the water by killing the harmful bacteria
Fluoride is sometime added to prevent tooth decay

Clean water can also be prepared through desalination
o Desalination is the process of removing dissolved salts from seawater

Two methods of desalination commonly used:
o Distillation: Seawater is evaporated and the pure water vapour formed is condensed
o Reverse Osmosis: Pure water is extracted from seawater using a semi-permeable membrane
under high pressure

11.9 Control of pH in agriculture
Most plants need a soil pH of 6.5 to 7.5 to grow well
If the ground is too acidic, slaked lime - Ca(OH)
2
can be added to neutralise the acid.
o This process is called liming the soil
o Slaked lime is used as it is cheap and easily available
o Slaked lime is sparingly soluble. Once the acid is neutralized, the excess base will remain as a
solid in the soil and not dissolve to make the soil too alkaline.

11.10 Ammonia (Pure Chemistry)
Ammonia and ammonium salts are important fertilizer, which is used to increase production of crops
like maize and wheat
Ammonia is commercially produced (manufactured) through the Haber process

N
2 (g)
+ 3H
2 (g)
2NH
3 (g)

Raw Material N
2 (g)
, H
2 (g)

Conditions 450
o
C, 200atm
Catalyst Finely Divided Iron

The ammonia formed is removed by cooling the reaction mixture. Ammonia will turn to liquid before
the unreacted hydrogen gas or nitrogen gas.
The liquid ammonia is then run off, and the unreacted hydrogen and nitrogen gases will be pumped
back into the reaction chamber.
Note: this reaction is reversible and can take place in both direction
o There is a forward and a backward reaction
o Dynamic equilibrium is reached when
Raw water is
screened
Mixing
Chamber
Lime and Alum is
added
Sedimentation
Tank
Activated Carbon is
added
Sand and
Gravel filter
beds
Clear water
tanks
Chlorine and
fluoride is added


The rate of the forward reaction = The rate of the backward reaction

o At dynamic equilibrium, the concentration of the products and reactants are unchanged
o The equilibrium will be affected by changes in concentration, pressure and temperature.


Olevels Chemistry Notes - Pure Chemistry

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Olevels Chemistry Notes - Pure Chemistry

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2014 Marcus Ng Chemistry Notes for Secondary School O-Levels Pure Chemistry

2014 Chemistry Notes

of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

x Number of moles of Iron

x Number of moles of HCl

x Number of moles of HCl

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