Mastering Concepts

7.1
1. How did Griffiths research, coupled with the work of Avery and his colleagues,
demonstrate that DA, not protein, is the genetic material!
Griffiths research esta"lished that a then#unknown molecule in a lethal strain of "acteria
could transform nonlethal "acteria, making them a"le to kill mice. Avery and his
colleagues added en$ymes that destroyed either proteins or DA to the mi%tures that
Griffith used in his e%periments. &n Averys e%periments, mice died only from "acterial
solutions mi%ed with en$ymes that destroyed proteins. 'ice did not die from "acterial
solutions mi%ed with en$ymes that destroyed DA. (hese e%periments showed that
DA, not protein, changed "acteria from nonlethal to lethal.
). How did the Hershey*+hase ,"lender e%periments- confirm Griffiths results!
(he Hershey#+hase ,"lender e%periments- used radioactive sulfur to la"el the protein
coats of one "atch of "acteriophages and used radioactive phosphorus to la"el the DA
of another "atch of "acteriophages. .oth "atches of viruses were allowed to infect
"acteria. (hen the solutions were separately "lended at high speeds to separate viral
protein coats from "acterial cells. /adioactively la"eled "acteria were only found in the
"atches that had "een infected "y phages with radioactively la"eled DA. (he protein#
la"eled phages did not transmit radioactivity to the "acteria they had infected. (hese
e%periments confirmed that DA, not protein, is the genetic material.
7.)
1. 0hat are the components of DA and its three#dimensional structure!
(he components of a DA molecule are nucleotides. (hese are composed of a
deo%yri"ose sugar "onded to a phosphate and a nucleotide "ase 1adenine, thymine,
cytosine, or guanine2. (he three#dimensional structure of DA is a dou"le heli%, which
resem"les a twisted ladder.
). 0hat evidence ena"led 0atson and +rick to decipher the structure of DA!
(he evidence included /osalind 3ranklins 4#ray diffraction photo of a crystal of DA,
plus 5rwin +hargaffs work that showed that DA contains e6ual amounts of adenine
and thymine and e6ual amounts of cytosine and guanine.
7. &dentify the 78 and 98 ends of a DA strand.
(he 9 end has the 9
th
num"ered car"on in deo%yri"ose facing out and leading with a
phosphate group attached, and the 7 end has the 7
rd
num"ered car"on leading with no
phosphate, :ust the ;H attached to the car"on.
7.7
1. 0hat is the relationship "etween a gene and a protein!
A gene is a strand of DA that encodes a protein.
). 0hat are the two main stages in protein synthesis!
(ranscription and translation are the two main stages in protein synthesis.
7. 0hat are the three types of /A, and how does each contri"ute to protein synthesis!
'essenger /A 1m/A2 carries the DA instructions for "uilding the protein, transfer
/A 1t/A2 carries the appropriate amino acid to the ri"osome, and ri"osomal /A
1r/A2 is the ma:or component of a ri"osome, the structure that reads codons on the
m/A and assem"les amino acids into polypeptides.
7.<
1. 0hat happens during each stage of transcription!
(he steps of transcription are initiation, elongation of the /A molecule, and
termination. During initiation, en$ymes un$ip the DA and /A polymerase "inds.
During elongation, /A polymerase ,reads- the DA strand and adds complementary
nucleotides to the growing /A strand. During termination, synthesis of the /A
molecule ends and the DA molecule reforms.
). 0here in the cell does transcription occur!
(ranscription occurs in the nucleus.
7. 0hat is the role of /A polymerase in transcription!
/A polymerase uses the DA template to "ind additional /A "ases into the growing
chain of /A "eing transcri"ed.
<. 0hat are the roles of the promoter and terminator se6uences in transcription!
(he promoter signals the start of a gene, and the terminator signals the end of a gene.
/A polymerase recogni$es the promoter and terminator, so it starts and stops
transcription at the correct positions.
9. How is m/A modified "efore it leaves the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell!
.efore it leaves the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell, m/A is altered in the following ways=
- a cap is added to the 9 end of the m/A molecule>
- a poly A tail is added to the 7 end>
- introns are removed and e%ons are spliced together.
7.9
1. How did researchers determine that the genetic code is a triplet and learn which codons
specify which amino acids!
/esearchers knew that life uses four nucleotides and )? amino acids. (hey reasoned that
the genetic code could not reflect 1#"ase or )#"ase ,words,- "ecause neither could encode
enough amino acids. A triplet code 17#"ase ,words-2 could potentially encode @< amino
acids, which is more than enough for the )? amino acids found in "iological proteins.
(hey deciphered the genetic code "y adding synthetic m/A molecules to test tu"es
containing all the ingredients needed for translation. (hey analy$ed the se6uences of the
resulting polypeptides to determine which codons correspond to which amino acids.
). 0hat happens in each stage of translation!
(he steps of translation are initiation 1ri"osomal su"unit "inds to initiator codon2,
elongation of the polypeptide, and termination 1release of the last t/A from the
ri"osome, signified "y a stop codon2.
7. 0here in the cell does translation occur!
(ranslation occurs at ri"osomes, which are either free in the cytoplasm or attached to the
rough 5/.
<. How are polypeptides modified after translation!
Aolypeptides have to "e folded into proteins> sometimes amino acids are cut out of the
chain, and sometimes multiple polypeptides :oin together.
7.@
1. 0hat are some reasons that cells regulate gene e%pression!
Arotein production costs a lot of energy> the regulation of gene e%pression avoids the
production of unnecessary proteins and therefore saves energy.
). How do proteins determine whether a "acterial operon is e%pressed!
A repressor protein "inds to an operator and prevents the genes in the operon from "eing
transcri"ed.
7. How do enhancers and transcription factors interact to regulate gene e%pression!
(ranscription factors "ind to certain DA se6uences to regulate transcription, for
e%ample "y preparing a promoter site to "ind /A polymerase. (ranscription wont
occur without these factors. 5nhancers are se6uences of DA outside of the promoter.
(ranscription factors can "ind to the enhancers to help regulate gene e%pression.
<. 0hat are some other ways that a cell controls which genes are e%pressed!
+ells can keep DA coiled or attach methyl groups to inactivate genes. During
transcription different introns can "e spliced out. m/A can "e contained in the nucleus
or rapidly degraded. Aroteins can also "e degraded or modified in processing.
7.7
1. 0hat is a mutation!
A mutation is a change in the DA se6uence of a cell.
). 0hat are the types of mutations, and how does each alter the encoded protein!
A point mutation changes one or a few "ase pairs of genes. Aoint mutations include
su"stitution mutations 1which replace one DA "ase for another2, insertions, and
deletions. Bu"stitution mutations might change one amino acid to another in the encoded
protein 1which is called a missense mutation2, might change an amino acid to a stop
codon 1which is called a nonsense mutation2, or might not change an amino acid 1which
is called a silent mutation2. &nsertions of deletions of more or fewer than three nucleotides
will shift the ,reading frame- of the gene> these frameshift mutations might alter many
amino acids in the protein, drastically changing its shape and function. An insertion of
three nucleotides adds one amino acid to the encoded protein. A deletion of three
nucleotides removes one amino acid from the encoded protein. 5%panding repeat
mutations increase the num"er of copies of three#or four#nucleotide se6uences over
several generations. (his causes e%tra amino acids to "e inserted into a protein,
deforming it.
7. 0hat causes mutations!
'utations are caused "y DA replication errors, errors in crossing over during meiosis,
chromosome inversions and translocations, or e%posure to chemicals or radiation.
<. 0hat is the difference "etween a germline mutation and a somatic mutation!
A germline mutation is one that occurs in a cell that will give rise to a sperm or an egg
cell. A somatic mutation occurs within a non#germline "ody cell.
9. How are mutations important!
'utations are used to learn how genes normally function and to develop new varieties of
crop plants. 'utations can also "e used to trace the evolution of viruses and other
infectious agents.
7.C
1. How can the num"er of proteins encoded in DA e%ceed the num"er of genes in the
genome!
(he )9,??? or so genes can make <??,??? proteins in part "y changing which introns are
removed prior to splicing together the m/A.
). Dist some functions of the EC.9F of the human genome that does not specify protein.
Bome of the EC.9F of the human genome that does not code for protein encodes r/A,
t/A, and regulatory se6uences that control gene e%pression. &t also contains
pseudogenes that may "e remnants of non#functional DA that encoded proteins in our
ancestors> transposons 1transposa"le elements2 that :umped from "acteria and viruses to
humans> and tandem repeats of DA se6uences in telomeres, centromeres, and on the G
chromosome.
7.E
1. 0hat is recom"inant DA!
/ecom"inant DA is the com"ined DA from ) or more organisms.
). 0hat are transgenic organisms, and how are they useful!
(ransgenic organisms are organisms that contain recom"inant DA. (hey produce drugs
and other useful chemicals, degrade pollutants, incorporate pesticides in their tissues, are
models for medical research, and secrete human proteins.
7. 0hat are the steps in creating a recom"inant plasmid!
(he steps in creating a recom"inant plasmid include=
- using restriction en$ymes to cut out the gene se6uence from donor DA>
- cutting the plasmid with the same restriction en$ymes>
- allowing the donor se6uence to com"ine with the plasmid DA.
<. How do "acteria, plant, and animal cells take up recom"inant DA!
.acteria, plant, and animal cells are sometimes induced to take up recom"inant DA "y
e%posure to electricity. Bcientists also make cells take up new DA "y shooting it into
cells with gene guns, inserting it into liposomes, and inserting it as plasmids into "acteria
that enter plant cells and in:ect the plasmids.
7.1?
1. 0hat is gene therapy, and why is it difficult to accomplish!
Gene therapy replaces faulty genes in the genome with functioning copies. Bome
challenges are in directly delivering the gene to the specific cell that needs to e%press it,
having that e%pression last long enough to affect a cure, and not have the viral delivery
method trigger illness itself.
). How do antisense /A and gene knockouts silence genes!
Antisense /A silences genes "y adding an artificial complementary strand of /A to
m/A, making it a dou"le strand. /i"osomes cannot translate dou"le#stranded m/A.
Gene knockouts silence genes "y replacing a normal copy of a gene with a disa"led
version that will not "e transcri"ed.
7. How are DA microarrays useful!
DA microarrays can "e used to 6uickly determine whether a particular gene or protein
is present in a cell. &n more practical terms, they can tell how a cancer patient will
respond to a cancer drug and whether the drug will "e effective against the cancer. DA
microarrays also can "e used to predict how effective an anti"iotic will "e against a
particular strain of "acteria.
7.11
1. 0hat 6uestion a"out the FOXP2 gene were the researchers trying to answer!
/esearchers wanted to know what and when mutations arose in the FOXP2 gene. (hey
also wanted to know if these mutations could "e linked to human ac6uisition of language.
). 0hat insights could scientists gain "y intentionally mutating the FOXP2 gene in a
developing human! 0ould such an e%periment "e ethical!
;ne possi"le insight= /esearchers could mutate the FOXP2 gene so that it is non#
functional at different stages of development to learn whether it is actively important
through all of development or :ust in a critical window. Buch an e%periment would not
"e ethical.
Write It Out
1. Descri"e the three#dimensional structure of DA.
DA is a dou"le heli% that resem"les a twisted ladder. &n this molecule, the ,twin rails-
of the ladder are alternating units of deo%yri"ose and phosphate, and the ladders rungs
are A#( and G#+ "ase pairs :oined "y hydrogen "onds.
). How would the results of the Hershey*+hase e%periment have differed if protein were
the genetic material!
&f protein were the genetic material, the "acteria infected "y the sulfur#la"eled virus
would have "ecome radioactive.
7. 0rite the complementary DA se6uence of each of the following "ase se6uences=
a. ( + G A G A A ( + ( + G A ( (
". + + G ( A ( A G + + G G ( A +
c. A ( + G G A ( + G + ( A + ( G
(he complementary se6uences are=
a2 AG+(+((AGAG+(AA
"2 GG+A(A(+GG++A(G
c2 (AG++(AG+GA(GA+
<. Aut the following in order from smallest to largest= nucleotide, genome, nitrogenous
"ase, gene, nucleus, cell, codon, chromosome.
3rom smallest to largest, the order is nitrogenous "ase, nucleotide, codon, gene,
chromosome, nucleus, and cell.
9. 0hat is the function of DA!
(he function of much of the DA in a cell is not known, "ut some of it encodes the cells
/A and proteins.
@. Dist the differences "etween /A and DA.
/A nucleotides contain a sugar called ri"ose> DA nucleotides contain a similar sugar
called deo%yri"ose. /A has the nitrogenous "ase uracil, which "ehaves similarly to the
thymine in DA # that is, "oth uracil and thymine form complementary "ase pairs with
adenine. /A can "e single#stranded> DA is dou"le#stranded. /A can cataly$e
chemical reactions, a role not known for DA.
7. Define and distinguish "etween transcription and translation. 0here in a eukaryotic
cell does each process occur!
(ranscription copies the information encoded in a DA "ase se6uence into the
complementary language of m/A. ;nce transcription is complete and m/A is
processed, the cell is ready to translate the m/A message into a se6uence of amino
acids that "uilds a protein. (ranscription occurs in the nucleus, and translation occurs at
ri"osomes in the cytoplasm.
C. (his chapter compared a chromosome to a cook"ook and a gene to a recipe. Dist the
ways that chromosomes and genes are HD&I5 cook"ooks and recipes.
Bome differences could include= Hnlike a cook"ook, most of DA in a chromosome is
noncoding. Hnlike a recipe there are introns in a gene. Gou cant cut out parts of the
recipe and put together the rest in various ways to make multiple food products.
E. Bome people compare DA to a "lueprint stored in the office of a construction
company. 5%plain how this analogy would e%tend to transcription and translation.
(ranscription would "e the process of scanning or copying the "lueprints so that the
contractor would have a set at the construction site. (ranslation would "e the process of
the contractor directing the assem"ly of all the raw materials at the site into the finished
"uilding.
1?. Dist the three ma:or types of /A and their functions.
'essenger /A 1m/A2 carries the information that specifies a protein. /i"osomal
/A 1r/A2 com"ines with proteins to form a ri"osome, the physical location of protein
synthesis. (ransfer /A 1t/A2= molecules are ,connectors- that "ind m/A codons at
one end and specific amino acids at the other. (heir role is to carry each amino acid to the
ri"osome at the correct spot along the m/A molecule.
11. Dist the se6uences of the m/A molecules transcri"ed from the following template
DA se6uences=
a. ( ( A + A + ( ( G + ( ( G A G A G ( (
". G G A A ( A + G ( + ( A G + ( A G + A
(he complementary se6uences are=
a2 AAHGHGAA+GAA+H+H+AA>
"2 ++HHAHG+AGAH+GAH+GH
1). Given the following partial m/A se6uences, reconstruct the corresponding DA
template se6uences=
a. G H G G + G H A H H + H H H H + + G G G H A G G
". A G G A A A A + + + + H + H H A H H A H A G A H
(he complementary se6uences are=
a2 +A++G+A(AAGAAAAGG+++A(++>
"2 (++((((GGGGAGAA(AA(A(+(A
17. /efer to the figure to answer these 6uestions=
a. Add la"els for m/A 1including the 9 and 7 ends2 and t/A. &n addition, draw the
/A polymerase en$yme and the ri"osomes, including arrows indicating the direction of
movement for each.
". 0hat are the ne%t three amino acids to "e added to peptide b?
c. 3ill in the nucleotides in the m/A complementary to the template DA strand.
d. 0hat is the se6uence of the DA complementary to the template strand 1as much as
can "e determined from the figure2!
e. Does this figure show the entire peptide that this gene encodes! How can you tell!
f. 0hat might happen to peptide b after its release from the ri"osome!
g. Does this figure depict a prokaryotic or a eukaryotic cell! How can you tell!
a. /efer to figures 7.11 1(ranscription of /A from DA2 and 7.1@ 1(ranslation
+reates the Arotein2.
". Dys#Gly#Ber
c. (he remaining m/A nucleotides are 1from left to right2= +HHAGGA+A++
d. (he complementary DA se6uence is 1from left to right2= +((AGGA+A++
e. o, "ecause the last codon would "e a stop codon 1HAA, HAG, or HGA2
f. (he peptide would fold into its proper shape and then either "egin performing its
function in the cell or "e e%ported to the cells e%terior.
g. (he figure depicts a prokaryotic cell. &n eukaryotes, the m/A is fully synthesi$ed
in the nucleus, undergoes processing, and then is transcri"ed in the cytoplasm.
(he figure shows translation occurring simultaneously with transcription, which
only occurs in prokaryotes.
1<. +onsult the genetic code to write codon changes that could account for the following
changes in amino acid se6uence.
a. tryptophan to arginine
". glycine to valine
c. tyrosine to histidine
a2 HGG to +GG> "2 GGH to GHH> GG+ to GH+> GGA to GHA> GGG to GHG> c2 HAH
to +AH> HA+ to +A+
19. (itin is a muscle protein whose gene has the largest known coding se6uenceJC?,7C1
DA "ases. How many amino acids long is titin!
(he titan protein is )@,E)7 amino acids 1C?,7C1 nucleotides divided "y 7 nucleotides per
amino acid2.
1@. &f a protein is 1)9E amino acids long, what is the minimum si$e of the gene that
encodes the protein! 0hy might the gene "e longer than the minimum!
1)9E % 7 K 7,777 "ases plus three "ases for stop codon K 7,7C? "ases. (he gene would
have "ases for the leader se6uence on the m/A and might include any num"er of
introns.
17. ;n the television program The X Files, Agent Bcully discovers an e%traterrestrial life
form that has a triplet genetic code "ut with five different "ases instead of the four of
earthly inha"itants. How many different amino acids can this code specify!
1)9 19%9%92
1C. A mouses genome has 19?? olfactory genes encoding proteins that ena"le the animal
to detect odors. &n each olfactory sensory neuron, only one of these genes is e%pressed>
the others remain ,off.- Dist all of the ways that a mouse cell might silence the unneeded
genes.
(he mouse cell can keep DA coiled or attach methyl groups to inactivate genes. During
transcription different introns can "e spliced out. 'essenger /A can "e contained in
the nucleus or rapidly degraded. (he proteins can also "e degraded.
1E. (he genome of the human immunodeficiency virus 1H&L2 includes nine genes. (wo
of the genes encode four different proteins each. How is this possi"le!
(he genes each contain several introns. (o make each protein, a different com"ination of
introns are cut out with the remaining m/A spliced together.
)?. (he shape of a finchs "eak reflects the e%pression of a gene that encodes a protein
called calmodulin. A cactus finch has a long, pointy "eak> its cells e%press the gene more
than a ground finch, which has a short, deep "eak. 0hen researchers "oosted gene
e%pression in a ground finch em"ryo, the "irds upper "eak was longer than normal.
Develop a hypothesis that e%plains this finding.
&n the cactus finch the enhancer for the calmodulin gene is modified so that the
transcription factors work longer, causing a prolonged e%pression of the gene.
)1. &f a gene is like a cake recipe, then a mutation is like a cake recipe containing an
error. Dist the ma:or types of mutations, and descri"e an analogous error in a cake recipe.
a2 missense= instead of "aking soda the recipe lists "aking powder "2 nonsense= a recipe
that cuts off after a partial list of ingredients c2 frameshift= flour, wate, regg, ssuga, rsal
etc. d2 deletion of three "ases= a recipe that leaves out one ingredient e2 duplication= a
recipe that lists an ingredient twice f2 insertion= a recipe that lists one e%tra ingredient g2
e%panding repeat= a recipe that lists an ingredient repeatedly.
)). A protein#encoding region of a gene has the following DA se6uence=
G ( A G + G ( + A + A A A + A A A ( + A G + ( +
Determine how each of the following mutations alters the amino acid se6uence=
a. su"stitution of a ( for the + in the 1?th position
". su"stitution of a G for the + in the 1Eth position
c. insertion of a ( "etween the <th and 9th DA "ases
d. insertion of a G(A "etween the 1)th and 17th DA "ases
e. deletion of the first DA nucleotide
a. Aoint mutation> instead of incorporating the amino acid valine, the protein would
incorporate isoleucine.
". Aoint mutation> instead of incorporating the amino acid valine, the protein would
incorporate leucine.
c. 3rame shift mutation> arginine is replaced "y glutamine, and the remainder of the
protein is disrupted.
d. &nsertion mutation> the amino acid histidine is added within the protein.
e. 3rame shift mutation> the entire protein is disrupted.
)7. 5%plain how a mutation in a protein#encoding gene, an enhancer, or a gene encoding
a transcription factor can all have the same effect on an organism.
A mutation in the gene can lead to a polypeptide that is too short or has the wrong amino
acids> in either case it will not fold properly, and therefore will not function properly.
(his means that the organism will not e%press the effects of that protein. (his same result
can "e achieved "y mutation to the transcription factor so that it does not "ind to the
gene, or conversely "y mutating the enhancer so that a normal transcription factor cannot
"ind. .oth mutations will "lock transcription.
)<. How can a mutation alter the se6uence of DA "ases in a gene "ut not produce a
noticea"le change in the genes polypeptide product! How can a mutation alter the amino
acid se6uence of a polypeptide yet not alter the organism!
A mutation may alter the se6uence of a gene "ut not produce a noticea"le change in the
genes polypeptide se6uence "ecause several different codons encode most amino acids.
A mutation may alter the amino acid se6uence "ut not alter the phenotype "ecause the
proteins shape may not change, other proteins may take over the altered proteins
function, or the protein may not "e essential.
)9. Aarkinson disease causes rigidity, tremors, and other motor symptoms. ;nly )F of
cases are inherited, and these tend to have an early onset of symptoms. Bome inherited
cases result from mutations in a gene that encodes the protein parkin, which has 1)
e%ons. &ndicate whether each of the following mutations in the parkin gene would result
in a smaller protein, a larger protein, or no change in the si$e of the protein.
a. deletion of e%on 7
". deletion of si% consecutive nucleotides in e%on 1
c. duplication of e%on 9
d. disruption of the splice site "etween e%on C and intron C
e. deletion of intron )
a2 smaller protein "2 smaller protein c2 larger protein d2 no change e2 no change
)@. &n a disorder called gyrate atrophy, cells in the retina "egin to degenerate in late
adolescence, causing night "lindness that progresses to "lindness. (he cause is a mutation
in the gene that encodes an en$yme, ornithine aminotransferase 1;A(2. /esearchers
se6uenced the OAT gene for five patients with the following results=
M Aatient A= A change in codon )?E of HAH to HAA
M Aatient .= A change in codon )EE of HA+ to HAG
M Aatient += A change in codon <)@ of +GA to HGA
M Aatient D= A two#nucleotide deletion at codons @< and @9 that results in a HGA
codon at position 7E
M Aatient 5= 5%on @, including 1?71 nucleotides, is entirely deleted.
a. 0hich patient1s2 have a frameshift mutation!
". How many amino acids is patient 5 missing!
c. 0hich patient1s2 will produce a shortened protein!
a2 patient D "2 797 c2 all will produce a shortened protein
)7. /esearchers use computer algorithms that search DA se6uences for indications of
speciali$ed functions. 5%plain the significance of detecting the following se6uences=
a. a promoter
". a se6uence of 79 to C? nucleotides that folds into a cloverleaf shape
c. a gene with a se6uence very similar to that of a known protein coding gene "ut that is
not translated into protein
d. /As with poly A tails
a2 a promoter will signal the start of a gene "2 these nucleotides comprise a t/A
molecule c2 this could "e a pseudogene d2 the poly A tails signal an m/A
)C. How do researchers create recom"inant DA and transgenic organisms, and what are
some applications of this technology!
/estriction en$ymes are proteins that cut dou"le stranded DA at a specific "ase
se6uence. .iologists use these en$ymes to cut segments of DA from different sources.
0hen plasmid and donor DA is cut with the same restriction en$yme and the fragments
are mi%ed, the single stranded sticky ends of the plasmids "ase pair up with those of the
donor DA. DA ligase then seals the segments together. (ransgenic organisms contain
recom"inant DA and have a variety of practical uses, including agricultural and
pharmaceutical production.
)E. (ransgenic crops often re6uire fewer her"icides and insecticides than conventional
crops. &n that respect, they could "e considered environmentally friendly. Hse the &nternet
to research the 6uestion of why some environmental groups oppose transgenic
technology.
;ne argument is that interfering with another species is unethical. A second argument is
that the repercussions on the natural environment are unknown. A third argument is that
transgenic organisms may escape into the natural ecosystem. (here are other arguments
as well.
7?. Define gene therapy, antisense RNA, gene knockout, and DNA microarray.
Gene therapy is the removal of a faulty gene and replacement with a functioning copy.
Antisense /A is the complement to the sense strand. Gene knockout is a techni6ue that
renders a gene nonfunctional in an organism so that the effects of the gene can "e
learned. DA microarray is a chip with many short DA se6uences im"edded. (he
chip then "inds complimentary pieces of an unknown DA se6uence so that it can "e put
in order.
71. 0hich "iotechnology might "e a"le to accomplish the following goals! 'ore than
one answer may "e possi"le.
a. Bhut off H&L genes integrated into the chromosomes of people with H&L infection
1which leads to A&DB2.
". +reate "acteria that produce human growth hormone, used to treat e%tremely short
stature.
1a2 Antisense /A or gene knockout technology. 1"2 /ecom"inant DA 1transgenic2
technology.
7). 5%plain the ethical issues that gene therapy presents.
(here are many issues, some of which could include= who decides which genes need to
"e changed and are not normal, will the technology "e misused to create custom children,
and will the technology "e availa"le to all.
77. 'any patients waste precious time taking anticancer drugs that are ineffective or too
to%ic. How might DA microarray technology refine the treatment of cancer!
DA microarray technology might "etter ena"le doctors to identify a particular cancer so
that the appropriate treatment can "egin immediately.
7<. A young $e"ra finch must learn to sing. /esearchers used a modified virus to deliver
a ,mirror image- of the FOXP2 gene to the "rain of a young finch. 0ith the FOXP2 gene
silenced, the "irds song#learning a"ility was impaired. 0hy did the treatment silence the
gene! How does this e%periment relate to the study of human language!
(he treatment knocked out the normal FOXP2 gene. (his relates to human language,
since like "irds, humans cannot ac6uire proper language skills in the a"sence of a
functioning FOXP2 gene.
79. +hoose an e%periment mentioned in the chapter and analy$e how it follows the
scientific method.
(he Hershey#+hase e%periment is one e%ample that illustrates the scientific method.
(heir question was which molecule in the cell 1DA or protein2 contained the genetic
material. (heir hypothesis was that DA was the genetic material of a cell. (hey
designed an experiment using a virus that infects the "acterium scherichia coli. (hey
la"eled two "atches of this virus, one with radioactive sulfur that marked protein, and the
other with radioactive phosphorus that marked DA. (hey allowed the viruses to infect
two separate "atches of "acteria. (hey then agitated each mi%ture in a "lender, poured
these mi%tures into test tu"es, and then spun them at high speeds to separate the viral
protein coats from the infected "acteria in each tu"e. Hershey and +hase then collected
their data "y e%amining the contents of the test tu"es. &n the test tu"e containing sulfur#
la"eled virus, the "acteria were not radioactive, "ut the fluid portion of the material in the
test tu"e was. &n the tu"e where the virus contained radioactive phosphorus, the infected
"acteria were radioactive, "ut the fluid was not. Hershey and +hase therefore concluded
that the part of the virus that entered the "acteria was the part with the phosphorus la"el *
the DA.
7@. Give an e%ample from the chapter of different types of e%periments used to address
the same hypothesis. 0hy might this "e necessary!
.oth the e%periment "y Avery, 'acleod, and 'c+arty and the e%periment "y Hershey
and +hase supported the conclusion that DA is the "iochemical of heredity. Hsing
multiple lines of evidence helps strengthen a conclusion.
Pull It Together
1. 0hy is protein production essential to cell function!
+ell structure and function depend on proteins. 5n$ymes are proteins and are re6uired
for almost all chemical reactions to occur within a cell. 0ithout en$ymes, the cell could
not synthesi$e A(A, which the cell uses for energy. &n addition, proteins em"edded
within cell mem"ranes have several important functions such as adhesion, cell
recognition, and transport of water#solu"le molecules> without protein production new
cell mem"rane proteins could not "e produced when the cell divides.
). 0here do promoters, terminators, stop codons, transcription factors, /A
polymerase, and enhancers fit into this concept map!
.oth ,transcription factors- and ,/A polymerase- can connect to ,promoters- with
,"ind to-. .oth ,promoters- and ,terminators- can lead to ,DA- with the connecting
phrase ,are non#coding se6uences of-. ,Aromoters- can also lead to ,transcription- with
,signals the starting point for-. ,(erminators- can also lead to ,transcription- with
,signals the end point for-. Bimilarly, ,stop codons- can lead to ,translation- with ,ends
the process of-. 3inally, ,(ranscription factors- can lead to ,5nhancers- with ,"ind to-.
7. How do transgenic organisms fit into this concept map!
,(ransgenic organisms- could lead to ,genetic code- with ,have an artificially
modified-
<. Hse the concept map to e%plain why a mutation in DA sometimes causes protein
function to change. 0hen a mutation occurs it can cause a change in the DA se6uence.
&f the change in the DA se6uence leads to a change in the amino acid se6uence that it
codes for there will "e a change in the protein or a faulty protein could "e produced.
(herefore, mutations could lead to change in protein structure which means a change in
protein function. &f the mutation is neutral, the mutation codes for the same amino acid
se6uence, there would "e no change in protein function.