1.

Metals have been extracted and used for many thousands of years
o History of metals
Age Dates Metal(s)
used
Source(s) of
metal(s)
Method of
extraction of
metal(s)
Uses of metal(s)
Copper
Age
5000-
3000BC
Copper Ores eg.
malachite
(CuCO3.Cu(OH)2)
& chalcopyrite
(Cue!2)
High temps. &
a"u#$a#t
supply of C
re%uire$
thermal
$ecompositio#&
the# reactio#
'ith C i# the
form of charcoal
(a)e or#ame#ts (eg.
copper "ea$s)& tools (eg.
copper pipes)& 'eapo#s
(eg. shiel$s) & coo)i#g
impleme#ts (eg. coo)i#g
pots)
Bro#*e
Age
3000-
+000BC
Bro#*e ,
a# alloy of
copper
Copper & ti# ores
- charcoal
./tractio# of
copper
Cutti#g tools (eg. a/es
a#$ )#i0es)& shiel$s &
armour& statues& church
"ells& "eari#gs
1ro# Age rom
+000BC
1ro# 1ro# ores&
particularly
hematite (e2O3)
Higher temps.
re%uire$
hematite is
mi/e$ 'ith
charcoal &
heate$ 'ith
"ello's& the#
hammere$
Co#0erte$ i#to car"o#
steels (iro#-car"o#
alloys) use$ i#
"uil$i#g co#structio# (eg.
frame'or))& & i# the
ma#ufacture of cars (eg.
"umpers)& machi#ery
(eg. "olts) & househol$
applia#ces (eg.
saucepa#s)
(o$er#
.ra
2rese#t
$ay
Alumi#ium
tita#ium&
copper&
iro#& gol$
- Alumi#ium3 ore&
"au/ite& 'hich
co#tai#s the
mi#eral gi""site
(Al2O3.3H2O)
- 4ita#ium3
primarily the
mi#erals rutile &
ilme#ite
- Alumi#ium3
electrolysis of
"au/ite
- 4ita#ium3
co#0ersio# of
4iO2 to 4iCl5&
the#
$isplaceme#t of
tita#ium "y 6a
or (g
- Alumi#ium3 saucepa#s&
$ri#) ca#s& coo)i#g foil
- 4ita#ium3 alloys use$ i#
spacecrafts a#$ aircrafts
- Copper3 electrical
ca"les & 'iri#g& 'ater
pipes
- 1ro#3 co#0erte$ i#to
steel & use$ i# "uil$i#gs&
"ri$ges & automo"iles
- 7ol$3 8e'ellery&
electrical co##ectio#s
o Alloys
Alloy Comosition !roerties Use(s)
!teel 99.:; e& 0.2; C Har$ "ut easily
'or)e$
6ails& ca"les & chai#s
Brass <5; Cu& 35; =# & small
amou#ts of other
eleme#ts eg. 2"& !# & Al
>esists corrosio#&
$uctile& easy to
machi#e& polishes
'ell
Brass faste#ers (eg. scre's&
"olts& #ails& etc) & $ecorati0e
eleme#ts (eg. $oor )#o"s &
)#oc)ers)
!ol$er 33; !#& <?; 2" @o' melti#g poi#t Ase$ to 8oi# t'o pieces of metal
together& eg. pipes. Ase$
e/te#si0ely i# electro#ics
i#$ustry to 8oi# 'ires & 1CBs
!tai#less
steel
?5; e& +:; Cr& :; 6i >esists corrosio# !i#)s& cutlery
o A0aila"ility of metals3 4here are more metals a0aila"le to use #o' tha# there 'ere 200 years
ago "ecause most metals& i# their pure form& are too soft to "e use$ for useful purposes a#$
occur i# compou#$s $ue to their acti0ities. 4hese metals ca# "e ma$e har$er "y a$$i#g other
eleme#ts to form alloys. (ost of these alloys 'oul$ #ot ha0e "ee# $e0elope$ u#til
tech#ologically a$0a#ce$ $ays. 4ech#ology is also re%uire$ to e/tract metals from their mi#eral
ores& "rea)i#g a#$ rearra#gi#g chemical "o#$s& or $e0elopi#g a more cost effecti0e metho$ of
e/tractio#. Cue to the tech#ology 'e ha0e #o'& more metals are a0aila"le to use$ tha# there
'ere 200 years ago.
". Metals differ in their reactivity #ith other chemicals and this influences their uses
o >e$o/ reactio#s
- .lectro# tra#sfers3 O1@>17
- ca# "e represe#te$ i# t'o half e%uatio#s& 'hich are "ala#ce$
- o/i$isi#g age#tDo/i$a#t3 causes o/i$atio# of a#other su"sta#ce is itself re$uce$ a#$
a# electro# acceptor
- re$uci#g age#tDre$ucta#t3 causes re$uctio# of a#other su"sta#ce is itself o/i$ise$ a#$
a# electro# $o#or
- eg. o/i$atio#3 2(g(s) 2(g (s) - 5e ((g is the re$uci#g age#t)
re$uctio#3 O2(g) - 5e 2O (g) (O is the o/i$isi#g age#t)
o >eactio#s of metals 'ith o/yge#
- (ost react ("ur#t) 'ith o/yge# i# air at room temperature to form metal o/i$es& releasi#g
large amou#ts of heat a#$ light
metal + oxygen metal oxide
eg. 2(g(s) - O2(g) 2(gO(s)
Other e/amples3 E& 6a& Ca
- Others 'ill o#ly "ur# if the metal is fi#ely $i0i$e$
eg. 5Al(s) - 3O2(g) 2Al2O3(s)
Other e/amples3 =#& Cr& e& C$& Co& 6i
- @ess reacti0e metals $o #ot "ur#& "ut react slo'ly 'ith pure o/yge# as air 'he# heate$
eg. 2Cu(s) - O2(g) 2CuO(s)
Other e/amples3 !#& 2"& Hg
- Ag& 2t a#$ Au $o #ot react 'ith o/yge# , #o o/i$isatio#
- Corrosio#3 some reacti0e metals (eg. Al a#$ Cr) form a# i#acti0e coati#g of a# o/i$e layer
imper0ious a#$ protects metal from further o/i$atio# 'ith others (eg. e)& o/i$e layer is
porous allo's o/yge# to migrate through it a#$ react further (6ote3 corrosio# of iro# is
also calle$ rusti#g)
o >eactio#s of metals 'ith 'ater
- !ome react 'ith col$ 'ater to form hy$roge# a#$ a metal hy$ro/i$e (metal $isplaces
hy$roge# from 'ater)
metal + water hydrogen + metal hydroxide
eg. 26a(s) - 2H2O(l) 26aOH(a%) - H2(g)
Also a re$o/ reactio#3
6a(s) 6a (a%) - e o/i$atio#
2H2O(l) - 2e H2(g) - 2OH (a%) re$uctio#
Other e/amples3 E& Ca
(6ote3 formatio# of hy$roge# ca# "e co#firme$ "y collecti#g a sample of gas a#$ placi#g a
lit
ca#$le i# it , see practicals)
- !ome react 'ith hot 'ater eg. (g
- Others react 'ith steam to pro$uce hy$roge# a#$ a metal o/i$e
metal + steam hydrogen + metal oxide
eg. =#(s) - H2O(g) =#O(s) - H2(g)
Other e/amples3 Al& Cr& e& C$& Co& 6i
- !#& 2"& Cu& Ag& Hg& 2t a#$ Au $o #ot react 'ith 'ater
o >eactio#s of metals 'ith aci$s
- !ome react 'ith col$ $ilute aci$s to form hy$roge# gas a#$ salts
metal - aci$ hy$roge# - salt
eg. =#(s) - 2HCl(a%) =#Cl2(a%) - H2(g)
Also a re$o/ reactio#3
=#(s) =# (a%) - 2e o/i$atio#
2H (a%) - 2e H2(g) re$uctio#
Other e/amples3 E& 6a& Ca& (g& Al& =#& Cr& e& C$& Co& 6i& !#
- 2" reacts 'ith 'arm $ilute aci$s
- Cu& Ag& Hg& 2t a#$ Au $o #ot react 'ith aci$s
o (etals for $iffere#t purposes3
7ol$& sil0er a#$ plati#um3 %uite u#reacti0e a#$ u#$ergo little or #o corrosio# $o #ot
rea$ily tar#ish a#$ retai# their shi#y lustre use$ to ma)e attracti0e 8e'ellery a#$ fi#e
or#ame#ts
7ol$ is also a# e/celle#t co#$uctor of electricity use$ i# electrical co##ectio#s i#
computer a#$ electro#ic circuits
(ag#esium3
highly reacti0e use$ i# the catho$ic protectio# of less reacti0e metals to protect
them from corrosio# sacrificial a#o$e
pro$uces "right 'hite light 'he# "ur#t i# o/yge# 'as use$ i# photographic
flash"ul"s a#$ #o' use$ i# mo$er# fire'or)s
=i#c3 highly reacti0e use$ i# gal0a#ise$ iro# pro$uctio# to protect it from rusti#g a#$
corro$i#g
orms a protecti0e coati#g for iro#& e/clu$i#g o/yge# reacts 'ith air to form a#
imper0ious layer
Fhe# the *i#c coati#g is $amage$& the *i#c acts as a sacrificial a#o$e a#$ corro$es
i# prefere#ce to iro#
o Acti0ity series 3 or$er of reacti0ity accor$i#g to their a"ility to $isplace hy$roge# from $ilute
aci$s a#$ 'ater a#$ ease of o/i$atio# arra#ge$ from most reacti0e potassium to least
reacti0e gol$ most reacti0e metals ge#erally fou#$ o# left si$e of perio$ic ta"le& least reacti0e
metals fou#$ i# the mi$$le
o 1o#isatio# e#ergy 3 a measure of the e#ergy #ee$e$ to remo0e a# electro# from the electrostatic
attracti0e force of the positi0ely charge$ #ucleus of a# atom the amou#t of e#ergy re%uire$ to
remo0e the loosely "ou#$ electro# from the atom or io# i# gaseous state i# ge#eral reacti0e
metals te#$ to ha0e lo' io#isatio# e#ergies a#$ less reacti0e metals ha0e higher io#isatio#
e#ergies
!racticals
2op 4est
Apparatus3 2 i$e#tical test tu"es& hy$rochloric aci$& ca#$le& matches& mag#esium
Method3
+. 2our 2cm of HCl i#to o#e of the test tu"es
2. A$$ piece of mag#esium
3. 1mme$iately i#0ert the seco#$ test tu"e o0er the top of the first test tu"e& so there is a# airtight
seal "et'ee# them
5. After a mi#ute or so& light a ca#$le& tilt the top test tu"e& a#$ i#sert the ca#$le flame i#to its
mouth
5. A small e/plosio# or GpopB co#firms the prese#ce of hy$roge# gas
(etal Acti0ity !eries
$. As metals and other elements #ere discovered% scientists recognised that atterns in their
hysical and chemical roerties could be used to organise the elements into a !eriodic
&able
o (o$el of atomic structure3 BohrBs mo$el , features3
A si#gle electro# mo0es arou#$ the #ucleus i# a circular or"it
4he e#ergy of the electro# is restricte$ to certai# 0aluesDle0els
Atom is compose$ of a small& ce#tral #ucleus ma$e up of proto#s a#$ #eutro#s
.lectro#s occupy statio#ary le0els a#$ $o #ot ra$iate e#ergy
irst e#ergy le0el lo'est e#ergy le0el
4he i#ertia of the electro# 'oul$ te#$ to mo0e it a'ay from the #ucleus "ut the i#ertia is
cou#ter"ala#ce$ "y the electrostatic attractio# 'hich e/ists "et'ee# the positi0e #ucleus
a#$ the #egati0e electro#
.lectro# ca# a"sor" a %ua#tum of e#ergy a#$ mo0e to a# e/cite$ state. 1t ca# ra$iate
e#ergy "y Hfalli#gI "ac) to a more sta"le state.
o 4he Ce0elopme#t of the 2erio$ic 4a"le
Date Scientist Contribution
+?:9 @a0oisier Bega# classificatio# of the eleme#ts , $i0i$e$ ta"le i#to metals &
#o#-metals
+:29 Co"erei#er Ci0i$e$ eleme#ts i#to groups calle$ tria$s 'ith similar physical a#$
chemical properties
+:<2 Ce Cha#courtois (a$e a# early perio$ic ta"le , $i0i$e$ eleme#ts i#to perio$s i#
or$er of i#creasi#g atomic mass
+:<5 6e'la#$s Arra#ge$ eleme#ts i# or$er of i#creasi#g atomic mass & #otice$ a
repeati#g patter# e0ery ? eleme#ts& calle$ G4he @a' of Octa0esB
+:<9 (eyer Arra#ge$ eleme#ts i# groups "ase$ o# their 0ale#cy & the #um"er
of "o#$s a# eleme#t ca# form
+:?+ (e#$elee0 2repare$ his perio$ic la' that states that Gthe properties of
eleme#ts are perio$ic fu#ctio#s of their atomic massesB. 1# his
perio$ic ta"le& eleme#ts 'ith similar properties are arra#ge$ i#
0ertical colum#s 'he# they are arra#ge$ hori*o#tally i# or$er of
i#creasi#g atomic mass left empty spaces for missi#g eleme#ts
+:93-9: >amsay Cisco0ere$ eleme#ts of #o"le gases le$ to the i#clusio# of a#
a$$itio#al group i# perio$ic ta"le
+9+3 (osely
2ropose$ co#cept of atomic #um"er , #um"er of electro#s
$etermi#es chemical properties of eleme#ts
o 4re#$s i# properties across perio$s
- @>3 $ecrease i# atomic radius "ecause of i#crease of positi0e charge of #ucleus pulli#g
outermost electro#s& 'hich are at the same e#ergy le0el& to'ar$s it
- @>3 i#crease i# electronegativity , the #umerical measure of the electro# attracti#g po'er
of the atom "ecause of i#crease of #uclear charge
- @>3 i#crease i# ionisation energy reachi#g a ma/imum at #o"le gases "ecause of
i#crease i# #um"er of proto#s& i#crease of 0ale#ce electro#s i#crease i# attracti0e force
"et'ee# #ucleus a#$ electro#s , there are $ips i# graph 'ith eleme#ts 'ith o$$ electro#s i#
outer shell "ecause electro#s li)e to tra0el i# pairs eleme#ts cha#ge from metals& to
semi-metals& the# #o#-metals "ecause of their a"ility to gai#Dlose electro#s
- @>3 1#crease i# melting points a#$ boiling points& the# $ecrease after group 1J "o#$i#g
cha#ges from metallic& to co0ale#t "o#$i#g i# #et'or) structure& the# co0ale#t molecular
structure
- @>3 $ecrease i# electrical and thermal conductivities "ecause of structure , free mo0i#g
electro#s to free electro#s
- @>3 i#crease i# combining power (valency)& the# $ecrease after group 1J
o 4re#$s i# properties $o'# groups
- 1#crease i# atomic ra$ius "ecause of a$$itio# of electro# le0els or shells further a'ay from
#ucleus
- Cecrease i# io#isatio# e#ergy "ecause 0ale#ce electro#s "ecome further a'ay from
#ucleus 'ea)er attracti0e force "et'ee# #ucleus a#$ electro#s
- Cecrease i# electro#egati0ity "ecause 0ale#ce electro# e#ergy le0els "ecomes further a'ay
from #ucleus
- 1#crease i# metallic character "ecause of i#crease i# #um"er of e#ergy le0els i#crease i#
the a"ility to lose electro#s
- Cecrease i# melti#g a#$ "oili#g poi#ts for metals "ecause of si*e of atoms (smaller& more
tightly pac)e$ together) a#$ i#crease for #o#-metals
'. (or efficient% resource use% industrial chemical reactions must use measured amounts of
each reactant
o (ole (mol.)3 the amou#t of a su"sta#ce that co#tai#s the same #um"er of particles as there are
atoms i# e/actly +2g of car"o#-+2 e%ual A0oga$roBs #um"er
o 6um"er of moles K #um"er of particles
#um"er of particles i# + mole
# K 6
6A
o 6um"er of moles K mass (relati0e atomicDmolecularDformula)
mass of + mole
# K m
(
o 7ay-@ussacBs @a'3 At the same temperature a#$ pressure& the 0olume of + mole of gas A is
e%ual to the 0olume of + mole of gas B
o @imiti#g reage#t3 the reacta#t that limits ho' much of the pro$uct is pro$uce$& 'hile the others
are reage#ts prese#t i# e/cess "ecause they ha0e remai#e$ u#reacte$ after the reactio#
- 4o fi#$ the limiti#g reage#t& calculate the #um"er of moles of "oth reacta#ts& the# compare
the stoichiometric ratio (ratio i# formula) a#$ actual. 1f stoichiometric ratio L actual mole
ratio& the# the top reage#t (#umerator) is the limiti#g reage#t
- 6ote3 use the limiti#g reage#t to fi#$ the #um"er moles
o 4heoretical yiel$3 the %ua#tity of pro$uct (i# grams) pre$icte$ from the chemical e%uatio# 'he#
)#o'# %ua#tities of reacta#ts u#$ergo the reactio#
o .mpirical formula %uestio#s3
+. i#$ #um"er of moles
2. Ci0i$e "oth "y smaller #um"er
3. >ou#$ off to #earest 'hole #um"er
5. Ase to 'rite formula
o .mpirical formula3 ratio of #um"er of each type of atom to each other
(olecular formula3 actual #um"er of each type of atom i# a molecule of the compou#$
(eleme#ts)
!racticals
Bur#i#g mag#esium
Apparatus: 20cm strip mag#esium& steel 'ool& cruci"le - li$& electro#ic "ala#ce& Bu#se# "ur#er&
tripo$& gau*e mat& pipe-clay tria#gle
Method:
+. Clea# strip of mag#esium
2. Feigh mag#esium
3. Feigh cruci"le
5. Heat o0er Bu#se# "ur#er u#til all the mag#esium has reacte$. @ift li$ occasio#ally
5. @ea0e to cool
<. Feigh co#tai#er
Safety precautions:
o Co#Bt loo) $irectly at "ur#i#g mag#esium
o Fear safety goggles & la" coat
o @ift li$ 'ith metal to#gs to a0oi$ "ur#s
Results:
). &he relative abundance and ease of extraction of metals influences their value and
breadth of use in the community
o (i#eral3 metals fou#$ i# #aturally occurri#g compou#$s 'ith a $efi#ite compositio# or ra#ge of
compositio#s a#$ crystal structures
Ore3 a #aturally occurri#g $eposit that is a mi/ture of mi#erals from 'hich a su"sta#ce& usually a
metal& ca# "e eco#omically e/tracte$ a mi#eral that is of eco#omic 0alue
Ores are #o#-re#e'a"le resources "ecause they are limite$ i# %ua#tity a#$ are #ot "ei#g
forme$ i# the earthBs crust at a rate that is mea#i#gful i# terms of huma# e/iste#ce o#ce
all the accessi"le ore "o$ies of a particular metal ha0e "ee# mi#e$& that metal 'ill #o lo#ger
"e pro$uce$
o actors affecti#g the use of metals
4he actual a"u#$a#ce of the metal i# e/ploita"le ores a sufficie#t proportio# of a
particular mi#eral ma)es the mi#i#g of the ore a#$ e/tractio# of the metal eco#omical
4he relati0e cost of e/tractio# & pro$uctio# of the metal e0e# a# a"u#$a#t metal may "e
e/pe#si0e to e/tract ma)es its use limite$ u#til a commercially 0ia"le metho$ of
e/tractio# is $e0elope$
4he $ema#$ for the metal (ofte# a fu#ctio# of the properties of a metal) i#clu$es e0e#
relati0ely rare metals "ecause of their properties ca# lea$ to the $e0elopme#t of
commercial 0ia"le metho$s of e/tractio# of metals
4he commercial price of a metal is $etermi#e$ "y these factors
o ./tractio# of copper from its ore& chalcopyrite (Cue! 2 )
2Cue!2(!) - 5O2(g) - 2!iO2(s) 2Cu(l) - 5!O2(g) - 2e!iO3(l)
Mining and crushing: mi#e$ copper ore (M0.5; copper) is grou#$ to separate copper ore
from other useless material
roth floatation: Cru$e ore (0.5; copper) is co#ce#trate$ "y froth floatatio# air is
"u""le$ through mi/ture of pul0erise$ ore i# 'ater co#tai#i#g a# oil-$eterge#t floatatio#
age#t copper mi#eral particles float a#$ s)imme$ off i# the froth
Roasting: Co#ce#trate$ ore (+5; copper) is roaste$ i# air& 'hich o/i$ises the e! to
eO "ut lea0es Cu! u#affecte$
2Cue!2(s) - 3O2(g) 2Cu!(s) - 2eO(s) - 2!O2(g)
Smelting: 2ro$uct heate$ at high temp. 'ith grou#$ limesto#e& sa#$ a#$ a$$itio#al
co#ce#trate$ ore co#0erts eO to a molte# slag a#$ re$uces copper(11) sulfi$e to
copper(1) sulfi$e
eO(s) - !iO2(!) e!iO3(l)
Roasting: Copper(1) sulfi$e is roaste$ i# air so that part of it is co#0erte$ to copper(1)
o/i$e
2Cu2!(s) - 3O2(g) 2Cu2O(s) - 2!O2(g)
4'o copper(1) compou#$s& copper(1) sulfi$e a#$ copper(1) o/i$e react together to form
copper metal a#$ sulfur $io/i$e
2Cu2O(s) - Cu2!(s) <Cu(l) - !O2(g)
4his process re%uires a sig#ifica#t i#put of e#ergy to mai#tai# the temperatures re%uire$ for
this reactio#
o Alumi#ium recycli#g3
4he total e#ergy "u$get for pro$uci#g alumi#ium from its ore is <5 000 (N per to##e of
alumi#ium pro$uce$. O#ly re%uiri#g :00 (N of e#ergy per to##e of alumi#ium pro$uce$&
melti#g recycle$ alumi#ium re%uires less tha# 5; of the e#ergy #ee$e$ to pro$uce the
same amou#t of alumi#ium from its ore co#ser0es reser0es of alumi#ium ore& a#$
co#ser0es a great e#ergy measure "ecause of the re$uctio# i# the amou#t of electricity
#ee$e$
Alumi#ium reco0ere$ from $ri#) ca#s& car e#gi#es a#$ "o$y trim& "oats& applia#ces a#$
other sources is sorte$ accor$i#g to its alloy type
!e#t to a smelter 'here it is melte$ i# specially $esig#e$ fur#aces
(olte# alumi#ium is a#alyse$ a#$ its compositio# a$8uste$
Cast i#to i#gots& 'hich are se#t to ma#ufacturers 'ho use the recycle$ alumi#ium for
#e' $ri#) ca#s& e#gi#e parts& gar$e# fur#iture a#$ other pro$ucts