Advertising Eco-Tourism On The Internet

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New Media & Society
DOI: 10.1177/146144804044328
2004; 6; 753 New Media Society
Elizabeth R. Dorsey, H. Leslie Steeves and Luz Estella Porras
culture
Advertising ecotourism on the internet: commodifying environment and
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ARTICLE
Advertising ecotourism on
the internet: commodifying
environment and culture
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
ELIZABETH R. DORSEY
H. LESLIE STEEVES
LUZ ESTELLA PORRAS
University of Oregon, USA
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Abstract
The increased attention to environmentalism in western
societies has been accompanied by a rise in ecotourism,
i.e. ecologically sensitive travel to remote areas to learn
about ecosystems, as well as in cultural tourism, focusing
on the people who are a part of ecosystems. Increasingly,
the internet has partnered with ecotourism companies to
provide information about destinations and facilitate travel
arrangements. This study reviews the literature linking
ecotourism and sustainable development, as well as prior
research showing that cultures have been historically
commodied in tourism advertising for developing
countries destinations. We examine seven websites
advertising ecotourism and cultural tourism and conclude
that: (1) advertisements for natural and cultural spaces are
not always consistent with the discourse of sustainability;
and (2) earlier critiques of the commodication of culture
in print advertising extend to internet advertising also.
Key words
commodication cultural tourism ecotourism
environment internet advertising sustainable
development
new media & society
Copyright 2004 SAGE Publications
London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi
Vol6(6):753779 [DOI: 10.1177/146144804044328]
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
753
INTRODUCTION
Communities globally are becoming quickly linked through travel,
communications and commerce. Tourism and the internet are agents of
globalization; both generate the sense of a closer world, one that can be
previewed by clicking on the appropriate link. Contemporary tourist
destinations are exhibited seductively for the virtual consumers gaze; they
have become spaces that sustain consumerism via the standardization of
images and packaging of landscapes, leading also to a privileging of sights
over sites (Holmes, 2001: 5).
Increasingly throughout the 1990s to the present, the internet has
facilitated transactions between suppliers and consumers of travel and tourist
packages. Travel has become the internets second largest commerce area
after computer technology (Sheldon, 1997). In 1999, 52 million Americans
went online to plan travel and make reservations (Sampat, 2000). In 2001,
in spite of the declining American economy, nearly a half of internet users
purchased at least one product online and one-fth of them arranged travel
or travel accommodations (UCLA, 2002). Although global travel dropped
after 11 September 2001 there was a quick rebound. By February 2002 Nua
Internet Surveys reported that trafc to travel websites had recovered
substantially and by March, trafc to travel sites in the US rose by 12
percent. As of 1 May 2002, 32 percent of US travelers had used the internet
to book travel. Also, the Nua website indicates that tourism accounts for
half or more of the increased use of the internet for travel information and
arrangements over the past two years.
As a reaction to mainstream tourist practices, the alternatives of
ecotourism and cultural tourism propose a less exploitive relationship to
natural and cultural environments. The United Nations designated 2002 as
the Year of Ecotourism, in recognition of its potential economic,
environmental and social benets. The information strategies provided by
the internet were a fundamental part of the Year of Ecotourism Conference
agenda.
In examining internet websites for ecotourism, we assume that they do
more than facilitate purchases. As with other forms of advertising, they play
a role in providing information and shaping perceptions of the places that
are being marketed. The internet can go beyond traditional advertising in
combining vibrant images and sound with text. In some ways, one no
longer needs to leave home to travel (Mowforth and Munt, 1998). Evidence
that domestic users carry out internet research for purposes of self-
empowerment (as opposed to turning to experts) and escape from isolation
or dull daily routines (Bakardjieva and Smith, 2001) seems to be particularly
relevant to the use of tourist websites.
A unique feature of tourist information is that the product cannot be
sampled prior to purchase; rather the buyer reserves future access to the
New Media & Society 6(6)
754
product (Pigram and Wahab, 1997). Hence there is a systematic construction
of attractive places in tourist advertisements (Hughes, 1998). As the decision
to purchase a trip is based solely on information, the quality of that
information is important in shaping both expectations of the tourism
experience and later satisfaction (Sheldon, 1997; World Tourism
Organization, 1999).
We further assume a distinction between perceptions and knowledge.
Despite the tremendous inux of information from many sources, our
knowledge of foreign countries and their natural and cultural environments
may not be increasing:
The First World can have the whole world on its dinner table. A massed feast
of cultural images are placed before us. Ingredients of many cultures, divorced
from context, are blended into a hotch-potch global dish. (Boniface and
Fowler, 1993: 4)
Two questions become central.
(1) Do ecotourism enterprises advertise destinations, landscapes and
cultures on the internet in a manner consistent with the
discourse of ecotourism and sustainable development?
(2) Do they represent a different online communication strategy in
depicting Third World societies, compared to traditional forms of
advertising?
In this article, rst, we consider tourism as a cultural practice. We focus
on ecotourism and cultural tourism as subcategories of tourism, the place of
ecotourism and cultural tourism in sustainable development and the
increased role of the internet in marketing destinations. Second, we review
prior studies on tourism advertising. Finally, we examine seven websites to
nd out to what extent ecotourism advertising supports sustainable
development, and whether and how the rise of ecotourism and the internet
have changed the way in which destinations are advertised.
TOURISM
Between 1950 and 1990, the number of tourism arrivals increased by an
average of 7.2 percent per year and the average annual expenditure on travel
increased by 12.3 percent (Cooper, 1997). Reasons for this include advances
in the airline industry and an increase in the afuent people who value
tourism. Also, tourism has proven to be highly protable in creating
industries, markets and jobs (Wahab, 1997). Over the last 50 years, tourism
has expanded to become the worlds largest economic sector (World Tourism
Organization, 1995). Additionally, it can facilitate cross-cultural
understanding. According to UNESCO (1997: 10), tourism is the foremost
world vector of cultural exchange.
Dorsey et al.: Advertising ecotourism on the internet
755
Critics have noted that the ideals of tourism are not always realized.
Impacts on culture are difcult to assess (Robinson, 1999a) and poor
management can denigrate the very resources that attract tourists (Ringer,
1998). Additionally, tourism has been viewed by some as a form of neo-
colonialism in which wealthy nations, or centers, project their desires onto
less developed nations or peripheries (Boniface and Fowler, 1993; Selwyn,
1996). As a result, tourist destinations become tourist spaces, dened by
their ability to attract customers. This leads to a commodication of space
(Rojek, 1998) and obliges host communities to reproduce themselves for
consumption (Boniface and Fowler, 1993).
Postmodern critics also address the inauthentic nature of most tourist
experiences. Typical destinations are like bubbles: safe, controlled and
mediated environments that resemble internet virtual spaces. In his study of
theme parks, Ostwald (2001) argues that however ctional, stereotypical and
banal, these experiences in bubbles help the tourist to nd a state of
anonymous enjoyment. Aug e (1995) suggests that theme parks, casinos,
shopping malls, airports and resorts are invented non-places in having little
or no historical or cultural connection to physical localities. Citing Aug e,
Holmes (2001) notes that these non-places are the physical manifestations of
the timespace compression familiar to internet travelers (Holmes, 2001:
268).
ECOTOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Getz (1986) traces the evolution of western tourism from its predominantly
economic role to its attempt to t a sustainable development paradigm.
Increasingly, scholars and policymakers have researched the impact of
tourism on landscapes and cultures. At the same time, tourists have sought
more ecologically- and culturally-sound experiences, leading to an increase
in travel to developing countries.
This trend can be understood from several perspectives. Some scholars
note a correlation with the evolution of consumer culture. Mowforth and
Munt (1998) state that the postmodern crisis of representation is marked by
a shift from the consumption of goods to the consumption of services, in
which people are dened not by possessions, but by lifestyle. One way of
doing this is to travel to other, more primitive worlds.
Similarly, Edwards (1996: 201) views tourism as a ritual journey from the
ordinary to the non-ordinary. Through this journey, tourists gain
knowledge, which they expect will make them better people and will
overcome the alienation of modern society. Furthermore, tourists strive to
transcend modern homogeneity through the celebration of global
difference (Wirosardjono, 1992: 196).
Developing countries societies, especially the most remote areas, are
viewed as pre-modern, natural and somehow more authentic and whole
756
than modern societies (Selwyn, 1996). According to Mowford and Munt
(1998), this expansion of the possibilities of tourism to increasingly remote
destinations parallels what Marxist philosopher David Harvey (1989) calls a
timespace compression, in which capitalists overcome barriers of distance
and time in their economic relations. This phenomenon is aided by the
internet, as we will discuss shortly.
Referred to by many names, including adventure tourism, alternative
tourism, green tourism, nature tourism, sustainable tourism and landscape
tourism, this new brand of tourism is characterized by travel to unspoiled
areas and is marketed as low impact and ecologically sound. A study by the
US Travel Data Center revealed that American travelers on average would
spend 8.5 percent more for travel services and products from
environmentally responsible suppliers. Furthermore, 43 million US travelers
said that they would take an ecotourism trip in the next three years (Travel
Industry Association of America, 1992, see Wight, 1994). The tourism
industry took the hint and began to realize that green sells.
However, the precise denition of ecotourism is a matter of interpretation
and many use the term as little more than a marketing tool (Acott et al.,
1998). The International Ecotourism Society (TIES, http:/
/www.ecotourism.org/index.htm), a non-prot organization dedicated to
promoting sustainable ecotourism worldwide, denes ecotourism as
responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and
sustains the well-being of local people.
In essence, then, ecotourism is dened by its sustainability. However, the
word sustainability is also subject to debate. Gartner (1997) points out that
sustainable is a value-positive word that is embraced by the majority
without consideration of its meaning. Wall (1997) views sustainable
development as a catchphrase that has gathered widespread support, even
though it is simultaneously used as a political tool, philosophy, development
strategy and product. He also notes that sustainable development is an
oxymoron in its simultaneous promotion of change and lack of change.
Although tourism is not even mentioned in the most referenced early
document on sustainable development, Our Common Future (World
Commission on Environment and Development, 1987), tourism and
sustainability since have been entwined in scholarship, policy discussions and
the market. Robinson (1999a) points out that ecotourism is one of the
easiest means for countries to implement a sustainable development
program, as it can lead to a rapid generation of currency with minimal
investment as compared to manufacturing. It is also less invasive than
forestry, mining and other forms of development (Time, 1999).
Robinson further points out the tensions and contradictions involved in
blending concepts and practices of tourism and sustainable development:
757
Indeed, we can view sustainable development as essentially a cultural construct
borne of an uneasy mixture of rst world angst, guilt and a desire for the
preservation of the quality of life. By framing sustainable tourism between the
two opposing poles of economic development and environmental quality we
are following a traditional pattern of environmentalist debate and failing to
penetrate the deeper and more meaningful value-systems upon which both
depend. (1999a: 383)
Many scholars note that often, sustainable ecotourism may refer to the
preservation of natural resources for the benet of the tourism industry,
which has an obvious vested interest in preserving the environment. Hence,
ecotourism is consistent with the other forms of capitalist appropriation
(Mowforth and Munt, 1998; Robinson, 1999a; Ross and Wall, 1999).
Additionally, ecotourism can increase the reliance of indigenous
communities on the global economy and weaken cultural bonds through
commodication (McLaren, 1999). Despite these risks, more and more
countries are developing ecotourism, allowing western consumers to
penetrate even the most isolated of cultures (Epler Wood, 1999).
Because of the link between ecotourism and sustainability, the industry
has initiated highly-visible discussions on sustainable development. For
example, the Symposium on Tourism Diversity and Information, held in
France in 2000, emphasized factors that dene sustainability for ecotourism
(Di Castri and Balaji, 2002):
diversication of tourist activities;
connectivity among stakeholders (local population, tourist
operators, planners, managers, tourists); and
empowerment of local people as entrepreneurs.
Additionally, the World Ecotourism Summit of the World Tourism
Organization, held in Quebec in 2002, focused primarily on sustainable
development principles (World Ecotourism Summit, 2002; World Tourism
Organization, 2001). Key topics were:
planning toward sustainability in ways that involve local
communities;
monitoring and regulating at the national level;
marketing strategies via the internet; and
cost benets of sustainable ecotourism.
CULTURAL TOURISM AND COMMODIFICATION
Cultural tourism is a type of ecotourism emphasizing the people that are a
part of natural landscapes (Prentice, 1997). At rst glance, this is a benign
and positive notion. The Global Code of Ethics put forth by the World
Tourism Organization (2002) states, in article 44, that:
758
Tourism activity should be planned in such way as to allow traditional cultural
products, crafts and folklore to survive and ourish, rather than cause them to
degenerate and become standardized.
These ideas t well with the construct of sustainable tourism. However,
like other forms of ecotourism, cultural tourism has not escaped criticism.
Cultural tourism has a tendency to reveal cultures as they once were, not
as they are, reecting a view of culture as static and unchanging (Butcher,
1997; Ringer, 1998; Robinson, 1999b). This idea conicts with
industrialization, which obliterates agrarian, hunting or nomadic societies
and co-opts them into the nation state (Rojek, 1998). The result of the
competing forces of development and preservation is that traditional societies
must exhibit their primitiveness for tourists, while their real lives are
marked by change. A prime example is the Kagga Kamma Bushmen of the
Kalahari, who work by day at a tourist resort where they practice the
traditions of their forefathers in a model village. In reality, they live away
from the village in tin-roofed houses, wear baseball caps and listen to rap
music (Boynton, 1997).
The process of cultural commodication, of reducing cultures to rituals
and handicrafts for consumption, is widely criticized by scholars. First, the
commodication of culture, as the Bushmen example attests, fetishizes
cultures and hides the social relations that contribute to the production of
commodities. Tourism places tourists in a position of dominance relative to
local people who sell souvenirs and demonstrate their traditions (Mowforth
and Munt, 1998). Second, noted earlier, to view a culture as static is to
deny the dynamic nature of culture and therefore to deny the culture itself.
Third, the presence of tourists can alter traditional cultures (Hughes, 1998;
Robinson, 1999b). Fourth, the celebration of difference disaggregates
humanity and denies the similarities that bind people (Butcher, 1997). For
instance, cultural tourism denes other by the link between environment
and culture, thereby denying a connection between the two in Western
nations that supply tourists:
Indeed, it is the search for glimpses of closeness between nature and culture
which is at the root of the expansion of alternative, eco and ethnic tourism;
what we no longer have, or think we dont have, we seek elsewhere
(Robinson, 1999a: 381).
Other scholars note benets of cultural tourism, particularly in exposing
tourists to alternative lifestyles and revealing the socially constructed
character of our beliefs and values (Rojek, 1998: 38). Cultural tourism
leads to a fuller view of oneself (Wirosardjono, 1992: 197). For the host
country, it can lead to a development of pride in its cultures and enable
local communities to control their own development (Enright, 1992).
759
One example is Bhutan, where the government retains tight control over
tourism, limiting foreign visitors to 5000 a year (for comparison, 400,000
foreigners visit Nepal every year) and all visits are arranged through
government sanctioned travel agencies (Park, 1999). However, Bhutan may
be the exception. For instance, Cancun in the early 1970s was inhabited by
just 12 families. Now, Cancun receives 2.6 million visitors a year and
supports 20,000 hotel rooms and a permanent population of 300,000 people
(Park, 1999). In most contexts, local participation in tourism is an
afterthought. One study, for example, showed that Maori control of tourism
in New Zealand accounts for less than 1 percent of the tourism industry
there (Robinson, 1999b).
TOURISM ADVERTISING
Internet advertising
For the reasons noted above, ecotourism and cultural tourism constitute an
expanding industry. Because of their popularity, it is useful to address how
destinations are advertised, particularly on the internet, which is rapidly
becoming the center of tourism commerce. According to article 66 of the
Global Code of Ethics for Tourism:
The press and particularly the specialized travel press and other media,
including modern means of electronic communication . . . should provide
accurate and reliable information of tourism services; the new communications
and electronic commerce technologies should also be developed and used for
this purpose. (World Tourism Organization, 2002)
There are now thousands of home pages for tourism suppliers, in addition
to many chat rooms, electronic bulletin boards and news groups. The
internet is convenient and inexpensive, allowing remote and small tourism
operations to market themselves (Buhalis, 1998; Schley, 1997). Also, many
sites make use of computer-based reservation facilities and multimedia
technology (Connell and Reynolds, 1999).
However, according to Sampat (2000), the optimism for democratic
internet communication is tempered by the fact that the web is
concentrated: 80 percent of the trafc goes to just 15,000 popular sites.
Additionally, most internet users are from the western world and most
ecotourism destinations are in the developing world (Rojek, 1998). In a
sense, the use of the internet mirrors access to travel. Internet usage is
predominantly in the US, though there has been signicant growth in
Europe, Asia and Australia. The US, Europe and Japan account for 79
percent of the worlds internet population. These nations also account for 41
percent of foreign tourism expenditure (World Tourism Organization, 1999).
Though the internet can potentially allow people in destination countries
to take a larger role in the control of tourism, the reality is that sufcient
760
infrastructure does not yet exist in most developing countries. For example,
Kenya has noted an inux of foreigners who come to gather information in
order to return to Europe and America and develop tourism websites. As a
result, the Tourism, Trade and Industry Minister of Kenya urged the national
tourism sector to move faster in creating its own websites.
The use of the internet was a major point in the agenda of the
International Ecotourism Summit in Quebec in 2002. Documents note an
increasing interest in reaching consumers through internet marketing
strategies. Elements of internet messages should be: raising awareness,
strengthening impact control and preventing environmental damage (World
Tourism Organization, 2001: 5). The documents also express concern about
the explosion of websites that facilitate direct transactions between suppliers
and consumers, because such transactions may eventually undermine
consumers faith in the products. The use of ecolabels and control of
communication by certied ecotourism operators is recommended for
ethical marketing.
One active voice from the ecotourism sector is Ron Mader, who has
designed workshops and websites on ethical internet marketing. He
complains that many websites do not specify why tours are environmental, or
how they benet local conservation efforts. He recommends information and
educational ingredients that would attract environmentally conscious
customers in a win-win scenario for all the stakeholders, including travelers,
travel agencies, conservation groups and national governments (Mader, 2002).
Traditional advertising
While there has been little or no analysis thus far of internet representations
of tourism, there have been many studies of the content of traditional
advertisements.
Britton (1979) examined themes in the marketing of Third World tourist
destinations, concluding that advertising portrays destinations like other
products in a favorable manner, neglecting the actual poverty of
destinations. Britton grouped the images of destinations according to six
themes: exotic; the pastoral myth (i.e. urban areas are rarely shown);
minimization of foreignness (exotic, but still friendly); incorporation for
tourist enjoyment (e.g. Americas treasure island); romanticization of local
societies; and the making of inauthentic places (i.e. tourist non-places).
Thus, the world conveyed through tourist images is sanitized and idealized
in a process of commodication.
Albers and James (1988) studied travel postcards historically. They cited
Stuart Hall, among others, to argue that photography is not a window on
reality, but rather a subjective process in which the photographer selects and
shapes images. They concluded that in communicating ethnicity through
photography, the tourism industry produces a homogenization,
761
decontextualization and mystication of culture. This is accomplished
through the articial posing of subjects, a focus on exotic people and on
happy scenes. They also suggest that tourists may seek out the reality
behind postcard images. When they nd it, they reproduce it in their own
travel slides or photographs, thereby perpetuating the decontextualization.
Cohen (1993) also examined travel postcards plus other tourism souvenirs,
concluding that there is an incongruity between the images and the socio-
political situations of the people depicted. This is partly because images of
cultures are usually produced by outsiders. Additionally, he noted that most
tourist images fall easily into four metaphoric categories: beautiful, exotic,
cute and comic (Cohen, 1993: 4345).
1
Dann (1996) analyzed representations of native people in brochures for
eleven destinations. He noted four groupings of images: paradise contrived,
where there are no people except for an occasional native in the
background; paradise conned, where the only people are tourists; paradise
controlled, where natives are depicted as servants, entertainers and vendors;
and paradise confused, where natives are depicted as seducers, or as
destinations in and of themselves.
Edwards (1996) studied modern postcards to update Albers and James
(1988). She notes that newer postcard photos have taken on a more historic
documentary appearance, adding authenticity and connecting authenticity
with pastness.
Print advertisements, brochures and postcards all use captions and text to
add meaning to the images. Mowforth and Munt (1998) point out that the
words selected can inuence our ability to decide what is true and false.
Albers and James (1988) note that postcard captions are frequently
poeticized, which creates a mythical and dreamlike frame of reference.
Edwards (1996: 201) postcard study suggests that words and phrases such as
journey of lifetime, unique experience and never-to-be-forgotten
reinforce the perception that indigenous cultures have a sacred quality that
makes them potentially life-changing for visitors. Hughes (1998: 19) adds
that these words and phrases come, in time, to stand, like icons, logos, or
mottoes, as shorthand statements of their [indigenous] character.
Studies of language have also noted a shift from words such as budget
and affordable to more value-laden language, such as small groups,
indigenously owned and supporting local economic development (Wight,
1994: 45). Mowforth and Munt (1998: 200, emphasis in original) note that
although the language now used to promote ecotourism is different than in
the past, it is still just as narrow: Instead of words such as pleasure, relaxation,
carefree, resort and so on, the new tourism plays heavily on words such as
conservation, ecology, responsible, environmental and so on. Other commonly
used words include: discovery, exploration, understanding, peace,
sustainability, energy, adventure and education.
762
INTERNET REPRESENTATIONS OF TOURISM
To examine ecotourism and cultural tourism advertising on the internet, we
used multiple search engines to select seven websites that promoted eco-
friendly tours. Our initial criteria for consideration were that the sites:
(1) represented well-established companies that offered more than
one or two tours;
(2) claimed to offer sustainable tours;
(3) specied that culture was the primary focus of at least some of
the tours; and
(4) specied developing countries as primary destinations.
Additionally, we sought websites with fairly extensive information about
the cultures and trips, including a variety of both photographs and text.
Finally, we selected sites advertising varied geographical destinations.
2
We emphasize that this is a case study of seven websites. Thousands of
ecotourism websites may be found and the uidity of the internet means
that none of them provide stable sources of information. All of them change
frequently and did so over the duration of this study. Additionally, websites
disappear periodically and new sites become available. We believe that our
criteria for selection and our analysis provide useful insights in order to
address our questions and provide a foundation for further research.
We did not systematically address how the cultures advertised actually are
in comparison to how they are represented, except to note an absence of
adequate context in most instances. We assumed that with the interactive
technologies and the space available on the internet, destinations could be
presented more comprehensively than in other forms of advertising, with
considerable information on indigenous societies and on local environmental
concerns.
We specically addressed two questions, noted earlier: do ecotourism
enterprises advertise destinations on the internet in a manner consistent with
the discourse of ecotourism and sustainable development? Do they represent
a different online communication strategy in depicting Third World societies,
as compared to traditional forms of advertising?
The methodology for the study was a qualitative textual analysis,
emphasizing the in-depth examination of the content of the seven websites.
Manning and Cullum-Swan (1994) divide the analysis of documentary data
into the following categories: content and narrative analysis, structuralism
and semiotics. According to their system, our study is a macrotextual
narrative analysis, which views texts as symbolic action and assumes the
role of words and images in representing, dramatizing and shaping society
(Manning and Cullum-Swan, 1994: 465). In this form of analysis, the
researcher typically identies and interprets the ways in which a particular
763
Table 1 Comparison of visual and internet elements of the websites
WEBSITE
VISUAL ELEMENTS
LAYOUT PICTURES GRAPHICS
INTERNET OPTIONS
BANNERS/ICONS/
ANIMATION INTERACTIVITY COMMENTS
Hidden
Cultures
Conventional; 5
frames; mainly text;
plain background.
24 photos. Local groups
hunting, men with snakes, body
painting, genitalia ornaments,
spears, ritual ceremonies.
Amateur quality.
5 maps
(plain).
Identication
banner.
Low Small site; emphasis
on primitive; low
sophistication.
West African
Journey
Basic layout; no
frames; plain
background;
sidebar menu; no
banners.
29 photos. Casual everyday
activities (farming, cooking,
selling, herding); 9 pictures
depict landscapes of city life; and
architecture. Amateur quality.
Clickable
map; clipart;
ags; TIES
seal.
None Low Straightforward text
realistic images.
Low sophistication.
Discovery
Initiatives
Distinctive
homepage: puzzle
of high-quality
photos. Other
pages: 3 frames;
boxes; top icon-
bar.
Over 100 pictures, 3 to 5 per
destination. Mostly wildlife and
landscapes. Three countries show
people. Homepage shows the
Western founder in explorers
clothes. Professional quality.
Interactive
world map.
12 icons; 6
banners; pop-up
messages; friendly
print; newsletters.
High customization
in 12 categories;
search site tool.
Animals, humans
and scenery part of
the same puzzle to
explore. High
sophistication.
Nomadic
Expeditions
One column frame;
blank spaces;
elegant background
of Mongolian art;
side menu bar.
32 photos: landscapes,
Mongolians horseback riding,
celebrating the Golden Eagle
Festival, local children, the
founder and paleontologists
excavating. Professional quality.
Clickable
Mongol art
logo; sound
effect; TIES
seal.
6 banners per
section include one
ad banner; original
ancient art icons.
Medium
e-brochure email
trip info request.
Small site. Ancient
aesthetic design,
with cultural vistas.
Medium
sophistication.
N
e
w

M
e
d
i
a

&

S
o
c
i
e
t
y

6
(
6
)
7
6
4

a
t

S
A
G
E

P
u
b
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

o
n

J
u
n
e

2
6
,

2
0
0
9

h
t
t
p
:
/
/
n
m
s
.
s
a
g
e
p
u
b
.
c
o
m
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o
m

Asian Pacic
Journeys
Homepage has full-
size photo of
jungle river;
contains frame of
interactive icons
and menu bar;
banner; tool bar;
consistent layout
for other pages.
Over 100 high-quality colorful
pictures, 4 per destination.
Additional gallery, with some
art-like images (credits for
artists). Most depict perfect
natural, empty scenery. Cultural
images of ruins, anonymous
temples. People are shown as
eeting stereotypic images.
PDF version
of each trip
includes
maps.
Logotype of the
company; motion
banners.
Highly interactive;
newsletter; search
tools; customization
tools; interactive
gallery.
Large site. Easy to
navigate. Art-like,
postcard imagery.
Medium
sophistication.
Ecuador
Explorer-
Ecotours
Non-distinctive
homepage; 3
column frames;
side menu bars; 4
columns of text.
All sections with
similar layout.
16 Amazon forest photos in the
eco section: 6 of fauna and
landscapes, 10 of natives mining,
hunting, plus storytellers faces
explaining rituals. Context
provided. Subsections show
visitors, volunteers, NGO
workers. Spontaneous settings.
Amateur quality.
Clickable
maps of
regions,
climate, and
roads.
Ad banners of
cruises to
Galapagos Island do
not match to the
style of the site.
Despite search
engine and surveys,
the site does not
offer high levels of
interactivity.
Part of a larger site.
Amateur but
realistic images
with contextual
info. Emphasis on
text. Medium
sophistication.
Mountain
Travel Sobek
Homepage: full size
photo of Antarctic
expedition; boxes
with trips of the
month; trip-nder
tool. Consistent
layout; section
banners; top bar
menus.
Over 100 high-quality photos of
the 64 destination countries; 5
for each of the 12 types of
activities (kayaking hiking, etc).
45 postcards on scenery, animals
and people. Natives wear
traditional clothes in rural
settings; no context. Visitors
(white men) scale mountains.
Names for expedition founders
and guides.
Each of the
over 100
tourist
packages
have clear
route maps.
TIES seal.
Banners identify
activities, regions,
types of trips;
boxes explain the 5
levels of difculty;
clear icons.
Highly interactive
well-organized;
video clips; slide
shows, interactive
gallery; newsletter;
search tool; trip
nders; trip
customization.
National
Geographic-style
images emphasize
landscapes and
achievements of
visitors. High
sophistication.
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point of view (e.g. sustainable environment or cultural sensitivity and
authenticity) is supported or undermined in images and texts. Narrative
techniques, including the use of cultural symbols and contextual frames
(Entman, 1993), may be interpreted as supportive (or not supportive) of the
positions or perspectives in question.
Further, given the importance of visuals in ecotourism advertising, we
drew upon suggestions from Rose (2001: 189). Rose recommends
examining a wide variety of compositional elements in the analysis of visual
texts. These may include: overall layout, presence and nature of pictures,
presence and nature of graphics and the use of banners or icons.
Additionally, we sought information on features that were unique to the
internet, such as links to other websites, extent of interactivity and
customization and the overall sophistication of the site as compared to the
other sites. A comparative summary of this information is presented in
Table 1.
To address the rst research question, our analysis sought evidence of
concern for the environment both in general and specic to the destinations
advertised. Such evidence could include contextual information that is
relevant to sustainable environment, information on how the ecotourism
supports a sustainable environment (including people as a part of it), how
visitors may choose to help and/or links to environmental websites.
The second question considers to what extent the online advertising
offers messages that are consistent with prior studies of traditional
advertising. As prior studies reveal considerable commodication of native
peoples and cultures, this aspect of the websites was scrutinized in particular.
In the following discussion, we assess each website in view of our two
research questions. We document evidence for our interpretations, but also
recognize that our interpretations are not complete and that others might
make different interpretations. As van Zoonen (1994: 146) argues, the
qualitative researchers task is to nd a balance between faithfully
reconstructing the meanings, denitions and interpretations of those
examining the research material and an an analytic and encompassing
picture that illuminates the questions under study.
Hidden Cultures
This company (http://hiddencultures.com) offers ve package tours to
villages of Irian Jaya. According to their website, the focus is cultural
expeditions which promote the preservation of and respect for, the fantastic
indigenous people of Irian Jaya. Links are included to Irian Jaya websites.
Overall, Hidden Cultures is the least sophisticated website in the group (see
Table 1 above).
The ecotourism focus is on local culture. Of the 24 photographs, only
two are of landscapes and the rest are of native people. The website does not
766
seriously discuss either cultural or environmental sustainability, and it offers
no information on, or links to, the conservation of natural resources, or the
potential role of local people or tourists in conservation. However, the
companys credo We avoid leaving any trace of us does at least
recognize that a western presence might compromise the sustainability of
the environment or its communities.
The sole sustainable development goal for the tour appears to be
incenting them (local people) to keep their traditions and rituals alive, i.e.
sustaining indigenous practices for the benet of tourists. Otherwise, the site
fails to address just how and why hidden communities become involved in
the tours and agree to share their practices with western tourists. Nor are
there suggestions as to how the tours provide opportunities for
empowerment, as recommended by TIES.
Photographs of native people show them working and dressed in
traditional clothing, with the majority of men wielding spears. In all photos,
the people appear oblivious to the camera (except for one posed shot of
young boys holding spears), supporting the notion that tourists are just
observers and guests with no cultural impact. The only photo where a
local person appears to be having fun includes a white westerner smiling
and holding a native mans hand.
References to the host cultures refer to their primitiveness. They are
called people from a previous millennium, remote, traditional, warrior-
cannibals, untouched and among the last hunter-gathers left on earth.
While the emphasis is on their exotic qualities, their friendliness is also
stressed: people who might appear to be from a previous millennium, but
who could easily be your friend and neighbor.
The overall representation is consistent with that described by Britton
(1979) and Albers and James (1988) who observed that often, destinations
were represented as exotic but friendly. Additionally, the adventure is the
term to describe the tours. The tours are presented as a personal challenge,
an invitation to be a member of a kind of Survivor episode. Although the
tourist activities offered do not present great rigor, the message is that the
experience will be life-changing, as Edwards (1996) found in his postcard
study. In sum, the destinations are idealized in the commodication process.
Although the site includes links to Irian Jaya websites, pointing the reader to
contextual information, the website itself includes little historical, cultural or
environmental information.
West African Journey
This company (www.westafricanjourney.com) offers tours and homestays in
14 West-African countries, through which participants can learn about
music, dance, ecology, healing arts and handicrafts. The website is not highly
767
sophisticated, but does provide considerable information on every country
and links to sources of news, history and culture.
The company emphasizes the small groups and low impact of the tours.
It includes a basic denition of ecotourism: responsible travel to natural
areas which conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of local
people. It also includes suggestions on how to be an ecotraveler. The tips
are connected to principles of sustainability. For example, the company
encourages prior education about the destination, sensitivity to local
customs, the consumption of local foods and products and the use of
locally-owned transportation to benet the host community. Also, it warns
about purchasing goods produced from endangered species. The TIES seal
and a statement of its principles bring credibility to the site.
The site devotes much space to dispelling commonly-held assumptions
about Africa, e.g. that it is plagued by revolutions, disease, famine and bugs;
there are dangerous animals; transportation is difcult; and that it is
unbearably hot.
Photographs show images of men and women laboring: cooking, making
crafts, carrying food baskets, herding livestock and growing crops. Pictures
also include urban scenes, the citys skyline and colorful buses. Most photos
show people in traditional clothing, although some show western styles.
While this company does not elaborate on the primitiveness of the cultures
as in the previous example, it points out that the local people still practice
the same traditions that they have done for centuries. The homepage states
that:
[The visitor will nd] youngsters having fun on a cart pulled by braying
donkeys. The family gathered in the afternoon shade for three rounds of
traditional Arab tea. Sitting under a baobab tree philosophizing with village
elders. Such is a typical afternoon in this West African village and you can be
part of it!
Despite mentions of timeless traditions, this website shows diverse images
of countries in a less exotic way than many other sites. It depicts cultural
changes, urban settings and history. The site provides information about
environmental problems and links to background information. The
information on ancient African empires is unusual in providing a cultural
and historical context from pre-colonial times.
Discovery Initiatives
This sophisticated website (www.discoveryinitiatives.com) includes over 100
pictures of its 27 destinations on all continents. The site offers customization
in 12 categories (related to the intensity of physical challenge, type of
activity and degree of comfort that is desired), plus tailor-made trips.
The tours are mostly sightseeing visits to natural areas. Eco-friendly safaris
aim to discover and experience nature without using ries but cameras.
768
Most of the pictures depict natural scenes: savannas, mountains and deserts
and wildlife such as gorillas, pandas and whales. Photos of people or of
cultural artifacts are scarce on this site.
This website emphasizes sustainable development, which is understood
primarily as natural resources and animal conservation. The company
extends this commitment to the visitor by suggesting that your journey
provides the economic, ethical and environmental incentives to conserve
such areas for future generations. The fact that some proceeds fund
conservation programs such as the one in the Galapagos Islands helps to
support this claim, along with claims of Fair Trade partnerships with the
local communities visited.
The logos of 13 different non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such
us The Gorilla Foundation and the Tusk Trust on the homepage of the site
additionally suggest mutual concerns that help to legitimize the seriousness
of the companys environmental propose. Links are provided to further
environmental information, including articles on global warming and the
dangers of the gorillas extinction.
While this website is quite progressive in its presentation of the natural
environment, its limited depictions of people reect ndings of previous
advertising studies. For example, one of the few descriptions of people states
that Tibetans live in picturesque villages, are friendly, ancient and still
wear their traditional colorful clothing. Meanwhile the visitors are called
discoverers (after the name of the company and also its newsletter),
emphasizing the western/non-western distinction.
The company also states that it makes every effort to preserve local
cultures. However, no historical or political/economic information is
provided about the countries involved, beyond links to environmental sites,
as previously noted. Additionally, the experience itself reects the ndings of
previous advertising studies in emphasizing adventure without risk.
Nomadic Expeditions
This company (www.nomadicexpeditions.com) offers 10 different tours
varying in duration and intensity to Mongolia, China, Nepal and Tibet;
however, the main emphasis is on discovering the natural and cultural
wonders of nomads in Mongolia. This medium-sophisticated website
suggests an aesthetic of ancient culture. Links connect the user to lodge
advertisements and to TIES.
The site emphasizes the sustainability of the nomadic culture. One way to
provide support is via charitable donations, a strategy that is not necessarily
environmentally sustainable, but a way of showing the companys
commitment to host communities. The site also includes considerable
discourse emphasizing mutual respect and sensitivity to cultural difference,
claiming that Mongolian educators and local experts work together to create
769
a truly cross cultural perspective. At the same time, there is no information
on just how the tourist experience supports either sustainability or cross-
cultural understanding. The participation of the western tourist in nomadic
adventures is not explained, but simply depicted as friendly and inspiring.
The willingness of nomads to share their journeys with foreigners and the
resulting costs and benets are not addressed.
External partners such as museums and foundations are called Clients
with a Cause, because their goal is to preserve the local cultural heritage.
Photos of scientists excavating provide some evidence of this interest in
cultural preservation.
Again, the representation of local people is consistent with traditional
advertising studies. The tourist participates in ancient cultures by discovering
this land of nomadic horsemen and traditions dating to the time of Chingis
Khan. Adjectives used to describe native people and their villages include:
last remaining, inaccessible, mythical, age-old, legendary, unspoiled,
ancient, pristine, proud and isolated. Photographs show deserts, yaks,
nomads riding horses, people hard at work and ancient artwork.
Despite much rhetoric of adventure, tourists have the option to observe
cultural treasures from a comfortable position. The best example is the
Lost Cities private jet tour that takes tourists, in a single trip, from
Uzbekistan to Cambodia passing though four countries. The advertisement
recommends seeing the timeless, mysterious and ancient cultures in one
single trip. This form of tourism clearly does not relate to sustainable
practices but groups multiple cultures into one package for observation from
the air. All the travel details are taken care of to make the tourists dream a
reality.
Asia Transpacic Journey
This sophisticated website (www.southeastasia.com) claims that the company
is the expert in our corner of the world, a corner formed by 24 countries.
Most of the images are unlabeled natural scenes, although some cultural
photos show isolated ruins, ancient architecture, towers of anonymous
temples and washing hanging out to dry in an unknown street. The site
offers a high level of interactivity and links to charitable projects and general
information on the countries, such as CNN Asia. There are no
environmental links.
This companys understanding of sustainable development is quite
supercial, but includes both culture and environment: [it facilitates] cross-
cultural understanding, encourages environmental sustainability and fullls
long-held personal dreams. The site claims to promote positive experiences
between the tourist and hosts via a page called our commitment, which
displays a photo of two hands shaking, one pale, the other dark. The
770
company also has a charitable component that supports grass-roots
organizations, primarily to benet children.
The nature dimension of the tours consists of intimate tribal visits,
rainforest walks and tours related to projects for endangered species (e.g. a
panda preserve program in China). Descriptions of the tours do not
seriously connect to sustainability by providing environmental information
or explaining how the tours benet the environment. Rather, they
emphasize that the places are unspoiled, remote and offer opportunities to
see the rainforest and wild animals. This shows how the discourse on places,
their environment and culture is constructed as separate from local
initiatives, programs or debates on the environment issues. In fact,
sustainability is little more than a catchword to draw customers with an
interest in nature and culture.
The trips emphasize the ahistorical and acontextual cultures to be
encountered: This is a tropical paradise with a surprising wealth of
traditional cultures. It remains untouched. As for other companies, the local
people are exotic, yet friendly: There are few places where the visitor is so
taken by the exotic and yet feels at home so quickly. The word exotic is
used throughout the site, as are the words traditional, remote, gentle,
gracious, spiritual unspoiled, removed in time, primitive, fearsome
appearance and pre-Stone Age. (Despite their fearsome appearance wild
feathered headdresses, boars tusk nose ornaments and imposing penis gourds
the Dani are among the most gentle people weve encountered.) Photos
are of professional postcard quality. Some include captions that are as vague
as girl from the north, tribal woman, friendly Balinese and market
vendor. There are just a few photos of tourists, two posing with local
people.
The customization further reinforces the superciality of the encounters.
The website customizes trips according to the terrain/activity selected (land,
cruise or diving) or the travel style (romantic, cultural or active). Knowing
about places and local cultures is secondary, as the place can be any that
matches the emotional state or activity interest of the customer, The site also
offers customized gifts. The place as a package becomes a construction of
the itinerary created by the site. For example, romantic (Opulent India),
or cultural (The Treasures of Siam) could be given as a present through
the site. Hence the destinations are practically interchangeable on this site,
reminiscent of Aug es (1995) non-places.
Educador Explorer Eco-Tours
This site (www.ecuadorexplorer.com/tropic) does not belong to a single
company, but to a network of tourist operators, hotels, national parks,
community organizations and government ofces related to the environment
in Ecuador. Most of the cultural trips are to villages in the Amazon and a
771
few to the Andean mountains. This is a large site with extensive text. It
includes a large ecotourism section and links to dozens of local tour
operators, the Ministry of Tourism, NGOs, government and economic sites
and sites on history, food, health, news and transportation. The site does not
offer a great deal of interactivity and it favors text over images.
The section devoted to ecotourism dedicates a page to the often
improper use of the prex eco to attract tourists. The page delineates ve
principles that eco-sites and eco-operators should follow: conservation,
minimal environmental impact, sustainability, meaningful community
involvement and environmental education. Each principle is explained and
the associated tourist agencies and packages seem to follow them. Also, the
links are consistent with the eco-principles discussed. A link to one hotel
explains the use of solar panels. Other hotels sites offer information on
their organic gardens, terraced reforestation to combat erosion, recycling
policies and composting toilets. This site also includes a selection of articles
on the conict over oil, mining policies, abuses of land in Ecuador and the
cultural value of native peoples storytelling. The site recognizes the complex
issues of environment and sustainability by informing the tourist about the
history of the problems and local activism.
In addition to its nuanced attention to principles of conservation and
sustainability, the company prioritizes community involvement, as indicated
in its discussion of eco-principles. Plus, cultural preservation and meaningful
encounters are included in the discussion of sustainability. There are a
number of pictures of tourists and local people interacting. Most of the
other websites showed tourists either posing with local people as part of the
scenery or observing them at a distance. In this site, local people are
portrayed with greater respect and with contextual information, including
acknowledgement that the cultures have undergone dramatic changes over
the last few decades.
In addition, photos include the complete identication and testimony of
the people who are portrayed. One page on Amazonian people shows a
native man telling how to build a canoe; another page explains the meaning
of a jungle festival according to one indigenous leader. The voices,
traditions, knowledge and names of the people are recognized. The voice of
the local community is prominent in the discourse on the site.
Mountain Travel Sobek
This company (www.mtsobek.com) offers many eco-treks with cultural trips
to 64 countries on every continent. The website is elaborate. The menu
offers a customized trip-nder tool according to activity, region and type of
activity (easy, family, short, etc.) as criteria for selection, again suggesting
the interchangeability of places. The website has well over 100 high-quality
photos with an additional gallery that the visitor can customize as travel
772
postcards. Links are primarily to commercial outdoor equipment websites,
with some links to general country information (e.g. CIA factbook) and
information on health precautions and visa procedures.
In general, this site is centered on adventure, of men facing the wildness,
conquering the highest peak and feeling the achievement as you stretch
yourself and the boundaries of your horizons. The companys focus is not
local environments or cultures, but rather enhancing each travelers
experience of the adventure. The ecotourism dimension of the company is
advertised in two ways: as their small group policy (Long before the
concept of Ecotourism, we took pains to travel in a conscientious manner,
in small vessels carrying no more than 10 to 12) and in their philosophy of
giving back by sponsoring conservation foundations that are devoted to
protecting endangered species and environmental research. The TIES seal is
included. However, the website provides no discussion of sustainability,
environmental issues or links relevant to particular destinations.
Like most of the other companies, this one refers to the indigenous
people as exotic, enigmatic, traditional, colorful, unchanged for
centuries and timeless. Photographs in the postcards page are of smiling
people in traditional clothing, though in the tour pages there are several
pictures showing tourists and local people interacting and having fun
together. Tourists in the photos are predominantly young, white, male adults
(in their 20s40s), whereas many of the photos of local people are of the
elderly or children. Hence, the tourist photos provide a clear indication of
the target market for these trips. The founders of the company were male
adventurers and the site seems to follow their interest in reaching the limits,
extending the horizons of male adventure. However, the last update of the
site offers a womens adventure trip due to popular demand.
CONCLUSIONS
Given the popularity of ecotourism and cultural tourism, their relationship
to a sustainable environment and their increased partnership with the
internet, we investigated how they are represented on seven websites. We
specically examined consistency with basic eco sustainable principles and
whether internet representations of culture essentially replicate those in
traditional forms of advertising, as indicated in prior research.
All but two of the sites revealed missing elements that are at the core of
discourses on ecotourism, as reviewed earlier. These include local
participation in the development process, respect for natural and cultural
resources and history and a proactive interest in learning from other
cultures. This is not a problem of space constraints, as might be the case in
print advertising.
Further, only two of the websites show consistency between the self-
claimed eco-friendly tours and an explanation of why and how they offer
773
eco tours, as Mader (2002) also has observed. Most do not discuss the
principles of sustainability and only rarely refer to the environmental
dynamics of the communities and landscapes that are visited. Their failure to
provide links to other sources with information on history, demographics
and news of the countries and regions demonstrates an interest in depicting
the spaces as unchangeable and isolated. In essence, then, the language of
ecotourism, environment and sustainability in internet advertising appears to
reect a form of commodication that is similar to the cultural
commodication also observed.
While ecotourism conferences, as those organized by the World Tourism
Organization, often focus on issues of certication, eco-labels and other
strategies for building trust, credibility and cooperation among stakeholders,
the online discourses of ecotourism companies do not express these
intentions for the most part. Three of the sites that we examined carried the
TIES seal; however, only one out of the three West African Journey had
content that was deserving of the recognition. In fact, it appears that criteria
for carrying the seal are minimal, beyond paying membership fees (TIES,
2003).
Additionally, most online information fails to argue for a non-exploitative
relationship between tourists and host communities. Rather, legitimacy is
sought primarily through donations to related causes and unsubstantiated
discourse, including claims of strategic partnerships.
We also examined the extent to which representations of cultures show
consistency with prior studies of tourism advertising. In general, images of
indigenous cultures online varies little from those of older brochures and
postcards and some of the very same themes can be seen in the online
advertisements. For example, there is an emphasis on the exotic in both the
photography and language. Most of the online photographs could be
classied as beautiful, exotic and/or cute, which are three of Cohens (1993)
metaphoric categories.
3
Indeed, little has changed since the research by
Britton (1979). Many of the six themes that he identied in travel
advertisements are blatantly obvious. Only the Ecuador Explorer Eco-Tours
site really acknowledges that there are problems in indigenous societies.
With the exception of West African Journey, there are extraordinarily few
references to any overlap between the traditional and modern cultures
present within each country, even though for most trips, tourists y into
urban areas. Thus, there is a clear separation between the urban and the
pastoral in most internet advertisements. Similarly, there is an emphasis on
the simultaneous strangeness and familiarity of the local cultures and a
romanticization and idealization of the cultures. Finally, there is an element
of inauthentic place-making in the sale of indigenous festivals and rites to
tourists. Many of these traditions are carried out for the sole benet of the
774
tourists. In essence, some of the websites and associated tours appear to offer
the acontextual non-places theorized by Aug e (1995).
The postmodern scholars cited earlier seem to have described very aptly
the desires and motivations of western tourists, at least as imagined by tour
operators. Indeed, with instantaneous access to so much information and the
opportunity to travel without leaving home, there is an apparent timespace
compression. This compression is reected in the ahistorical texts and images
on most ecotourism websites.
While clearly these ideas are represented in internet advertisements, it is
hard to assign a value judgement to them. It seems inappropriate to
commodify a culture and its environment, holding it in a static state. Valuing
cultures monetarily invariably leads to a time when they become devalued
and less appealing. The power dynamic between wealthy and developing
nations is blatant, with the extreme illustrated by the customization options
of several companies and certainly by Nomadic Expeditions private jet
ecotour. At the same time, travel can be deeply fullling, providing one of
the few opportunities for information to ow two ways between developing
and industrialized nations. While it is mostly wealthy tourists and indigenous
peoples who participate in this exchange of information, it is perhaps better
than nothing.
Additionally, at least some ecotourists are more environmentally
sophisticated and receptive than tour companies recognize. These tourists
care about values of environmental and cultural sustainability, want to
educate themselves and do the right thing. More realistic and context-based
advertising, including internet advertising, may help to provide the necessary
information that truly supports the goals of sustainability, while at the same
time reducing the extent of commodication that takes place.
Acknowledgements
We thank Kim Sheehan and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions.
Notes
1 He distinguishes metaphoric images from metanymic or neutral images, common in
journalistic and scientic publications. Metanymic images are infrequent compared to
metaphoric images in tourist literature (Cohen, 1993).
2 Search engines included Google, Altavista, Yahoo! and Infoseek. We also made use of
about.com and ecotourism.org as starting points. Search terms were nature tourism,
environmental tourism, ecotourism, cultural tourism and sustainable tourism.
These keywords produced thousands of results, for example, 8000 in Google and 7000
in Yahoo!. For every ve pages of results we chose one commercial website that
matched our criteria. From the best 30 websites we selected seven that met the
following criteria: three specialized in geographical regions of Asia, Africa and Latin
America; two promoted tours globally but emphasized the exploration of developing
world regions; and two claimed to specialize in cultural immersions and tourism to
remote regions.
775
3 Cohen (1993: 55) suggests that, because of an increased appreciation of foreign
cultures and growing opposition to chauvinism and racism, indigenous people should
less often be represented as exotic or comic and more often as beautiful or
cute. Our study shows that exotic remains a popular metaphoric representation of
indigenous people. However, we found few pictures that were comic in nature, which
may indicate partial support for Cohens suggestion.
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ELIZABETH DORSEY received a masters degree in Journalism from the University of Oregon
in 2000. She is a freelance writer in Brunswick, Maine.
Address: 52 Weymouth Street, Brunswick, ME 04011, USA. [Email:
erjames@suscom-maine.net]
H. LESLIE STEEVES is Director of Graduate Studies and Research in the School of
Journalism and Communication, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR. Her research and teaching
interests include communication in developing countries, especially Africa, feminism and
media. She is co-author (with Srinivas Melkote) of the book Communication for Development
in the Third World: Theory and Practice for Empowerment (Sage, 2001).
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Address: School of Journalism and Communication, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403,
USA. [Email: lsteeves@oregon.uoregon.edu]
LUZ ESTELLA PORRAS is a doctoral candidate at the University of Oregon. She is interested
in development communication in Latin America.
Address: School of Journalism and Communication, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403,
USA. [Email: lporras@darkwing.uoregon.edu]
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