Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
The record shows a gradual change in life forms over millions of years.
Is the study of the distribution of living things. When Charles Darwin rst travelled
around the world, it was the distribution of different types of life in different places that rst
gave him the idea for evolution.
These distribution patterns provide evidence that species have originated from common
ancestors and, when isolated, had adapted overtime to the different conditions.
Australia & Asia!s Unique Flora & Fauna
The explanation for the endemic (Unique) ora and fauna in
Australia is based on biogeography. This phenomenon was rst
descried by Alfred Wallace, who suggested a line (now called
Wallace!s Line) to separate the distribution of these organisms.
Comparative Embryology
When body structures of different organisms are compared, it is often obvious that
they sometimes share common features, even though the body parts might be used
in very different ways and in very different lifestyles.
Pentadactyl Limb (!Penta" = 5, !dactyl" = Fingers)
- A structure of bones found in many vertebrates.
one forearm bone, to dual lower arm group, and wrist bones
to digits
Biochemistry
All our Somatic Cells (those occurring within the body) except gametes use mitosis for cell division
(for growth or repair)
In mitosis one division occurs, forming an exact copy of the parent cell chromosomes
SINGLE DIVISION
OCCURS
IDENTICAL TO
PARENT CELL
Result in TWO
DIPLOID cells
Meiosis
Sexual Reproduction
- Gamete Cells (Sex cells)
NOT GENETICALLY IDENTICAL
TO PARENT CELL
Result in FOUR
HAPLOID cells
- DNA is a extremely long molecule. To be able to fit into a cell nucleus, the
DNA strand must be tightly coiled around special structural proteins called
histones.
Maintaining A Balance - HSC Biology 2012 Notes
Peter Richardson
Centromere
Centriole
Spindle Fibers
!
Interphase
- Prior to meiosis or mitosis, DNA replication occurs. - Chromosomes become condensed, &
can be viewed under the microscope. (previously tangled, can!t see chromosome form)
- Each strand generates an identical copy of itself called a Chromatid. The new chromosome
connects to the old one using a centromere. (Centrioles duplicate in this phase also)
!
Prophase
- Homologous chromosomes pair up, and crossing over occurs.
- Nucleus envelope begins to break apart
!
Metaphase
- Chromosomes are aligned by the spindle bers of the Centrioles
!
Anaphase
- Chromosomes are drawn to the opposite side of the cell
!
Telophase
- Nucleus re-forms and the cell!s cytoplasm is divided by Cytokinesis
Meiotic Stages
In the rst meiotic division, the homologous
chromosomes separate, but the double strands of
the chromosomes are still joined.
In the second division, the chromatids of the
chromosomes separate and form 4 gametes
altogether.
Variation comes from MEIOSIS and Sexual
Reproduction!
I. During the process of meiosis, one chromosome from each of the 23 diploid pairs
must be contributed to form the haploid gamete. Which chromosome is
selected is completely random.
II. The crossing over that occurs in the prophase of meiosis provides even an almost limitless
scope for the variation that can occur.
This gives 2 possibilities
When a male and a female sexually reproduce, this
combines the two gametes to form a zygote.
This gives 2 possibilities
23
46
Sex-linked Genes & Thomas Morgan!s Fruit Flies
- Genes that are carried on the sex chromosomes, either on the X or Y, are called
sex-linked genes.
- Morgan realised that the inheritance of some characteristics could not be
explained with simple Mendelian crosses. He found that the way this
characteristic was being inherited depended on the sex of the y... male and
females where inheriting eye colour differently!
- Morgan produced hundreds of ies in the experiment, like Mendel, his results
where statistically signicant.
fig.1 Drosophila
Dominant eye
colour red
Maintaining A Balance - HSC Biology 2012 Notes
Peter Richardson His hypothesis was that Y did not carry the gene only X in this case
There are a number of genes in humans that are sex linked.
(e.g. Haemophilia or Colour Blindness) Both conditions are inherited as recessive genes on the X
chromosome. They occur much more often in males than in females.
Co-Dominance
E.g. Roan Cow
- In simple dominance cases, if a gene is homozygous dominant, the
phenotype is obviously that of the dominant allele (HH or RR). If it was
homozygous recessive it is obviously that of the recessive allele. (hh
or rr)
- If the gene is heterozygous, than the dominant allele would be the
phenotype of the organism, as the dominant allele would of course
take precedence over the recessive. (Hr)
- HOWEVER, if it was a case of co-dominance, heterozygous
organisms would have both phenotypes expressed at the same time.
No allele is dominant or recessive. (HR)
- The result is not in tting with Mendel!s simple 3:1 ratios.
~ It results in a ratio of 1:2:1
1:2:1
The Effect of the Environment on Phenotype
- It!s not just an organism!s genes that produce its phenotype; The environment has an
effect as well!
- The environment can control to what extent a genotype is expressed.
- Genes provide the blueprint for what an organism could grow up to be.
e.g. The colour of hydrangea owers differs depending on the acidity of the soil it is planted in.
If the soil is acidic the pigment in the owers will cause the ower to be blue. If it is an alkaline
environment, the ower colour will be pink.
There was a famous study 40 years ago, where two identical twins where adopted into
separate families and raised in different environments. The result was that the twins showed
substantial differences between their intelligence, personality, and even outward appearance
GENES + ENVIRONMENT = PHENOTYPE
Maintaining A Balance - HSC Biology 2012 Notes
Peter Richardson
DNA Replication
Signicance
- The DNA in a cell contains the genetic information to make an entire
organism. When a cell divides it takes with it an exact copy of the
genetic code of that organism. (mitosis)
- Without DNA replication genetic information would not be able to be
passed on from generation to generation.
The Process
- All about the structure, The DNA molecule is a mirror-image
template for the other. If you split a DNA molecule into 2 separate
strands, each strand can be used to build a new, complementary strand.
(Nitrogen bases ensure an exact copy)
Protein Production Polypeptides: Polypeptides are chains of amino acids.
Proteins are made up of one or more polypeptide
molecules. The amino acids are linked covalently by
peptide bonds.
The exact shape of the nal protein depends on the
sequence of the amino acids. Amino acids can be attracted
or repelled from each other, so how the chain twists and
folds upon itself depends on exactly which ones are
located where.
The shape of the protein molecules is essential to it!s
purpose and it correct functioning.
There are about 20 Different amino acids
"Anti-codon!
- The opposite bases
Loose amino acids are carried to the ribosome. The
Ribosome is the active site for protein synthesis.
RNA: Ribonucleic Acid
DNA -> m-RNA -> T-RNA
Maintaining A Balance - HSC Biology 2012 Notes
Peter Richardson
Beadle and Tatum were able to create single gene mutations that stopped the proper function of specific
enzymes, so that the molds with these mutations required an external supply of the substance that the
enzyme normally produced. (their hypothesis was correct)
This hypothesis used to be called the One Gene - One Protein Hypothesis. However, this has since
been modified to the One Gene - One Polypeptide Hypothesis. This is because genes code for
polypeptide chains that may not necessarily become enzymes, but many other kinds of proteins.
Modern Understanding & Darwin!s Theories
The basis that Darwins theory of evolution relies upon is that of variation. Variation is key.
In Charles Darwins life time no one could explain where variation in a species came from, or how
characteristics where transferred from one generation to the next. However, with our current
understanding of genetics, we are able to appreciate, at a biochemical level, the importance of
variation in evolution.
Punctuate Equilibrium vs. Gradual Change
Darwins Gradualism
#
He proposed that populations change
slowly and gradually over time
#
However, the fossil record only shows
rare occasions where this happens.
#
If an environment remains stable for
many years, we would expect there to
be no change in the organisms living
there. It is only when the environment
changes that natural selection occurs!
Punctuated Equilibrium
#
The fossil record in fact, shows periods of stability followed by a sudden change, and mass extensions.
#
Punctuated Equilibrium proposes that instead of gradual change, there have been periods of rapid
evolution followed by long period of stability, or equilibrium.
Maintaining A Balance - HSC Biology 2012 Notes
Peter Richardson
The Discovery of the Structure of DNA
James Watson & Francis Crick
#
They suggested the double helix structure of DNA as well as the pairing of
the bases.
#
They hypothesised that this structure aided in DNA replication.
Rosalind Franklin
#
Provided crucial scientific evidence upon which Watson & Crick
based their double helix model. (Using X-Ray diffraction) The
images she took were very precise, using very thin strands of
DNA.
#
Sexism was a trouble at the time. She did not collaborate well
with her partner Wilkins.
Maurice Wilkins
#
Without permission, took Franklins famous X-Ray Diffraction
photo and passed it on to Watson & Crick.
Reproductive Technologies - Effect on Genetic Composition of Population
Articial Insemination
Generally, as a result of reproductive technologies, the genetic variation of populations tends to
be reduced (over many generations). Currently used for improved crop and livestock yields
(except cloning)
- The injection the of male semen into a female.
- Taken from a male with desirable qualities.
- Easy to transport, and to inseminate many
females from one male.
Articial Pollination
- The pollination of plants (as Mendel did)
- Easy procedure.
Cloning
- Cloning produces genetically identical copies.
- Plant cloning (cutting and grafting, also culture technology)
- Animal cloning (e.g. dolly the sheep)
Transgenic Species
Note: Biotechnology; Use of various techniques to change living organisms at the molecular level to
produce useful products or provide service.
Transgenic organisms contain a desired gene that has been transferred into their chromosomes from
another species. New DNA made by combining different DNA pieces is known as recombinant DNA.
1. A useful gene, and the chromosome it is on, is identified.
2. The gene is isolated or cut-out of its DNA strand. (using restriction enzymes - The cut ends are
known as sticky ends)
3. Separate sequences may need to be added to ensure the gene will work.
4. The gene is inserted into the cell of another organism. Sometimes a vector is used to do this.
1. Adult sheep tissue cell removed from sheep and cultured in lab
2. Nucleus removed from one of these cells and placed in an enucleated egg cell (egg
cell with genetic info removed)
3. Gentle electric pulse causes nucleus to fuse with egg cell
4. A second electric pulse starts cell division and embryo formation
5. This new cell is implanted into a female sheep where it grows into a new organism
Maintaining A Balance - HSC Biology 2012 Notes
Peter Richardson
Example
Genetic Diversity
The production of Bt crops
The use of Bt (a bacterium) in pesticide sprays is very successful at resisting insect attack.
Genetic engineering can eliminate the need to spray by inserting the Bt genes that produces
the Bt toxin directly into the plants.
The impact of this addition to the natural genetic variation in Bt crops is unknown.
~~ On the DNA strands are also control or promoter sequences that switch the gene on or off.
They regulate when a protein is made, how much is made, an in which cells the gene will function.
An isolated gene cannot function if it is transferred alone; it needs a promoter sequence to ensure
the gene will work.
~~ For genetic engineering to be possible on a large scale, multiple copies of genes need to be
made. Polymerase Chain Reactions (PCR) do this.
The main fear behind the use of genetic and reproductive breeding techniques on organisms
is that the natural diversity and variation within populations is decreased
E.g. cotton plants. The main crop being grown all over the world is BT cotton.
As more and more farmers shift from natural cotton to BT cotton, there are many
disadvantages:
-- Many natural varieties of cotton will be lost
-- The species itself becomes vulnerable to extinction. If all cotton grown all over the world is
BT, and a disease appears, that kills specifically BT cotton, than there is a risk of cotton
becoming an extinct organism
In another case, a population of cattle that have all been fathered by the same bull, through
artificial insemination techniques, is at risk to environmental changes
A lack of variation is a major risk factor in extinction of a species.
Ethical Issues
! The companies who develop transgenic species own patents on them - making huge
profits.
! Transferring genes, especially human, is seen as wrong religiously and morally.
! Should we be tampering with nature in this way?
! If a transgenic species was released into the natural environment, it could out-compete
the natural organisms
! Health-risks and side effects with eating GM foods.
! But also positive side.. Increase crop and livestock yield. Also these technologies help
treat diseases.