I.

Methods, Process and Equipments involved in handling of solids

A. FEEDERS & STORAGE SILOS
. FEEDERS are machineries used in assembly and manufacturing applications to move or transport
materials or products to a designated storage or to other processing equipment.
Types of Feeders
Rotary feeders, also known as rotary airlocks or rotary valves, are commonly used in industrial and
agricultural applications as a component in a bulk or specialty material handling system. Rotary feeders
are primarily used for discharge of bulk solid material from hoppers/bins, receivers, and cyclones into a
pressure or vacuum-driven pneumatic conveying system. Components of a rotary feeder include a rotor
shaft, housing, head plates, and packing seals and bearings. Rotors have large vanes cast or welded on
and are typically driven by small internal combustion engines or electric motors.
Rotary airlock feeders have wide application in industry wherever dry free-flowing powders, granules,
crystals, or pellets are used. Typical materials include: cement, ore, sugar, minerals, grains, plastics,
dust, fly ash, flour, gypsum, lime, coffee, cereals, pharmaceuticals, etc.
Industries requiring this type include cement, asphalt, chemical, mining, plastics, food, etc.
Rotary feeders are ideal for pollution control applications in wood, grain, food, textile, paper, tobacco,
rubber, and paint industries, the Standard Series works beneath dust collectors and cyclone separators
even with high temperatures and different pressure differentials.
Rotary valves are available with square or round inlet and outlet flanges. Housing can be fabricated out
of sheet material or cast. Common materials are cast iron, carbon steel, 304 SS, 316 SS, and other
materials. Rotary airlock feeders are often available in standard and heavy duty models, the difference
being the head plate and bearing configuration. Heavy duty models use an outboard bearing in which
the bearings are moved out away from the head plate. Housing inlet and discharge configurations are
termed drop-thru or side entry. Different wear protections are available such as hard chrome or ceramic
plating on the inner housing surfaces. Grease and air purge fittings are often provided to prevent
contaminants from entering the packing seals.
Rotary airlock
The basic use of the rotary airlock feeder is as an airlock transition point, sealing pressurized systems
against loss of air or gas while maintaining a flow of material between components with different
pressure and suitable for air lock applications ranging from gravity discharge of filters, rotary valves,
cyclone dust collectors, and rotary airlock storage devices to precision feeders for dilute phase and
continuous dense phase pneumatic convey systems.
Rotary valve
Rotary airlock feeders/ rotary airlock valves are used in pneumatic conveying systems, dust control
equipment, and as volumetric feed-controls.
Volumetric feeder
Rotary airlock valves are also widely used as volumetric feeders for metering materials at precise flow
rates from bins, hoppers, or silos onto conveying or processing systems.
Types of rotary feeder
Rotary airlock feeders
Drop through rotary airlock feeders are designed for rugged applications that require an outboard
bearing style unit where contamination and /or an abrasive product cannot be handled with an inboard
bearing style. The outboard bearing feeders is engineered for use in high pressure pneumatic conveying
systems, with high temperatures where more of an effective seal is required due to high or excessive
wear that is experienced with a simple dust collector.
Blow-thru rotary airlock feeder
The blow-thru rotary airlock feeder is ideal for pneumatic conveying applications in food, grain,
chemical, milling, baking, plastics and pharmaceutical industries. The blow-thru airlocks feature a low
profile with large capacity. High pressure differentials integral mounting feet, and retrofit competitive
units. The blow-thru valves are available with 10-vane open-end rotor; outboard bearings and
replaceable shaft seals.
Easy clean rotary feeder
The easy-clean series rotary feeders can be fast and simply disassembled, thoroughly quick cleaned,
sanitized and inspected or maintenance in a minimum amount of time without the use of tools or
removal from service, thereby reducing downtime and increasing system production. Reassembly
without tools is accomplished in minutes. Internal clearances are automatically re-established every
time.
The Clean-in-place rotary feeder is a special purpose valve designed for where cross-contamination is a
major concern and lengthy shut-downs for clean-out are cost-prohibitive, suited for Dairy,
Pharmaceutical industries, Food, Baking, Chemical, Plastics, Paint, and Powder Coating plants.
It is ideal for batch mixing systems such as those handling different colored resins which demand regular
cleaning between cycles.
Filter valve
The filter valve is a low-cost solution designed for light duty dust collector applications.
Knife rotary feeder
This type of feeder is used for discharge of secondary fuel as for example: plastics or wood. The knife is
cutting the oversize material and is preventing the rotor from blockage.


Vibratory Feeders-use both vibration and gravity to move material used to transport a large number of
smaller object suncontrolled recovery of the material from top of feeder controlled delivery of the
material from bottom of feeder
How It Works
Example: PILL BOTTLING SYSTEM a large batch of pills is dumped into the top of the vibratory feeder
gravity will pull the pills toward the bottom of the feeder where they can exit one at a time so that they
can be counted once the correct number is in the container, the feed is stopped until a new bottle is
placed in position
Screw Feeders-used for handling bulk materials, in which a rotating helicoid screw moves the material
forward, toward and into a process unit, very similar to screw conveyors in their basic structure, both of
which are based on the principles of the Archimedean screwcapable of delivering dense slurries and dry
granular products with great accuracy at a range of operational speedsdrive is controlled
by servo motors capable of precise stop-start and speed control
Volumetric Screw Feeders- amount of material transported is carefully calculated and controlled by
adjusting the speed at which the screw turns. very accurate feed values to be maintained rotational
speed may be preset or constantly adjusted GRAVIMETRIC SCREW FEEDER delivery rate is controlled by
adjusting the rate at which the material is introduced into the machine
Apron Feeders- a limited-length version of apron conveyor also known as plate-belt feeder; plate feeder,
allows automatic control the volume of materials that are added to a process construct is from heavy,
durable materials like steel .The belt portion of the apron feeder is made from thick steel trays or pans
can be found in mining operations, factories, and concrete plants cannot be used in applications where
precise feeding and measuring is required
How It Works
Materials that will be carried by the apron feeder are held in a large hopper above one end of the belt.
The amount of material that reaches the feeder is determined by the distance between this hopper and
the top of the feeder. As the hopper deposits materials onto the apron feeder, the metal pans that make
up the belt travel horizontally like a conveyor belt. When the trays reach the end of the belt, they dump,
or feed the materials into another vessel.
Bowl Feeders-used to feed parts to an assembly line or piece of manufacturing equipment individual
components exit the feeder at specific intervals and enter the next step in the assembly process. Each
bowl feeder uses special sensors to spot jams or parts that may be misaligned, one drawback is its
precise operation.
How It Works
In a standard application: the bowl feeder sits below a hopper or binworkers fill the hopper with bulk
material, and these objects fall into the feeder below
Types of Bowl Feeders
Cylindrical Material Aluminum/Steel/Stainless Steel Suitable for:Continuous transport of components
and for handling small parts
ConicalMaterialAluminum/Stainless SteelSuitable for:Heavy sharp-edged componentsLarger
LoadsAutomatic pre-separating
SteppedMaterialAluminum/Stainless SteelSuitable for:Larger loads and larger componentsSimilar to
conical bowls
Polyamide bowl (conical or stepped)Suitable for:Small components with simple geometry and where
mass production of feeders is required
STORAGE SILOS
A silo is a structure for storing bulk materials. Silos are used in agriculture to store grain (see grain
elevators) or fermented feed known as silage. Silos are more commonly used for bulk storage of
grain, coal, cement, carbon black, woodchips, food products and sawdust. Three types of silos are in
widespread use today - tower silos, bunker silos and bag silos. Missile silos are used for the storage and
launching of ballistic missiles.
Types of Silos
Cement storage silos
There are different types of cement silos such as the low-level mobile silo and the static upright cement
silo, which are used to hold and discharge cement and other powder materials such as PFA (Pulverised
Fuel Ash). The low-level silos are fully mobile with capacities from 10 to 75 tons. They are simple to
transport and are easy to set up on site. These mobile silos generally come equipped with an electronic
weighing system with digital display and printer. This allows any quantity of cement or powder
discharged from the silo to be controlled and also provides an accurate indication of what remains
inside the silo. The static upright silos have capacities from 20 to 80 tons. These are considered a low-
maintenance option for the storage of cement or other powders. Cement silos can be used in
conjunction with bin-fed batching plants.
Tower silo
Storage silos are cylindrical structures, typically 10 to 90 ft (4 to 30 m) in diameter and 30 to 275 ft (10 to
84 m) in height with the slipform and Jumpform concrete silos being the larger diameter and taller silos.
They can be made of many materials. Wood staves, concrete staves, cast concrete, and steel panels
have all been used, and have varying cost, durability, and airtightness tradeoffs. Silos storing grain,
cement and woodchips are typically unloaded with air slides or augers. Silos can be unloaded into rail
cars, trucks or conveyors.
Tower silos containing silage are usually unloaded from the top of the pile, originally by hand using a
silage fork, which has many more tines than the common pitchfork, 12 vs 4, in modern times using
mechanical unloaders. Bottom silo unloaders are utilized at times but have problems with difficulty of
repair.
An advantage of tower silos is that the silage tends to pack well due to its own weight, except in the top
few feet. However, this may be a disadvantage for items like chopped wood. The tower silo was
invented by Franklin Hiram King.
In Canada, Australia and the United States, many country towns or the larger farmers in grain-growing
areas have groups of wooden or concrete tower silos, known as grain elevators, to collect grain from the
surrounding towns and store and protect the grain for transport by train, truck or barge to a processor
or to an export port. In bumper crop times, the excess grain is stored in piles without silos or bins,
causing considerable losses.
Concrete stave silos
Concrete stave silos are constructed from small precast concrete blocks with ridged grooves along each
edge that lock them together into a high strength shell. Much of concrete's strength comes from its high
incompressibility, so the silo is held together by steel hoops encircling the tower and compressing the
staves into a tight ring. The vertical stacks are held together by intermeshing of the ends of the staves by
a short distance around the perimeter of each layer, and hoops which are tightened directly across the
stave edges.
The static pressure of the material inside the silo pressing outward on the staves increases towards the
bottom of the silo, so the hoops can be spaced wide apart near the top but become progressively more
closely spaced towards the bottom to prevent seams from opening and the contents leaking out.
Concrete stave silos are built from common components designed with high strength and long life. They
have the flexibility to have their height increased according to the needs of the farm and purchasing
power of the farmer, or to be completely disassembled and reinstalled somewhere else if no longer
needed.
Low-oxygen tower silos
Low-oxygen silos are designed to keep the contents in a low-oxygen atmosphere at all times, to keep the
fermented contents in a high quality state, and to prevent mold and decay, as may occur in the top
layers of a stave silo or bunker. Low-oxygen silos are only opened directly to the atmosphere during the
initial forage loading, and even the unloader chute is sealed against air infiltration.
It would be expensive to design a such a large structure that is immune to atmospheric pressure
changes over time. Instead, the silo structure is open to the atmosphere but outside air is separated
from internal air by large impermeable bags sealed to the silo breather openings. In the warmth of the
day when the silo is heated by the sun, the gas trapped inside the silo expands and the bags "breathe
out" and collapse. At night the silo cools, the air inside contracts and the bags "breathe in" and expand
again.
While the iconic blue Harvestore low-oxygen silos were once very common, the speed of its unloader
mechanism was not able to match the output rates of modern bunker silos, and this type of silo went
into decline. Unloader repair expenses also severely hurt the Harvestore reputation, because the
unloader feed mechanism is located in the bottom of the silo under tons of silage. In the event of cutter
chain breakage, it can cost up to US$10,000 to perform repairs. The silo may need to be partially or
completely emptied by alternate means, to unbury the broken unloader retrieve broken components
lost in the silage at the bottom of the structure.
In 2005 the Harvestore company recognized these issues and worked to develop new unloaders with
double the flow rate of previous models to stay competitive with bunkers, and with far greater unloader
chain strength. They are now also using load sensing soft-start variable frequency drive motor
controllers to reduce the likelihood of mechanism breakage, and to control the feeder sweep arm
movement.
While the sight of multiple tall silos may look impressive, many have been abandoned for silage use, or
converted to hold grain. Ground-level bunker silos carry none of the hazards outlined above, and need
only a standard tractor/loader to feed out with, and no specialized machinery.
Bunker silos
Bunker silos are trenches, usually with concrete walls, that are filled and packed with tractors and
loaders. The filled trench is covered with a plastic tarp to make it airtight. These silos are usually
unloaded with a tractor and loader. They are inexpensive and especially well suited to very large
operations.
Bag silos
Bag silos are heavy plastic tubes, usually around 8 to 12 ft in diameter, and of variable length as required
for the amount of material to be stored. They are packed using a machine made for the purpose, and
sealed on both ends. They are unloaded using a tractor and loader or skid-steer loader. The bag is
discarded in sections as it is torn off. Bag silos require little capital investment. They can be used as a
temporary measure when growth or harvest conditions require more space, though some farms use
them every year.


Bins
A bin is typically much shorter than a silo, and is typically used for holding dry matter such as concrete or
grain. Bins may be round or square, but round bins tend to empty more easily due to a lack of corners
for the stored material to become wedged and encrusted.
The stored material may be powdered, as seed kernels, or as cob corn. Due to the dry nature of the
stored material, it tends to be lighter than silage and can be more easily handled by under-floor grain
unloaders. To facilitate drying after harvesting, some grain bins contain a hollow perforated or screened
central shaft to permit easier air infiltration into the stored grain.
Sand and salt silos
Sand and salt for winter road maintenance are stored in conical dome-shaped silos. These are more
common in North America, namely in Canada and the United States.


B. Conveyors and Conveying System
A conveyor system is a common piece of mechanical handling equipment that moves materials from one
location to another. Conveyors are especially useful in applications involving the transportation of heavy
or bulky materials. Conveyor systems allow quick and efficient transportation for a wide variety of
materials, which make them very popular in the material handling and packaging industries. Many kinds
of conveying systems are available, and are used according to the various needs of different industries.
There are chain conveyors (floor and overhead) as well. Chain conveyors consist of enclosed tracks, I-
Beam, towline, power & free, and hand pushed trolleys.
Industries that use conveyor systems
Conveyor systems are used widespread across a range of industries due to the numerous benefits they
provide.Conveyors are able to safely transport materials from one level to another, which when done by
human labor would be strenuous and expensive.They can be installed almost anywhere, and are much
safer than using a forklift or other machine to move materials. They can move loads of all shapes, sizes
and weights. Also, many have advanced safety features that help prevent accidents. There are a variety
of options available for running conveying systems, including the hydraulic, mechanical and fully
automated systems, which are equipped to fit individual needs.
Conveyor systems are commonly used in many industries, including the automotive,
agricultural, computer, electronic, food processing, aerospace, pharmaceutical, chemical, bottling and
canning, print finishing and packaging. Although a wide variety of materials can be conveyed, some of
the most common include food items such as beans and nuts, bottles and cans, automotive
components, scrap metal, pills and powders, wood and furniture and grain and animal feed. Many
factors are important in the accurate selection of a conveyor system. It is important to know how the
conveyor system will be used beforehand. Some individual areas that are helpful to consider are the
required conveyor operations, such as transportation, accumulation and sorting, the material sizes,
weights and shapes and where the loading and pickup points need to be.
Types of conveyor systems
Gravity roller conveyor
Gravity skatewheel conveyor
Belt conveyor
Wire mesh conveyors
Plastic belt conveyors
Bucket conveyors
Flexible conveyors
Vertical conveyors
Spiral conveyors
Vibrating conveyors
Pneumatic conveyors
Electric Track Vehicle Systems
Belt driven live roller conveyors
Lineshaft roller conveyor
Chain conveyor
Screw conveyor aka Auger conveyor
Chain driven live roller conveyor
Overhead conveyors
Dust proof conveyors
Pharmaceutical conveyors
Automotive conveyors
Overland conveyor
Drag Conveyor
Pneumatic conveyor systems
Every pneumatic system, would makes use of pipes or ducts called transportation lines that carry
mixture of materials and a stream of air. These materials are such as dry pulverized or free flowing or
light powdery materials like cement, fly ash etc. These materials can be transported conveniently to
various destinations by means of a stream of high velocity air through pipe lines. Products are moved
through various tubes via air pressure, allowing for extra vertical versatility. Pneumatic conveyors are
either carrier systems or dilute-phase systems; carrier systems simply push items from one entry point
to one exit point, such as the money-exchanging tubes used at a bank drive-through window. Dilute-
phase systems use push-pull pressure to guide materials through various entry and/or exit points. It is
important to note that either air compressors, vacuums, or blowers can be used to generate the air. This
will all depend on what the engineers think will be the most efficient and economical way of developing
the system.[5] Three basic systems that are used to generate high velocity air stream:
Suction or vacuum systems, utilizing a vacuum created in the pipeline to draw the material with the
surrounding air. The system operated at a low pressure, which is practically 0.40.5 atm below
atmosphere, and is utilized mainly in conveying light free flowing materials.
Pressure-type systems, in which a positive pressure is used to push material from one point to the next.
The system is ideal for conveying material from one loading point to a number of unloading points. It
operates at a pressure of 6 atm and upwards.
Combination systems, in which a suction system is used to convey material from a number of loading
points and a pressure system is employed to deliver it to a number of unloading points.
Vibrating conveyor systems
A Vibrating Conveyor is a machine with a solid conveying surface which is turned up on the side to form
a trough. They are used extensively in food grade applications where sanitation, washdown, and low
maintenance are essential. Vibrating conveyors are also suitable for harsh, very hot, dirty, or corrosive
environments. They can be used to convey newly cast metal parts which may reach upwards of 1,500 F
(820 C). Due to the fixed nature of the conveying pans vibrating conveyors can also perform tasks such
as sorting, screening, classifying and orienting parts. Vibrating conveyors have been built to convey
material at angles exceeding 45 from horizontal using special pan shapes. Flat pans will convey most
materials at a 5 Incline from horizontal line.
Flexible conveyor systems
The flexible conveyor is based on a conveyor beam in aluminum or stainless steel, with low friction slide
rails guiding a plastic multi-flexing chain. Products to be conveyed travel directly on the conveyor, or on
pallets/carriers. These conveyors can be worked around obstacles and keep production lines flowing.
They are made at varying levels and can work in multiple environments. They are used in food
packaging, case packing, and pharmaceutical industries but also in retail stores such as Wal-
Mart and Kmart.[6]
Vertical conveyor systems and spiral conveyors
Vertical conveyor - also commonly referred to as freight lifts and material lifts - are conveyor systems
used to raise or lower materials to different levels of a facility during the handling process. Examples of
these conveyors applied in the industrial assembly process include transporting materials to different
floors. While similar in look to freight elevators, vertical conveyors are not equipped to transport
people, only materials.
Vertical lift conveyors contain two adjacent, parallel conveyors for simultaneous upward movement of
adjacent surfaces of the parallel conveyors. One of the conveyors normally has spaced apart flites for
transporting bulk food items. The dual conveyors rotate in opposite directions, but are operated from
one gear box to insure equal belt speed. One of the conveyors is pivotally hinged to the other conveyor
for swinging the pivotally attached conveyor away from the remaining conveyor for access to the facing
surfaces of the parallel conveyors.[7] Vertical lift conveyors can be manually or automatically loaded and
controlled.[8] Almost all vertical conveyors can be systematically integrated with horizontal conveyors,
since both of these conveyor systems work in tandem to create a cohesive material handling assembly
line.
In similarity to vertical conveyors, spiral conveyors raise and lower materials to different levels of a
facility. In contrast, spiral conveyors are able to transport material loads in a continuous flow. Industries
that require a higher output of materials - food and beverage, retail case packaging, pharmaceuticals -
typically incorporate these conveyors into their systems over standard vertical conveyors due to their
ability to facilitate high throughput. Most spiral conveyors also have a lower angle of incline or decline
(11 degrees or less) to prevent sliding and tumbling during operation.
Heavy duty roller conveyors
Heavy Duty roller conveyors are used for moving items that are at least 500 lbs. This type of conveyor
makes the handling of such heavy equipment/products easier and more time effective. Many of the
heavy duty roller conveyors can move as fast as 75 feet/minute.
Other types of heavy duty roller conveyors are gravity roller conveyor, chain driven live roller conveyor,
pallet accumulation conveyor, multi-strand chain conveyor, and chain & roller transfers.
Gravity roller conveyors are extremely easy to use and are used in many different types of industries
such as automotive and retail.
Chain driven live roller conveyors are used for single or bi-directional material handling. Large heavy
loads are moved by chain driven live roller conveyors.
Pallet accumulation conveyors are powered through a mechanical clutch. This is used instead of
individually powered and controlled sections of conveyors.
Multi-strand chain conveyors are used for double pitch roller chains. Products that can not be moved on
traditional roller conveyors can be moved by a multi-strand chain conveyor.
Chain & roller conveyors are short runs of two or more strands of double pitch chain conveyor built into
a chain driven line roller conveyor. These pop up under the load and move the load off of the conveyor.




C. Size Reduction of solids

Four commonly used methods for size reduction:
1). Compression; 2). Impact; 3). Attrition; 4). Cutting.
Principle of size reduction
Criteria for size reduction
An ideal crusher would (1) have a large capacity; (2) require a small power input per unit of product; and
(3) yield a product of the single size distribution desired.
Energy and power requirements in size reduction
The cost of power is a major expense in crushing and grinding, so the factors that control this cost are
important.
Crushing efficiency
Empirical relationships: Rittingers and Kicks law
The work required in crushing is proportional to the new surface created. This is equivalent to the
statement that the crushing efficiency is constant and, for a giving machine and material, is independent
of the sizes of feed and product. If the sphericities
a
(before size reduction) and
b
(after size
reduction) are equal and the machine efficiency is constant, the Rittingers law can be written as

where P is the power required, is the feed rate to crusher, is the average particle diameter
before crushing, is the average particle diameter after crushing, and K
r
is Rittingers coefficient.
Kicks law: the work required for crushing a given mass of material is constant for the same reduction
ratio, that is the ratio of the initial particle size to the finial particle size

where K
k
is Kicks coefficient.
Bond crushing law and work index
The work required to form particles of size D
p
from very large feed is proportional to the square root of
the surface-to-volume ratio of the product,s
p
/v
p
. Since
s
= 6/D
p
, it follows that

where K
b
is a constant that depends on the type of machine and on the material being crushed.
The work index, w
i
, is defined as the gross energy required in KWH per ton of feed to reduce a very large
feed to such a size that 80% of the product passes a 100 m screen. If Dp is in millimetres, P in KW,
and in tons per hour, then

If 80% of the feed passes a mesh size of D
pa
millimetres and 80% of the product a mesh
of Dpb millimetres, it follows that

Example: What is the power required to crush 100 ton/h of limestone if 80% of the feed pass a 2-in
screen and 80% of the product a 1/8 in screen? The work index for limestone is 12.74.
Solution: =100 ton/h, w
i
=12.74, D
pa
=2 25.4=50.8 mm, D
pb
=25.4/8=3.175 mm

Size reduction equipment
Size reduction equipment is divided into crushers, grinders, ultrafine grinders, and cutting
machines. Crusher do the heavy work of breaking large pieces of solid material into small lumps.
A primary crusher operates on run-of -mine material accepting anything that comes from mine face and
breaking it into 150 to 250 mm lumps. A secondary crusher reduces these lumps into particles perhaps
6mm in size. Grinders reduce crushed feed to powder. The product from an intermediate grinder might
pass a 40-mesh screen; most of the product from a fine grinder would pass a 200-mesh screen with a
74 m opening. An ultrafine grinder accepts feed particles no larger than 6mm and the product size is
typically 1 to 5 m. Cutters give particles of definite size and shape, 2 to 10mm in length.
The principal types of size-reduction machines are as follows:
A. Crushers (coarse and fine)
A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into smaller rocks, gravel, or rock dust.
Crushers may be used to reduce the size, or change the form, of waste materials so they can be more
easily disposed of orrecycled, or to reduce the size of a solid mix of raw materials (as in rock ore), so that
pieces of different composition can be differentiated. Crushing is the process of transferring a force
amplified by mechanical advantage through a material made of molecules that bond together more
strongly, and resist deformation more, than those in the material being crushed do. Crushing devices
hold material between two parallel or tangent solid surfaces, and apply sufficient force to bring the
surfaces together to generate enough energy within the material being crushed so that its molecules
separate from (fracturing), or change alignment in relation to (deformation), each other. The earliest
crushers were hand-held stones, where the weight of the stone provided a boost to muscle power, used
against a stone anvil. Querns and mortars are types of these crushing devices.

1. Jaw crushers
A jaw crusher uses compressive force for breaking of particle. This mechanical pressure is achieved by
the two jaws of the crusher of which one is fixed while the other reciprocates. A jaw or toggle crusher
consists of a set of vertical jaws, one jaw is kept stationary and is called a fixed jaw while the other jaw,
called a swing jaw, moves back and forth relative to it, by a cam or pitman mechanism, acting like a class
II lever or a nutcracker. The volume or cavity between the two jaws is called the crushing chamber. The
movement of the swing jaw can be quite small, since complete crushing is not performed in one stroke.
The inertia required to crush the material is provided by a weighted flywheel that moves a shaft creating
an eccentric motion that causes the closing of the gap.

2. Gyratory crushers
A gyratory crusher is similar in basic concept to a jaw crusher, consisting of a concave surface and a
conical head; both surfaces are typically lined with manganese steel surfaces. The inner cone has a slight
circular movement, but does not rotate; the movement is generated by an eccentric arrangement. As
with the jaw crusher, material travels downward between the two surfaces being progressively crushed
until it is small enough to fall out through the gap between the two surfaces.
A gyratory crusher is one of the main types of primary crushers in a mine or ore processing plant.
Gyratory crushers are designated in size either by the gape and mantle diameter or by the size of the
receiving opening. Gyratory crushers can be used for primary or secondary crushing. The crushing action
is caused by the closing of the gap between the mantle line (movable) mounted on the central vertical
spindle and the concave liners (fixed) mounted on the main frame of the crusher. The gap is opened and
closed by an eccentric on the bottom of the spindle that causes the central vertical spindle to gyrate.
The vertical spindle is free to rotate around its own axis. The crusher illustrated is a short-shaft
suspended spindle type, meaning that the main shaft is suspended at the top and that the eccentric is
mounted above the gear. The short-shaft design has superseded the long-shaft design in which the
eccentric is mounted below the gear.
3. Cone crusher
With the rapid development of mining technology, the cone crusher can be divided into four types:
compound cone crusher, spring cone crusher, hydraulic cone crusher and gyratory crusher. According to
different models, the cone crusher is divided into VSC series cone crusher(compound cone crusher),
Symons cone crusher, PY cone crusher, single cylinder hydraulic cone crusher, multi-cylinder hydraulic
cone crusher gyratory crusher, etc.
A cone crusher is similar in operation to a gyratory crusher, with less steepness in the crushing chamber
and more of a parallel zone between crushing zones. A cone crusher breaks rock by squeezing the rock
between an eccentrically gyrating spindle, which is covered by a wear resistant mantle, and the
enclosing concave hopper, covered by a manganese concave or a bowl liner. As rock enters the top of
the cone crusher, it becomes wedged and squeezed between the mantle and the bowl liner or concave.
Large pieces of ore are broken once, and then fall to a lower position (because they are now smaller)
where they are broken again. This process continues until the pieces are small enough to fall through
the narrow opening at the bottom of the crusher.
A cone crusher is suitable for crushing a variety of mid-hard and above mid-hard ores and rocks. It has
the advantage of reliable construction, high productivity, easy adjustment and lower operational costs.
The spring release system of a cone crusher acts an overload protection that allows tramp to pass
through the crushing chamber without damage to the crusher.

B. Grinders (intermediate and fine)
1. Hammer mills; impactors
2. Rolling-compression mills
3. Attrition mills
4. Tumbling mills
C. Ultrafine grinders
1. Hammer mills with internal classification
2. Fluid-energy mills
3. Agitated mills
D. Cutting machines
1. Knife cutters; dicers; slitters


D. Separation and Classification of Solids
Mechanical separations are performed based on the physical difference between particles such as size,
shape, or density. Mechanical separations are applicable to heterogeneous mixtures, not to
homogeneous solutions.
Screening
Screening is a method of separating particles according to size alone.
Undersize: fines, pass through the screen openings
Oversize: tails, do not pass
A single screen can make but a single separation into two fractions. These are called unsized fractions,
because although either the upper or lower limit of the particle sizes they contain is known, the other
limit is unknown. Material passed through a series of screens of different sizes is separated into sized
fractions, i.e. fractions in which both the maximum and minimum particle sizes are known.
Screening equipment
Stationary screens and grizzlies; Gyrating screens; Vibrating screens; Centrifugal sitter.
Cutting diameter Dpc: marks the point of separation, usually Dpc is chosen to be the mesh opening of
the screen.
Actual screens do not give a perfect separation about the cutting diameter. The undersize can contain
certain amount of material coarser than Dpc, and the oversize can contain certain amount of material
that is smaller than Dpc.
Material balances over a screen
Let F, D, and B be the mass flow rates of feed, overflow, and underflow, respectively, and xF, xD,
and xB be the mass fractions of material A in the streams. The mass fractions of material B in the feed,
overflow, and underflow are 1- xF, 1- xD, and 1- xB.
F = D + B
FxF = DxD + BxB
Elimination of B from the above equations gives

Elimination of D gives

Screen effectiveness
A common measure of screen effectiveness is the ratio of oversize material A that is actually in the
overflow to the amount of A entering with the feed. These quantities are DxD and FxF respectively. Thus

where EA is the screen effectiveness based on the oversize. Similarly, an effectiveness EB based on the
undersize materials is given by

A combined overall effectiveness can be defined as the product of the two individual ratios.

Filtration
Filtration is the removal of solid particles from a fluid by passing the fluid through a filtering medium, or
septum, on which the solids are deposited. The fluid may be liquid or gas, the valuable stream from the
filter may be fluid, or the solid, or both. Sometimes it is neither, as when waste solid must be separated
from waste liquid prior to disposal.
Filters are divided into three main groups: cake filters, clarifying filters, and crossflow filters. Cake filters
separate relatively large amount of solids as a cake of crystals or sludge. Often they include provisions
for washing the cake and for removing some of the liquid from the solids before discharge. At the start
of filtration in a cake filter, some solid particles enter the pores of the medium and are immobilised, but
soon others begin to collect on the septum surface. After this brief period the cake of solids does the
filtration, not the septum; a visible cake of appreciable thickness builds up on the surface and must be
periodically removed. Clarifying filters remove small amount of solids to produce a clean gas or a
sparkling clear liquid such as beverage. The solid particles are trapped inside the filter medium or on its
external surfaces. Clarifying filters differ from screens in that the pores of the filter medium are much
larger in diameter than the particles to be removed. In a crossflow filter, the feed suspension flows
under pressure at a fairly high velocity across the filter medium. A thin layer of solids may form on the
surface of the medium, but the high liquid velocity keeps the layer from building up. The filter medium is
a ceramic, metal, or polymer membrane with pores small enough to exclude most of suspended
particles. Some of the liquid passes through the medium as clear filtrate, leaving a more concentrated
suspension behind.
The theory of filtration
In cake filters, the particles forming the cake are small and the flow through the bed is slow. Streamline
conditions are invariably obtained. From Kozeny equation,
(1)
where u is the velocity of the filtrate, L is the cake thickness, S is the specific surface of the particles, e is
the porosity of cake, m is the viscosity of the filtrate, and D P is the applied pressure difference. The
filtrate velocity can also be written as
(2)
where V is the volume of filtrate which has passed in time t and A is the total cross-sectional area of the
filter cake.
For incompressible cakes e can be taken as constant and the quantity e 3/[5(1-e )2S2] is then a property
of the particles forming the cake and should be constant for a given material. Therefore
(3)
where
(4)
Eq(3) is the basic filtration equation and r is termed the specific resistance. It is seen to depend
on e and S. For incompressible cakes it is taken as constant, but it will depend on the rate of deposition,
nature of particles, and on forces between the particles.
In Eq(3), the variables V and L are connected, and the relation between them can be obtained by making
a material balance between the solids in the slurry and in the cake.
Mass in the filter cake is (1-e )ALr s, where r s is the density of the solids.
Mass of liquid retained in the filter cake is e ALr , where r is the density of the filtrate.
If J is the mass fractions of solids in the original suspension
(5)
That is
(6)
Therefore
(7)
and
(8)
If v is the volume of cake deposited by unit volume of filtrate then:
or (9)
and from Eq(8):
(10)
Substituting for L in Eq(3)

or
(11)
Eq(11) can be regarded as the basic relation between D P, V, and t. Two important types of operation
will be considered: 1). where the pressure difference is maintained constant and, 2). where the rate of
filtration is maintained constant.
Constant pressure difference
Eq(11) can be re-written as
(12)
Integrating Eq(12) gives

or (13)
Thus for a constant pressure filtration, there is a linear relation between V2 and t. Filtration at constant
pressure is more frequently adopted in practical conditions.
Constant rate filtration
constant (14)
Therefore
or (15)
In this case, D P is directly proportional to V.
Flow of filtrate through the septum and cake combined
Suppose that the filter septum to be equivalent to a thickness Ls of cake, then if D P is the pressure drop
across the cake and septum combined Eq(3) can be written as:
(16)
i.e.
(17)
For constant rate filtration we have
(18)
For constant pressure filtration we have
(19)

Separations based on the motion of particles through fluids
Devices that separate particles of differing densities are known as sorting classifiers. They use one of the
two principal separation methods: sink-and-float and differential settling.
Sink-and-float methods
A sink-and-float method uses a liquid sorting medium, the density of which is intermediate between
that of the light material and that of the heavy material. Then the heavy particles settle through the
medium, and the lighter ones float, and a separation is thus obtained. This method has the advantage
that, in principle, the separation depends only on the difference in the densities of the two substances
and is independent of the particle size. This method is also known as the heavy-fluid separation.
Heavy fluid processes are used to treat relatively coarse particles, usually greater than 10-mesh. A
comment choice of medium is a pseudoliquid consisting of a suspension in water of fine particles
Differential settling methods
Differential settling methods utilise the difference in terminal velocities that exist between substances
of different density. The density of the medium is less than that of either substance.
Consider particles of two materials A and B settling through a medium of density p . Let A be the
heavier. If the smallest particle of A settles faster than the largest particle of B, then complete
separation of A and B can be achieved.
For settling in the Stokes law region, the terminal velocity can be calculated as


For equal-settling particles, utA = utB, therefore

For settling in the Newtons law range

If the ratio of diameters of the smallest particle of A and the largest particle of B is larger than the equal-
settling ratio, then perfect separation of A and B can be achieved.













II. Dryers and Drying processes


Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or another solvent
by evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid. This process is often used as a final production step
before selling or packaging products. To be considered "dried", the final product must be solid, in the
form of a continuous sheet (e.g., paper), long pieces (e.g., wood), particles (e.g., cereal grains or corn
flakes) or powder (e.g., sand, salt, washing powder, milk powder). A source of heat and an agent to
remove the vapor produced by the process are often involved. In bio products like food, grains,
and pharmaceuticals like vaccines, the solvent to be removed is almost invariably water.
In the most common case, a gas stream, e.g., air, applies the heat by convection and carries away the
vapor as humidity. Other possibilities are vacuum drying, where heat is supplied
by conduction or radiation (or microwaves), while the vapor thus produced is removed by
the vacuum system. Another indirect technique is drum drying (used, for instance, for manufacturing
potato flakes), where a heated surface is used to provide the energy, and aspirators draw the vapor
outside the room. In contrast, the mechanical extraction of the solvent, e.g., water, by centrifugation, is
not considered "drying" but rather "draining".

Drying mechanism
In some products having a relatively high initial moisture content, an initial linear reduction of the
average product moisture content as a function of time may be observed for a limited time, often
known as a "constant drying rate period". Usually, in this period, it is surface moisture outside individual
particles that is being removed. The drying rate during this period is mostly dependent on the rate of
heat transfer to the material being dried. Therefore, the maximum achievable drying rate is considered
to be heat-transfer limited. If drying is continued, the slope of the curve, the drying rate, becomes less
steep (falling rate period) and eventually tends to nearly horizontal at very long times. The product
moisture content is then constant at the "equilibrium moisture content", where it is, in practice, in
equilibrium with the dehydrating medium. In the falling-rate period, water migration from the product
interior to the surface is mostly by molecular diffusion, i,e. the water flux is proportional to the moisture
content gradient. This means that water moves from zones with higher moisture content to zones with
lower values, a phenomenon explained by the second law of thermodynamics. If water removal is
considerable, the products usually undergo shrinkage and deformation, except in a well-designed
freeze-drying process. The drying rate in the falling-rate period is controlled by the rate of removal of
moisture or solvent from the interior of the solid being dried and is referred to as being "mass-transfer
limited".
Methods of drying
The following are some general methods of drying:
Application of hot air (convective or direct drying). Air heating increases the driving force for heat
transfer and accelerates drying. It also reduces air relative humidity, further increasing the driving force
for drying. In the falling rate period, as moisture content falls, the solids heat up and the higher
temperatures speed up diffusion of water from the interior of the solid to the surface. However, product
quality considerations limit the applicable rise to air temperature. Excessively hot air can almost
completely dehydrate the solid surface, so that its pores shrink and almost close, leading to crust
formation or "case hardening", which is usually undesirable. For instance in wood (timber) drying, air is
heated (which speeds up drying) though some steam is also added to it (which hinders drying rate to a
certain extent) in order to avoid excessive surface dehydration and product deformation owing to high
moisture gradients across timber thickness. Spray drying belongs in this category.
Indirect or contact drying (heating through a hot wall), as drum drying, vacuum drying. Again, higher
wall temperatures will speed up drying but this is limited by product degradation or case-
hardening. Drum drying belongs in this category.
Dielectric drying (radiofrequency or microwaves being absorbed inside the material) is the focus of
intense research nowadays. It may be used to assist air drying or vacuum drying. Researchers have
found that microwave finish drying speeds up the otherwise very low drying rate at the end of the
classical drying methods.
Freeze drying or lyophilization is a drying method where the solvent is frozen prior to drying and is
then sublimed, i.e., passed to the gas phase directly from the solid phase, below the melting point of the
solvent. It is increasingly applied to dry foods, beyond its already classical pharmaceutical or medical
applications. It keeps biological properties of proteins, and retains vitamins and bioactive compounds.
Pressure can be reduced by a high vacuum pump (though freeze drying at atmospheric pressure is
possible in dry air). If using a vacuum pump, the vapor produced by sublimation is removed from the
system by converting it into ice in a condenser, operating at very low temperatures, outside the freeze
drying chamber.
Supercritical drying (superheated steam drying) involves steam drying of products containing water. This
process is feasible because water in the product is boiled off, and joined with the drying medium,
increasing its flow. It is usually employed in closed circuit and allows a proportion of latent heat to be
recovered by recompression, a feature which is not possible with conventional air drying, for instance.
The process has potential for use in foods if carried out at reduced pressure, to lower the boiling point.
Natural air drying takes place when materials are dried with unheated forced air, taking advantage of its
natural drying potential. The process is slow and weather-dependent, so a wise strategy "fan off-fan on"
must be devised considering the following conditions: Air temperature, relative humidity and moisture
content and temperature of the material being dried. Grains are increasingly dried with this technique,
and the total time (including fan off and on periods) may last from one week to various months, if a
winter rest can be tolerated in cold areas.
Applications of drying
Foods are dried to inhibit microbial development and quality decay. However, the extent of drying
depends on product end-use. Cereals and oilseeds are dried after harvest to the moisture content that
allows microbial stability during storage. Vegetables are blanched before drying to avoid rapid
darkening, and drying is not only carried out to inhibit microbial growth, but also to avoid browning
during storage. Concerning dried fruits, the reduction of moisture acts in combination with its acid and
sugar contents to provide protection against microbial growth. Products such as milk powder must be
dried to very low moisture contents in order to ensure flowability and avoid caking. This moisture is
lower than that required to ensure inhibition to microbial development. Other products as crackers are
dried beyond the microbial growth threshold to confer a crispy texture, which is liked by consumers.
Classification of dryers
Adiabatic or direct: Solid directly exposed to hot gas (usually air).
Nonadiabatic or indirect: Heat transfer from an external medium, usually through a contact with
a metal surface.
Dryers heated by dielectric, radiant, or microwave energy.
Handling of solids
a) Crosscirculation
b) Throughcirculation
c) Rotary dryer
d) Fluidized bed
e) Entrained in high-velocity gas stream
f) Spray drying


PRINCIPLES OF DRYING
Temperature pattern
Temperature patterns
The particular way temperature varies depends on many factors
OTOH, there exist typical patterns of variation
Batch dryer with heating medium at constant temperature
o Rapid rise to initial vaporization temperature Tv where a considerable part of drying time is
spent
o As a dry solids zone forms near the surface, the temperature of wet solids gradually rises
o In the final stages, the solids temperature once again increases rapidly to a higher value Tsb

Heat transfer in dryers
Heat is needed to:
Heat the feed (solids + liquid) to the vaporization temperature Tv
Vaporize the liquid
Heat the solids to their final temperature Tsb
Heat the vapor to its final temperature Tva
Heat the air to its final temperature.

Phase equilibria
Equilibrium data provided for most solids: relationship between relative humidity of the gas and the
liquid content of the solid. Almost independent of the temperature. Wet solid brought into contact with
air of humidity differing from the equilibrium one tends to either lose or absorb moisture and come to
the equlibrium with the air.