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Emerging
Local, State,
& Federal
Partnerships
DIRECTOR‘S MESSAGE National Institute of Justice
Jeremy Travis
This issue of the National Institute of Justice Journal represents a renewed Director
commitment by NIJ to publish this flagship communications vehicle on a quarterly
basis, while continuing the Journal’s tradition of excellence in presenting findings NIJ Journal Editorial Board
from the best of criminal justice research. To help achieve these goals, we’ve Sally Hillsman
established an in-house Editorial Board whose members you’ll find listed on the Deputy Director for Office of
masthead in this edition. The Board helps the editorial staff assure that the Research and Evaluation
information in the Journal accurately reflects the scope of NIJ’s research and John L. Schwarz
development activities, is timely, and, when based on sponsored research, is Deputy Director for Office of
academically rigorous. Development and Dissemination
David Boyd
Highlighted in this issue is an article written by NIJ Visiting Fellow William Director, Office of
McDonald about the complex issues surrounding illegal immigration and related Science and Technology
crime. The impact of illegal immigration is often felt most severely at the local
level, yet overall the repercussions can be national in scope. As officials Stephanie Bourque
formulate strategies to deal with illegal immigration and related crime—both by Cheryl A. Crawford
and against immigrants—law enforcement agencies at the Federal, State, and Mary G. Graham
local level each play a role, based on differing authority and responsibility. This Wendy Howe
article discusses efforts to define roles and forge partnerships to deal with the Christy Visher
problem while recognizing the differing attitudes toward immigration policy and
the differing goals associated with immigration control and crime control. Issue Editor
Daniel Tompkins
Also in this issue is an article describing NIJ’s National Law Enforcement and
Corrections Technology Centers, a national and regional resource for State and
local law enforcement and corrections agencies. NIJ’s Office of Science and
The National Institute of Justice Journal
Technology supports the development of new technologies and the testing of is published by the National Institute of
existing technologies for criminal justice applications. The Technology Centers Justice, the research arm of the U.S. Depart-
described in this issue provide hands-on technical assistance and information ment of Justice, to announce the Institute’s
related to criminal justice technology to the State and local criminal justice policy-relevant research results and initia-
agencies in their area. We urge our partners at the local level to take advan- tives. The Attorney General has determined
tage of this resource. that publication of this periodical is neces-
sary in the transaction of the public busi-
ness required by law of the Department of
Last year marked the publication of the 20th edition of Crime and Justice: A Justice.
Review of Research. This issue of the NIJ Journal includes a synopsis of this Opinions or points of view expressed in this
milestone edition, a look at future volumes, and a historical overview of the document are those of the authors and do
prestigious series, sponsored primarily by NIJ and published by the University of not necessarily reflect the official position
Chicago Press. NIJ’s continued support for Crime and Justice reflects its commit- of the U.S. Department of Justice.
ment to remain at the forefront of important criminal justice research. The National Criminal Justice Reference
Service (NCJRS), a centralized national
Other information presented in this issue highlights new developments at NIJ, clearinghouse of criminal justice informa-
such as the establishment of a new Crime Mapping Center—which will be tion, is sponsored by the Office of Justice
covered in more detail in future issues. New challenges in criminal justice Programs agencies and the Office of Na-
require new commitments to meet those challenges. Part of NIJ’s commitment is tional Drug Control Policy. Registered us-
ers of NCJRS receive the National Institute
to share useful information through the NIJ Journal. We welcome your comments of Justice Journal and NCJRS Catalog free.
and suggestions. To become a registered user, write NCJRS
User Services, Box 6000, Rockville, MD
Jeremy Travis 20849–6000, call 800–851–3420, or e-mail
Director askncjrs@ncjrs.org.
National Institute of Justice The National Institute of Justice is a com-
ponent of the Office of Justice Programs,
which also includes the Bureau of Justice
Assistance, Bureau of Justice Statistics,
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin-
quency Prevention, and Office for Victims
of Crime.
CONTENTS Issue No. 232
FEATURES
CRIME AND ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION:
EMERGING LOCAL, STATE, AND FEDERAL PARTNERSHIPS .................................... 2
RESEARCH PREVIEWS
EVALUATION OF DRUG TREATMENT IN LOCAL CORRECTIONS ............................. 19
SOLICITATIONS ................................................................................. 25
June 1997 1
▼
Emerging
Local, State,
and Federal
Partnerships
by William F. McDonald
A
days, immigration and related tion control. The shared responsibility
crime control policies con- recognizes that law enforcement’s
tinue to fuel our national de- mission is primarily crime control, not
bate. Law enforcement, immigration control.
central and local governments,
border communities, and em- Crosscutting the partnerships are po-
ployers struggle to steer a course true litical forces at all levels of govern-
to crime control as they navigate the ment—and police agencies are
turbulent waters of cultural and politi- sometimes caught in the middle.
cal sensitivities. Policymakers who favor immigration
would narrowly restrict the police role
This article describes a new partner- in immigration control (e.g., by dis-
ship approach to sharing responsibility couraging the police from referring
and authority for the costs and out- suspected illegals to Federal authori-
comes of illegal immigration and ties); those opposed to immigration
related crime. These partnerships— would greatly expand it (e.g., by re-
among local, State, and Federal au- quiring the police to report all sus-
thorities—recognize the separate and pected illegal immigrants). The police,
sometimes confounding distinctions however, have their own views to
June 1997 3
CRIME & ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION
however, these numbers probably gration, including smuggling illegal pursuit; or forced them to work in
overestimate the relative criminality immigrants, manufacturing and selling sweatshops or prostitution rings to
of the illegal population because a dis- fraudulent documents, bribing public pay off the cost of the trip. Bandits
proportionate number of the illegal officials, and preying on illegal prey upon them during their jour-
immigrants were likely to have been immigrants. neys. Xenophobes and hatemongers
single males in their crime-prone terrorize them. Some employers
years. A wide range of predators victimize cheat them of their earnings. The
illegal immigrants. Guides and orga- fact that illegal immigration is a
Discussion of crime and immigration nized gangsters have robbed, raped, crime makes the immigrants particu-
is not limited to illegal immigrants’ and killed them; abandoned them in larly vulnerable because they are un-
involvement in crime. It extends to all the desert; tossed them overboard at likely to seek the protection of the law.
crimes associated with illegal immi- sea or out of speeding cars under hot
The INS estimates that 5 million undocumented aliens currently reside in the United States—an estimate they caution could be
off in either direction by up to 400,000 people. The table below lists the estimates by State for 1992 (the last time the INS
projected illegal alien population totals) and 1996.
Source: U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Office of Policy and Planning, “Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population
Residing in the United States as of October, 1996,” Washington, DC: January 1997.
June 1997 5
CRIME & ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION
tional facilities. In February 1983, lean years, INS received a major infu- LESC gives local law enforcement the
New York State’s Department of Cor- sion of funds earmarked for (1) reduc- capacity to quickly determine the im-
rectional Services contacted Federal ing illegal immigration by hardening migration status of suspects so that
authorities requesting assistance to the border, (2) deterring the employ- criminal aliens can be readily identi-
alleviate the burden of incarcerating ment of illegals, and (3) improving fied and removed. One feature of this
illegal aliens. support of crime-fighting abilities of is the development of a system to flag
State and local law enforcement the criminal records of individuals
Finding that neither INS nor the Bu- agencies. who have been deported. Other as-
reau of Prisons had space available pects are more complex and cannot be
and learning that there may be 4,000 The 1994 Crime Act authorized $1.2 reduced to a simple entry on a com-
or more aliens in State prisons nation- billion for specialized enforcement puter record. Rather, the determination
ally, Congress eventually passed legis- provisions, including border control, of immigration status and possible de-
lation, which became part of the 1986 criminal alien deportation, asylum re- portability requires the judgment of
form, and a crimi- officials knowledgeable in the arcane
nal alien tracking particulars of immigration law and
center. experienced at interpreting immigra-
tion files. The program has been pilot
In addition, it au-
tested in Arizona and Iowa and is be-
thorized funds to
ing further tested in south Florida.
reimburse the
States and locali- Streamlining deportation proce-
ties for the cost of dures. IHP is a key component in
incarcerating ille- Federal efforts to streamline the de-
gal aliens.13 In De- portation process and close the gap
cember 1996, the that allows immigrants in State and
Federal Govern- local custody to be released before
ment released $495 their immigration status can be deter-
million. Half of the mined and deportation initiated. Once
money went to released, illegal immigrants disappear,
California, with move, and often get new identification
$12.8 million set papers with different names. Finding
immigration reform bill, to reimburse aside for Los Angeles County jails. them again to enforce final orders of
States for costs incurred for imprison- The rest went to 48 other States.14 deportation is extremely inefficient.
ing illegal aliens.12 Of the 83,793 deportation orders is-
In the wake of the Crime Act, INS has
sued to illegal immigrants who were
By the 1990s, aroused public concern launched two major initiatives ad-
not in prison in 1995, 37,246, or 44.5
about illegal immigration resulted in the dressing criminal aliens: the Law En-
percent, were issued for immigrants
opening of a new round of discussions forcement Support Center (LESC),
who could not be found.15
about the compatibility of immigra- designed to improve the process of
tion control with the fundamental mis- identifying illegal aliens who commit Through IHP, the deportation hearing
sion of the police. (See “Chronicle of crimes, and the Institutional Hearing process is conducted before the immi-
Immigration Policies and Legislation.”) Program (IHP), designed to streamline grant leaves the custody of the State
deportation procedures. Both pro- or local facility, thereby ensuring his
grams aim to enhance coordination availability for removal. In addition,
New partnerships with State and local agencies. with the recent influx of Federal
money, INS can now afford to set
Passage of the Violent Crime Control Streamlining identification proce-
high bail so fewer illegal workers can
and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 dures. The LESC program improves
disappear. Suspected illegal workers
(Crime Act) created unprecedented the efficiency of the expulsion process
are held in jail at a cost of $60 per
levels of Federal resources that were through the front end of the system—
day—a cost that is reimbursed by the
committed to control illegal immigra- when law enforcement officers first
Federal Government.
tion and the crimes committed by and come in contact with criminal aliens in
against illegal immigrants. After many the course of routine police work.
June 1997 7
CRIME & ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION
checks should be conducted on sus- tice (CDOJ) now share fingerprint and immigrants, he has proposed a logic
pected foreign-born arrestees, de- deportation status information. On by which local law enforcement agen-
fendants, and offenders. completion of their State-imposed cies would accept responsibility for
prison terms, alien felons are finger- prosecuting crimes that fall within
• Entering into National Crime Infor- printed and released to INS custody their local bailiwick. Together with
mation Center (NCIC) files all war- for deportation. When the alien is de- San Diego District Attorney Paul
rants on criminal aliens with final ported, INS forwards a fingerprint Pfingst, he has developed an agree-
orders of deportation who abscond card to CDOJ for positive identifica- ment that covers most serious crime.
prior to removal. tion. CDOJ then applies a new flag to The intent of the allocation is to pros-
ecute offenses in that jurisdiction
where the potential sanction is best
calculated to result in an appropriate
punishment and deterrent effect on a
case-by-case basis.
June 1997 9
CRIME & ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION
6. Pennell, Susan, Christine Curtis, 10. In the mid-1970s, along a short 14. Lacey, Marc, “U.S. Releases Dis-
and Jeff Tayman, The Impact of Ille- stretch of land that separates residen- puted Jail Costs to States,” Los Ange-
gal Immigration on the Criminal Jus- tial areas in south San Diego from the les Times, December 6, 1996.
tice System. San Diego, CA: San border with Mexico, the known rate of
Diego Association of Governments, victimization of immigrants making 15. Hall, Charles W., “INS Has a Hard
1989. their way into the country illegally Time Deporting Illegal Immigrants It
was high, even though it was esti- Can’t Find,” Washington Post, March
7. Richard A. Parker and Louis M. mated to be only 10 to 25 percent of 3, 1996:B1, B3.
Rea, California Senate, Special Com- the true rate. During 1975, 130 cases
mittee on Border Issues, Illegal Immi- 16. Branigin, “Illegal Immigrant
of robbery (with multiple victims), 13
gration in San Diego County: An Population Grows to 5 Million,” A3.
rapes, and 4 murders were reported to
Analysis of Costs and Revenues. the San Diego Police Department. In 17. Interstate Criminal Alien Working
Sacramento, CA, 1993. 1976, 156 robberies, 3 rapes, and 3 Group, Report on Addressing the
homicides were reported, all directly Criminal Alien Problem, Washington,
8. Schmid, Alex P., ed., Migration
involving illegal aliens as either vic- DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bu-
and Crime. Milan, Italy: International
tims or suspects. Source: Kolendar, reau of Justice Assistance, August
Scientific and Professional Advisory
William B., “Remarks Regarding Ille- 1996.
Council of the United Nations Crime
gal Aliens.” In The Police Yearbook
Prevention and Criminal Justice
1978. Gaithersburg, MD: International 18. Wambaugh, Joseph, Lines and
Programme, 1996.
Association of Chiefs of Police, Shadows. New York, NY: William
9. The smuggling of illegal immi- 1978:47–50. Morrow, 1984.
grants across the U.S. border began in
11. Interestingly, two large local 19. San Diego County Sheriff’s De-
1882. Shortly after Federal law ex-
newspapers sold in the politically con- partment, “Immigration Laws: En-
cluded the immigration of Chinese,
servative community agreed with him, forcement: Policy 6.47.2.” In Policies
the smuggling of Chinese immigrants
stating that they, too, thought residen- and Procedures. San Diego, CA:
began, as did the manufacturing of
tial raids were disruptive and that the October 1, 1992.
fraudulent documents to accompany
better strategy would be to concen-
them. In 1973, the smuggling of ille-
trate immigration control efforts at the
gal immigrants across the U.S.-
border. Skolnick, Jerome H., and
Mexican border was a thriving busi- Photo credits:
David H. Bayley, The New Blue Line:
ness estimated at $125 million a year. Page 2: U.S. Border Patrol in
Police Innovation in Six American
By 1977, the Mexican border was de- California at the U.S.-Mexican
Cities. New York, NY: The Free
scribed as a “free-fire zone” with hu- border; courtesy of NIJ’s
Press, 1986.
man beings being bought and sold in a Border Research and Technology
kind of slave trade. One Los Angeles 12. D’Amato, Alfonse M., “Aliens in Center
smuggling operation was making Prison—The Federal Response to a
$120,000 a trip packing up to 45 Pages 6 and 8: U.S.-Mexican
New Criminal Justice Emergency,”
aliens in a panel truck. Source: border, south of San Diego;
Detroit College of Law Review 4
McDonald, William F., “Illegal Immi- courtesy of NIJ’s Border Re-
(1983):1163–1169.
gration: Crime, Ramifications and search and Technology Center
Control (The American Experience).” 13. McDonald, “Illegal Immigration: Page 9: U.S. Border Patrol, Im-
In William F. McDonald, ed., Crime Crime, Ramifications and Control perial Beach Sector; courtesy of
and Law Enforcement in the Global (The American Experience),” 70. Office of the U.S. Attorney for the
Village, Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Southern District of California
Publishers, 1997:65–86.
June 1997 11
APPLYING TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES TO CRIMINAL JUSTICE
• National Center, Rockville,
NIJ’S SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY MISSION Maryland.
Specialties: Equipment testing, data
The mission of NIJ’s Office of Science and Technology is to:
• Identify law enforcement and criminal justice requirements for new tech- base maintenance, outreach, Web
nologies, especially at the State and local level. site maintenance, and publications
• Find, research, and develop new technologies and new applications to distribution.
existing technologies to improve policing, corrections, and criminal justice • Northeastern Regional Center,
in the United States. Rome, New York.
• Introduce promising new technologies to law enforcement and corrections
agencies. Specialties: Weapons detection and
• Provide technical and information assistance to law enforcement and cor- audio processing.
rections agencies at all levels in the area of technology. • Southeast Regional Center, Charles-
ton, South Carolina.
Specialties: Surplus property and
dissemination of information to State also allow NIJ to leverage available corrections.
and local law enforcement and correc- technology resources by linking each • Rocky Mountain Regional Center,
tions agencies. NIJ’s Office of Science center to special areas of expertise. Denver, Colorado.
and Technology (OST) coordinates The centers, as shown on the accom-
Specialties: Communications and
technology programs and conducts panying map, and their specialties are:
computer mapping.
outreach (see “NIJ’s Science and
Technology Mission”). To fulfill its
mission, NIJ has implemented a na-
tional and regional system of support NLECTC CONTACT INFORMATION
centers for State and local law en-
National Center
forcement and corrections agencies Rocky Mountain Region
NLECTC–National Center
that provide the kind of technical as- NLECTC–Rocky Mountain Region
2277 Research Boulevard
sistance described in the example 2050 East Illiff Avenue
Rockville, MD 20850
Denver, CO 80208
above. The National Law Enforcement Phone: 800–248–2742
Phone: 800–416–8086, or
and Corrections Technology Centers Fax: 301–519–5149
303–871–2522 in the
(NLECTCs), which are managed by E-mail: mcaplan@aspensys.com
Denver, Colorado, area
OST staff, consist of one national cen- Senior Project Manager:
Fax: 303–871–2500
ter, four regional centers, and one cen- Marc H. Caplan
E-mail: jkeller@du.edu
ter to support border States. (See Northeast Region Director: James A. Keller
“NLECTC Contact Information” for NLECTC–Northeast Region Western Region
the addresses, phone and fax numbers, 26 Electronic Parkway NLECTC–Western Region
e-mail addresses, and Directors of the Rome, NY 13441–4514 P.O. Box 92957
six Centers.) In addition, the network Phone: 888–338–0584 Mail Station M1/300
includes an Office of Law Enforce- Fax: 315–330–4315 Los Angeles, CA 90009–2957
ment Technology Commercialization E-mail: ritzj@rl.af.mil Phone: 310–336–2171
at NASA’s National Technology Director: John Ritz Fax: 310–336–2227
Transfer Center in Wheeling, West E-mail: nlectc@law–west.org
Southeast Region
Virginia. (A forthcoming NIJ Journal Director: Robert Pentz
NLECTC–Southeast Region
article will report on this office’s work.) 7325 Peppermill Parkway Border Research and
North Charleston, SC 29418 Technology Center
The concept of regional centers devel- Phone: 800–292–4385 1250 Sixth Avenue, Suite 130
oped as a means for NIJ to learn more Fax: 803–207–7776 San Diego, CA 92101
about the needs of law enforcement E-mail: sextont@awod.com Phone: 619–685–1491
and corrections professionals and to Director: Thomas Sexton Fax: 619–685–1484
use the specialized technological ex- e-mail: brtcchrisa@aol.com
pertise available around the country. Director: Chris Aldridge
The regional centers not only maxi-
mize geographic representation but
NLECTC
Southeast
• Western Regional Center, The National Center also manages the law enforcement and corrections
El Segundo, California. voluntary equipment standards and communities.
Specialties: Forensic image and testing program and is best known for
its work in testing and certifying the The center has identified several
audio analysis.
soft body armor worn by most police technologies—for example, low-
• Border Research and Technology power radar, X-ray, and acoustic and
officers. Among this center’s most
Center, San Diego, California. infrared imaging—that demonstrate
popular products are reports on new
Specialties: Border surveillance, police car packages and tires, which that an individual carrying a weapon,
security, and identification; and agencies use to develop informed pur- even in crowds, can be located and
night vision technology. chasing plans. electronically “tagged” quickly and
effectively. Technology under devel-
NLECTC—National The National Center also supports the opment might, for example, combine
outreach efforts and activities of the the complementary characteristics of
Center Law Enforcement and Corrections millimeter wave-imaging technology
The National Center was the first office Technology Advisory Council, the with infrared images. Engineers are
established in the NLECTC system. It is body that guides the work of the cen- also considering ways to set up a sta-
the hub for coordinating, collecting, ters and promotes knowledge of tech- tionary device in a corridor of a pub-
and disseminating information about nological advances. lic building or other crowded setting
new equipment, guidelines and stan- so that security officers can scan the
dards, and technical assistance. It is also passing crowd (rather than screen per-
responsible for developing and main- NLECTC—Northeast sons one at a time) for concealed
taining the Technology Center World Region weapons. Other advances include
Wide Web site, the Justice Technology portal devices that improve on
In June 1996, the Northeast Center today’s passthrough metal detectors
Information Network (JUSTNET). (See
was established at Rome Laboratory by revealing not only metal but also
“Information Gateway to NLECTC.”)
(a division of the Air Force research nonmetal and composite weapons.
Law enforcement and corrections pro-
and development laboratories) in New Handheld scanners are also being
fessionals call the National Center or
York. This center focuses its activities developed for police officers to use
connect to JUSTNET to obtain general
on detecting concealed weapons, one in their daily activities.
information or order publications such
of the greatest challenges facing the
as reports on product testing.
June 1997 13
APPLYING TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES TO CRIMINAL JUSTICE
Other research involves creating a time interoperability—that is, their ability NIJ social scientists and scholars in
analysis and joint automatic booking to communicate on demand across Washington, D.C., to devise applica-
system; automated firearms identifica- jurisdictions, with different equip- tions of crime analysis research. Re-
tion; high-speed networks; multiband, ment types, and in a wide variety of search findings are used to create
multifunction radios; transportable critical situations. Currently, person- practical applications that improve
communications systems; speech pro- nel from different agencies frequently field operations. For example, they
cessing; and automatic language trans- find establishing and maintaining are developing crime-mapping soft-
lation systems. communications to be complex and ware in collaboration with the Uni-
cumbersome. For example, the sher- versity of Denver’s Department of
iff, police, firefighters, and medical Geography and crime-mapping train-
NLECTC—Southeast emergency personnel who respond to ing packages that meet the needs of
Region the same critical incident may need to small, medium, and large police
carry several different radios—one to departments.
The Southeast Center’s mission is two- communicate with each agency. The
fold: (1) to locate and transfer surplus Rocky Mountain Center is imple- Other focus areas of the Rocky
military equipment and Federal prop- menting a series of projects with the Mountain Center include ballistics
erty to State and local law enforcement common goal of streamlining com- and weapons technology and infor-
and corrections agencies; and (2) to munications interoperability. Ven- mation systems.
respond to the needs of prison, jail, dors, developers, national
probation, and parole officers. The sur- organizations such as the Association
plus property activities are facilitated of Police Communications Officers, NLECTC—Western
by the center’s close proximity and and several agencies within the re- Region
relationship with the Naval In-Service gion are participating in efforts to
Engineering (NISE East) program at The Western Center was established at
identify and field test new technology
Charleston Naval Base. Corrections the Aerospace Corporation in El
solutions.
activities are advanced by the Correc- Segundo, California, and supports law
tions Committee of the Law Enforce- The Rocky Mountain Center also enforcement and corrections technol-
ment and Corrections Technology houses a branch of the newly estab- ogy through its expertise in forensic
Advisory Council. This committee iden- lished NIJ Crime Mapping Research image analysis. This technique enabled
tifies requirements and priorities for Center (see page 24). Specialists in engineers to enhance videotapes that
technology products and services that the Denver branch collaborate with led to the apprehension of a suspect in
can benefit corrections professionals.
June 1997 15
(through Volume 14) and published by
the University of Chicago Press, the
Crime and Justice series has become an
authoritative reference source for those
seeking comprehensive essays that
summarize important bodies of knowl-
edge and key trends in research and
development.
Communities and Crime (Volume 8), edited by Albert J. Reiss, Jr., and Michael Tonry. This volume examines the ways in which
communities affect crime and are affected by it, with essays on such subjects as environmental design and crime; the effects of
crime on a community’s schools, teachers, and pupils; and the influence of community context on recidivism of released offenders.
Prediction and Classification (Volume 9), edited by Don M. Gottfredson and Michael Tonry. The essays in this volume examine
the development and applications of research-based prediction and classification methods in criminal justice decisionmaking.
Family Violence (Volume 11), edited by Lloyd Ohlin and Michael Tonry. This volume provides a comprehensive review of re-
search in all areas of family violence, including domestic assault and homicide and child abuse.
Drugs and Crime (Volume 13), edited by Michael Tonry and James Q. Wilson. This volume provides a comprehensive overview
of the current state of research on interactions between crime and drug abuse.
Modern Policing (Volume 15), edited by Michael Tonry and Norval Morris. This volume provides a critical assessment of con-
temporary police agencies.
Beyond the Law (Volume 18) edited by Michael Tonry and Albert J. Reiss, Jr. This volume focuses on illegal activity by, within,
among, and against organizations.
Building a Safer Society (Volume 19—supported by the British Home Office), edited by Michael Tonry and David P. Farrington.
This volume examines strategic approaches to community, situational, and developmental crime prevention and offers guide-
lines for implementing and evaluating them.
Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration (Volume 21—supported by the Research and Statistics Department of the Home Office of
England and Wales, the Dutch Ministry of Justice, the Max Planck Institute for International and Comparative Penal Law in
Freiburg, Germany, the Swedish National Crime Prevention Council, the National Science Foundation of Switzerland, and the
Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation), edited by Michael Tonry. The essays in this volume provide the most current compara-
tive and cross-national perspectives of racial and ethnic differences in criminal offending, victimization by crime, and dispari-
ties and discrimination in Western justice systems.
Youth Violence (Volume 23), edited by Michael Tonry and Mark Moore. This volume is slated for publication in 1998 and will
include essays on the role of youths in violent crime and victimization, causes and correlates of youth violence, guns and youth
violence, prevention of youth violence, female youth violence, and gangs, drugs, and violence.
Prisons (Volume 25—supported with funds from the Corrections Program Office, OJP) edited by Michael Tonry and Joan
Petersilia. This volume is under development for publication in late 1998. Among the proposed essay topics are: changes in
prison populations, 1960–97; women’s prisons; effects of imprisonment on crime and public spending; effects of imprison-
ment on offenders, their families, and communities; treatment effectiveness within prisons; work within the walls (prison indus-
tries); and health care in prisons.
June 1997 17
ANNUAL RESEARCH REVIEWS FOR CRIMINAL JUSTICE
strengths and weaknesses, and offers periods and, hence, useful in docu- society and between our relation-
suggestions for improvements. These menting the development of ships to each other and to the State.
include recent attempts to integrate knowledge on crime and justice. Sentencing (whether it results in
each data source’s findings using imprisonment, community service,
• “Theoretical Integration or probation) shows most clearly
and Criminology,” by how punishment can be more than
Thomas J. Bernard and the mere delivery of pain, it can be a
Jeffrey B. Snipes. There genuinely communicative, reforma-
are many criminology theo- tive, and reconciliatory process.
ries today but no agreement
on which (if any) have been In addition to the above essays, Vol-
falsified by research. Some ume 20 includes valuable indexes—by
criminologists argue that author, subject, and essay title—of the
falsification must continue contents of the previous 19 volumes
because theories contradict that reflect the continuing research and
one another. The authors policy challenges facing criminal jus-
argue that the theories are tice. Another four volumes are in press
different but not contradic- or in the development phase.
synthetic estimation techniques to tory and thus can be integrated.
They believe integration is the ap- In addition to NIJ support, recent vol-
draw conclusions about how best to
propriate approach because the umes have been funded by the British
integrate data drawn from different
theories are not incompatible with Home Office and agencies from other
populations and gathered by distinct
each other and can be integrated European countries. For example, a
methodologies.
within categories. They conclude new volume, Ethnicity, Crime, and
• “Crime and Justice and the Crimi- that integration is useful pending Immigration, funded by organizations
nal Justice and Criminology Litera- the development of more advanced from five European countries, has just
ture,” by Ellen G. Cohn and David theoretical arguments and statisti- been published. The annual Crime and
P. Farrington. Using sophisticated cal techniques. Justice, supported by NIJ, will be
citation analysis, the authors find available later this year.
that the most-cited scholars and • “Penal Communications: Recent
Work in the Philosophy of Punish- To order copies of the Crime and Jus-
most-cited works in the general vol-
ment,” by R.A. Duff. This schol- tice series, contact The University of
umes of Crime and Justice: A Re-
arly, theoretical essay discusses the Chicago Press, Journals Division, P.O.
view of Research were significantly
historical context for several theo- Box 37005, Chicago, IL 60637
correlated with the most-cited
ries of punishment. It addresses the phone: 773–753–3347
scholars in major American crimi-
underlying tension between liberal fax: 773–753–0811
nology and criminal justice journals
and communitarian conceptions of e-mail: orders@journals.uchicago.edu
as well as international criminology
http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/
journals. The most-cited scholars in
the analyses were Marvin E.
Wolfgang, Michael J. Hindelang, EDITORIAL BOARD FOR CRIME AND JUSTICE
and Alfred Blumstein. The authors
also examine the most-cited crime Since its inception, the Crime and Justice series has been guided by an editorial
and justice works in the Social Sci- board of outstanding scholars and practitioners. The current board consists of the
ences Citation Index (SSCI) and following individuals:
find that there is also substantial Norval Morris, Chairman John Monahan
overlap between the most-cited Alfred Blumstein Mark H. Moore
works in Crime and Justice and the Jacqueline Cohen Charles J. Ogletree, Jr.
most-cited crime and justice works Philip J. Cook Joan Petersilia
Darnell F. Hawkins Chase Riveland
in SSCI. They conclude that cita-
James B. Jacobs Stuart O. Simms
tion analysis is useful in identifying
Terrie E. Moffitt Michael E. Smith
topics, works, and authors that are
influential during particular time
Arrests for illegal drug use have been The second study component as- Types of participants. About one-
a major factor in increasing jail popu- sessed program completion rates for third of the participants were Cauca-
lations, which has created interest in participants as well as 12-month sian, more than one-third were African
the effectiveness of drug treatment postrelease outcomes (the probability American, and one-fourth were His-
programs in local jails. A recent evalu- of being rearrested and convicted panic. Participants also differed in
ation, sponsored by the National Insti- within 12 months after release) for education level, employment history,
tute of Justice, indicates that the participants and matched comparison marital status, self-reported alcohol-
greatest immediate benefit of jail drug groups. For most sites, comparison and drug-use patterns, and prior drug
treatment programs has been to pro- groups included offenders in the same treatment participation. The average age
vide a “behavioral management tool” facility who were matched by race, across sites was between 31 and 32.
that controls inmates’ behavior, con- age, primary offense, and sentence
tributing particularly to lower levels of length. Offenders who were Caucasian,
violence. “older” (over 28 years), and had no
previous (self-reported) history of
The programs have had modest posi- Key program mental illness were significantly less
tive effects in reducing recidivism characteristics likely to leave the programs prema-
within 1 year of jail release. Consider- turely or to be expelled. This finding
ing their limitations, however, they Length of stay. The five programs suggests the need to develop specific
have potential for greater success. recognized length of stay as a chal- inhouse or ancillary services for par-
Limitations included weak or nonex- lenge to participation, which was vol- ticular groups.
istent aftercare, mismatches between untary among inmates with a history
lengths of programs and time in incar- of substance abuse who could be Treatment issues. All programs ad-
ceration, budget constraints (such as housed in minimum- or medium-se- dressed recovery from a physical, psy-
funds for aftercare), and training is- curity facilities. Three jurisdictions chological, emotional, and social
sues. required a remaining minimum period perspective. They offered traditional
of incarceration (usually 90 days) for drug treatment services, including
entrance into the program, although counseling and self-help groups.
Study methodology in practice few individuals were re- DEUCE and REACH were primarily
jected on this basis. curriculum based; the others relied
The research design comprised two more heavily on counseling. All ex-
major components. The first involved For three programs, movement into cept SAID continued to conduct drug
detailed descriptions and analyses of the next phase of treatment was based testing.
five drug treatment programs: Jail on time spent in the previous phase.
Education and Treatment (JET); De- Some offenders received only the ba- The level or intensity of treatment ser-
ciding, Educating, Understanding, sics of the program because they left vices participants actually received is
Counseling, and Evaluation jail early; others who were not ready not clear, however, because of (1) dif-
(DEUCE); and Rebuilding, Educating, for the next phase were moved into it ferences in length of stay in jail, (2)
Awareness, Counseling, and Hope simply because they had spent time in differences in needs related to race/
(REACH), all in California; and Sub- the first phase. This mismatch sug- ethnicity and age, and (3) difficulty in
stance Abuse Intervention Division gests that program staff may need to treating those with both substance
(SAID) and New Beginnings, both in redesign their programs to develop abuse and psychiatric problems. One
New York. services for those jailed for 3 days as response may be to provide substance
well as for 3 months. abuse information to all inmates while
June 1997 19
RESEARCH PREVIEW
focusing intensive treatment efforts on units within each facility. The treat- should quantify not only the cost of
those who are most likely to benefit ment programs were found to have treatment but also costs avoided by
from and/or to be in need of services. fewer incident reports in general— positive treatment outcomes. Studies
there were lower rates of serious be- should also assess the impact of pro-
Aftercare. Although treatment pro- havioral problems (e.g., physical grams on jail management and opera-
viders recognized the importance of violence) and, to a lesser extent, other tions, data on prisoner behavior, and
integrated postcustody services, for- behavioral problems (e.g., insubordi- costs associated with disciplinary inci-
mal aftercare links were limited. nation and possession of [nondrug] dents.
Other studies have found that after- contraband).
care programs preserve or extend
treatment effects. Recidivism rates. Seventeen percent
of the treatment group and 23 percent
Custody-treatment program of the comparison group were recon- The final report, Evaluation of
relations. At all sites except SAID, victed at least once during the 1-year Drug Treatment in Local Correc-
agencies such as a school district or followup period, most for property or tions, prepared under NIJ grant
substance abuse agency ran the pro- 91–DD–CX–K052, was written by
drug crimes. The differences between
grams. Although all sites offered at Sandra Tunis, Ph.D., James Austin,
the two groups were greatest for older
least some cross training of custody Ph.D., Mark Morris, Ph.D.,
offenders, those with at least two Patricia Hardyman, Ph.D., and
and treatment staff, more training of prior convictions, and Caucasians and Melissa Bolyard, M.A., of the
custody staff could help gain their Hispanics. Among treatment partici- National Council on Crime and
support for the programs. Ideally, cus- pants, the probability of reconviction Delinquency. Limited copies of the
tody staff should be included in pro- was lower for abusers of one drug full report are available; contact
gram planning and training. than of multiple drugs, those who did the National Criminal Justice
not prematurely leave the programs, Reference Service at
and those who stayed longer than 1 800–851–3420, or e-mail
Programs’ effects month. askncjrs@ncjrs.org. Ask for NCJ
159313. The report is also online
Infraction rates. At all sites, program at http://www.ncjrs.org.
participants were housed in separate
living units; in all but one, participants
Future evaluations
FS000173—Please refer to this number
were separated from other prisoners Because more complete postrelease to order copies of this Preview. It is also
for most daily activities. The infrac- available online at http://www.ncjrs.org
outcome data are essential, future or through fax-on-demand at 800–851–
tion rates for these programs were studies should include a followup pe- 3420 or 301–519–5518 (in the Wash-
compared with rates for comparable riod of at least 2 years. Evaluations ington, D.C., area).
The sharp rise of violence in court view Committee, practitioners, ex- checks inside and outside courthouses.
settings—from minor disturbances to perts in the field, and other criminal Fewer than half, however, inspect
murder—has prompted a reexamination justice organizations. equipment such as scanning devices,
of safeguards for the judicial process alarms, and cameras.
and personnel and of the transportation
of prisoners to and from court. The Na- Personnel education Respondents said they need more in-
tional Institute of Justice (NIJ) spon- and training struction in legal liabilities; legal re-
sored an assessment by the National sponsibilities of supervision; firearms;
Sheriffs’ Association (NSA) of the cur- The majority of court security and court functions, duties, and security;
rent state of the art in court security and prisoner transport personnel are 40- to serving of civil or criminal process; and
the transportation of prisoners. 50-year-old males who attended col- transporting prisoners both on the
lege for at least 1 or 2 years and are ground (e.g., in an automobile, bus, or
The study’s three surveys found that very satisfied with their jobs. A ma- van) and in the air. They also felt they
the safety of personnel transporting jority have completed a training pro- needed more education about vicarious
and monitoring prisoners in the court- gram in court security, prisoner liability; possible areas for suits include
room is the most pressing concern. transportation, or serving of civil or failure to train or direct and negligence
Possible responses include improving criminal process. in supervision, entrustment, assignment,
training through more intense class- hiring, and retention.
room instruction and field training for However, many felt they were not
high-risk situations, providing person- fully prepared to meet new and The study suggests that basic court
nel with appropriate equipment, en- emerging challenges. Fewer than half security and prisoner transport training
hancing facilities’ structural features, the responding agencies provide programs should provide a minimum of
and establishing policies and proce- training in vehicle operation, which is 80 hours of classroom instruction over a
dures for courtroom security and for a key area for liability actions. Also, 4- to 6-week period. Personnel should
safe prisoner transport—on the fewer than half the agencies instruct also be certified in certain key
ground and in the air. The assessment officers in the proper application of areas such as the use of electronic non-
offers specific suggestions for agen- commonly used restraining devices lethal equipment (e.g., stun, laser, and
cies to consider when evaluating their (e.g., handcuffs, straps, leg irons). A taser guns and stun belts) and methods
individual programs. vehicle operation training curriculum of applying physical force to control
could include commercial driver’s defendants in high-risk situations.
license requirements; driver’s pursuit
Study method and defensive training; liability is- All trainees should pass examinations
sues; care, custody, control, and su- to demonstrate they have adequate
Information was gathered from inter- pervision procedures; driver and knowledge and skills before they are
views and questionnaires administered escort officer/deputy responsibilities; assigned to security or prisoner trans-
to court security, probation, parole, and use of specialized equipment. port duties. The Federal Aviation Ad-
and sheriffs’ personnel nationwide; a ministration (FAA) requires personnel
review of existing research literature In addition, although they rarely per- transporting prisoners to pass a certi-
and reports of some of the violent in- form routine maintenance tasks, over fied 2-hour block of training.
cidents that occurred in courts over half the respondents said they inspect
the past two decades; and input from some security equipment (e.g., ve-
the Project Advisory Board, Staff Re- hicles, doors) and conduct security
June 1997 21
RESEARCH PREVIEW
Court facility security • Mechanisms on perimeter doors hicles specially equipped to transport
that can detect unauthorized entry. prisoners. In addition, over half the
Court security staff comprise sworn agencies do not allow agents to per-
and unsworn personnel (e.g., bailiffs, • Controlled access to building facili- form gender-appropriate strip
private-sector employees, and Federal ties through separate, electronically searches.
and State Department of Corrections monitored entrances for the general
personnel). public, judges, court personnel, and Rules or procedures exist in several
service personnel. jurisdictions governing the transporta-
Fewer than half the court agencies and tion of prisoners, but there are no na-
sheriffs’ offices said they put a high • Distinct structural circulation sys- tional regulations (except those issued
priority on controlling access into tems within the courthouse to limit by the FAA). The study suggests that
court and judicial facilities (e.g., pa- access for visitors, prisoners, and the first step should be implementation
trolling exterior perimeters, scanning outside service personnel and to of a “dangerousness” classification for
mail and packages, and supervising provide secure passage for judges, prisoners being transported so security
elevator use). Probation and parole juries, and court staff (e.g., re- officers can implement the proper lev-
personnel think metal detectors should stricted elevators for different users els of care, custody, control, and su-
be used more often outside court- and centralized holding areas for pervision. Other suggestions concern
rooms. prisoners). providing handheld radios for all
transport personnel and establishing a
The study suggests that the underlying Policies and procedures regarding use
statewide or regional radio frequency
principle of court security should be of these mechanisms need to be con-
so help can be summoned quickly in
maintaining a physical security sys- tinually monitored and updated. Each
an emergency.
tem that does not interfere with the hearing and trial should be assessed to
activities of the court. determine the correct level of security All prisoners should be monitored
needed. This assessment could pre- continuously in case medical emergen-
A key aspect of security involves pro- pare security officers/deputies for any cies arise. If such an emergency does
viding physical mechanisms for safe disruptions that may occur and could occur during transport, officers/depu-
passage inside and outside court fa- keep costs down by increasing staff ties should be prepared to take appro-
cilities. Consideration should be given only when appropriate. A balance priate action and know how to handle
to employing structural features and should be struck between protecting patients with infectious diseases. An
controlled access devices, in compli- all who enter the court and permitting agency’s medical unit should inform
ance with the Americans with Dis- normal operations. transporting officers/deputies if a pris-
abilities Act of 1990, such as the oner has a communicable disease and
following: provide guidelines that follow those
Transportation of mandated by the U.S. Occupational
• Adequate lighting and proper land-
prisoners Safety and Health Administration and
scaping around parking areas, walk-
ways, and at points of access where the Centers for Disease Control and
The majority of probation and parole
visual recognition is necessary. Prevention.
agents surveyed believe uniformed
officers (e.g. deputy sheriffs/officers)
• Barriers to prohibit forcible entry should transport prisoners, even
by vehicles or pedestrians. Conclusion
though most of the respondents have
• Bullet-resistant glazing on windows been required as part of their official A risk assessment should be an inte-
in all areas of sight exposure as well duties to do the transporting. Al- gral part of a comprehensive survey of
as shatter-resistant film between though transporting male adults, fe- courtroom security and the transporta-
layers of glass and sensor devices male adults, male juveniles, and tion of prisoners to determine security
on ground-floor windows. female juveniles requires different vulnerabilities and equipment and
guidelines, fewer than half the respon- training needs. Even the most sophisti-
• Designated parking areas for judges dents have ever received special or cated equipment is only a supportive
and selected court employees, pris- refresher training in prisoner transpor- tool used by trained personnel as part
oner transport, and service-related tation. Survey respondents indicated of a well-prepared plan to administer
vehicles. that most agencies do not possess ve- justice in a danger-free environment.
Listed below are some NIJ publications and videos related to issues of courts, Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design,
and victimization and violence. These products are free, except as indicated, and can be obtained from the National Crimi-
nal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS): telephone 800–851–3420, e-mail askncjrs@ncjrs.org, or write NCJRS, Box 6000,
Rockville, MD 20849–6000.
These documents also can be downloaded through the NCJRS Bulletin Board System or at the NCJRS Anonymous FTP site in
ASCII or graphic formats. They can be viewed online at the Justice Information Center World Wide Web site. Call NCJRS for
more information.
Please note that when free publications are out of stock, they are available as photocopies or through interlibrary loan.
This Research Preview highlights a study, supported under NIJ grant 94–IJ–CX–0005, by the National Sheriffs’ Association. The execu-
tive summary and full report, Court Security and the Transportation of Prisoners: A National Study, written by NSA Executive Director
Charles B. Meeks, Project Director A.N. Moser, Jr., and Senior Research Consultant Betty B. Bosarge, are available through interli-
brary loan or copy satisfaction from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service at 800–851–3420, or through e-mail at
askncjrs@ncjrs.org. Ask for NCJ 161710 (executive summary), NCJ 161701 (volume one), and NCJ 161702 (volume two).
FS 000165—Please refer to this number to order copies of this Preview. It is also available online at http://www.ncjrs.org or through fax-on-
demand at 800–851–3420 or 301–519–5518 (in the Washington, D.C., area).
June 1997 23
EVENTS
Annual conference on field. The lectures by these nationally public safety. NIJ worked in collabo-
research and evaluation prominent scholars were followed by ration with State Senator Neil Bryant,
question-and-answer sessions. chairman of the State Senate Judiciary
NIJ’s annual conference on research Committee, who organized a biparti-
and evaluation is scheduled for July Speakers and their topics included: san audience of more than 100 legisla-
20–23, 1997. This year’s conference, tors, executive branch staff, judges,
• James Q. Wilson, University of Cali-
“Meeting the Challenges of Crime community-based advocates for vic-
fornia at Los Angeles: “What, If
and Justice,” will be held at the J.W. tims’ rights, judges, and other criminal
Anything, Can the Federal Govern-
Marriott Hotel in Washington, D.C. justice professionals. The goals of the
ment Do About Crime?”
Speakers, panels, and workshops are session were to contribute to the legis-
under development. The topics for • Peter Reuter, University of Mary- lative debate on justice reforms and
two plenary sessions are “Crime, land: “Can We Make Prohibition demonstrate the ways in which objec-
Physical Environment, and Specific Work Better? An Assessment of tive research findings are relevant to
Locations” and “The Impact of a Com- American Drug Policy.” State legislators grappling with a
munity Focus on the Justice System.” packed legislative agenda.
• Mark H. Moore, Harvard University:
To register or obtain more informa- “The Legitimation of Criminal Jus- The team of researchers who went to
tion, contact NIJ’s Professional Con- tice Policies and Practices.” Oregon included Joel Garner of the
ference Series staff at the Institute for Joint Centers for Justice Studies, Peter
Law and Justice, phone 703–684– • Cathy Spatz Widom, State Univer- Greenwood of the RAND Corpora-
5300, fax 703–739–5533, or e-mail sity of New York at Albany: “Child tion, and Joan Petersilia of the Univer-
nijpcs@ilj.org. Victims: In Search of Opportunities sity of California at Irvine.
for Breaking the Cycle of Violence.”
Postsession evaluations by participants
Linking policy and • Norval Morris, University of Chi- have encouraged NIJ to consider
research cago Law School: “Crime, the Me- launching similar efforts in other leg-
dia, and Our Political Discourse.” islative venues.
One of NIJ’s goals is to inform
policymaking by disseminating re- Videotapes of the sessions are being
search findings. Two recent programs prepared. The first two tapes—“What, Crime mapping takes
have contributed to that goal by en- If Anything, Can the Federal Govern- new strides
couraging dialogue between ment Do About Crime?” by James Q.
policymakers and researchers. The Wilson and “Can We Make Prohibition Today, virtually anyone with a per-
“Perspectives in Crime and Justice” Work Better?” by Peter Reuter—are sonal computer and a modest software
lecture series in Washington, D.C., now available. Each tape costs $29.50 budget can analyze crime patterns
linked widely respected scholars with in the United States and $33 in Canada. more effectively than through the
Federal and local policymakers on Call the National Criminal Justice Ref- dated practice of manually inserting
Capitol Hill. The second event in- erence Service (NCJRS) at 800–851– push pins on wall maps. Indeed, Geo-
volved members of the Oregon legis- 3420 or send an e-mail to graphic Information Systems (GISs)
lature, who met with a team of askncjrs@ncjrs.org. Ask for NCJ have advanced the criminal justice
researchers assembled by NIJ to dis- 164375 (Wilson) or NCJ 164376 field, enabling police to make better
cuss criminal justice policy issues and (Reuter). deployment decisions and researchers
recent research findings. to easily link criminal incidents to de-
Oregon legislators team up with re- mographic data and environmental
Perspectives in crime and justice. searchers. In another effort to expand characteristics to test various crime
With funding support from the Edna dialogue between researchers and leg- theories. One of the negative conse-
McConnell Clark Foundation, NIJ islators, NIJ conducted a sentencing quences of the rapid adoption of com-
hosted a breakfast lecture series in policy seminar for the Oregon legisla- puterized crime mapping, however,
which policymakers had the opportu- ture and other State-level officials. NIJ has been that in many cases the user’s
nity to talk candidly with leading re- organized a team of experts to present conception of how to map and conduct
searchers in the crime and justice research findings on sentencing and spatial analysis is superficial, render-
discuss how legislative decisions affect ing crime-mapping efforts haphazard,
unsophisticated, and ineffective. This • Developing user-friendly analytic technical assistance and training to
dilemma calls for an authoritative re- software with corporate and univer- law enforcement and other criminal
source well versed in the problems sity partners. justice agencies, disseminating crime-
associated with mapping criminal jus- mapping efforts through the creation
tice data to guide mapping efforts. • Collecting and archiving geocoded of a Web site, and soliciting proposals
crime statistics to make available to for evaluations of crime-mapping
To help answer this call, NIJ estab- researchers. initiatives.
lished the Crime Mapping Research
Center (CMRC) in 1996 using funds • Establishing a fellowship program NIJ is planning a national crime-
available under the technology assis- to build an interdisciplinary knowl- mapping conference in Denver, Colo-
tance provisions of the 1996 Omnibus edge base. rado, October 5–7, 1997. To find out
Appropriations Act amending the Vio- about this conference, to learn how
The Mapping Center—which is head-
lent Crime Control and Law Enforce- your agency can benefit from learning
quartered at NIJ in Washington, D.C.,
ment Act of 1994 (Crime Act). The more about mapping technology, or to
and has a satellite office in Denver—
CMRC’s goals include: be put on CMRC’s mailing list, write
has taken several steps in the initial
to: Crime Mapping Research Center,
• Establishing a crime-mapping train- stages of operation. In early 1997,
National Institute of Justice, 633 Indi-
ing center for both researchers and staff convened a strategic planning
ana Avenue N.W., Room 302, Wash-
practitioners. meeting of experts in geographic
ington, DC 20531. To sign up on
analysis to identify how CMRC can
“Crimemap,” NIJ’s new listserv, e-
• Creating partnerships among neigh- best meet the needs of the criminal
mail to listproc@aspensys.com and
boring law enforcement agencies to justice community and to aid in the
type “subscribe crimemap” and your
enable spatial analysis across juris- planning of a sentencing symposium
name.
dictional boundaries. scheduled for fall 1997. CMRC staff
are also conducting a survey of police
• Promoting mapping for criminal jus- departments to gauge the extent to
tice applications in addition to which they currently use analytic map-
policing. ping. Future plans include providing
SOLICITATIONS
Solicitation for Of particular interest are proposals to Call NCJRS at 800–851–3420 to re-
Investigator-Initiated study new means of improving the de- ceive a printed copy of the Solicitation
livery of justice; explore the links be- for Investigator-Initiated Research
Research
tween criminal activity and other (SL 000201). It is also available on
NIJ continues to seek proposals for social phenomena; test interventions the NCJRS World Wide Web site at
investigator-initiated criminal justice for recurring criminal justice prob- http://www.ncjrs.org/fedgrant.htm#nij,
research. Investigators are invited to lems; and develop, test, and evaluate on the NCJRS*BBS, and by mail.
submit proposals to explore any topic new and transferable techniques and
relevant to State and local criminal technologies for the criminal justice
justice policy and practice. Under this system.
solicitation, NIJ has generally awarded
grants ranging from $25,000 to The deadlines for receipt of proposals
$300,000 that last for 1 to 2 years. under the two funding cycles are June
17 and December 16, 1997.
June 1997 25
NIJ IN THE JOURNALS
The following articles, based on re- 3, July 1996, by R.A. Weisheit and L.E. how the store relates to its larger
search funded by NIJ, were recently Wells, grant number 92–IJ–CX–K012, physical environment.
received by NCJRS. ACCN 162082. This article assesses
current theories and research methods “Prosecutorial Discretion to Defer
“Investigating Hate Crimes: Case regarding their ability to account for Criminalization: The Effects of Defen-
Characteristics and Law Enforcement crime and justice in rural areas. dants’ Ascribed and Achieved Status
Responses,” Justice Quarterly, Vol- Characteristics,” Journal of Quantita-
ume 13, Number 5, September 1996, “Drug Policy and Community Con- tive Criminology, Volume 12, Number
by S.E. Martin, grant number 90–IJ– text: The Case of Small Cities and 1, March 1996, by C.A. Albonetti and
CX– 0002, ACCN 163364. This ar- Towns,” Crime and Delinquency, Vol- J.R. Hepburn, grant number 89–DD–
ticle examines characteristics of hate ume 42, Number 2, April 1996, by CX–0055, ACCN 163191. This re-
crimes in New York City and Balti- M.J. McDermott and J. Garofalo, search looks at prosecutorial discretion
more County, Maryland, and the po- grant number 91–DD–CX–K049, in diverting felony drug defendants
lice response to them. Findings reveal ACCN 162022. This article examines from criminal prosecution into a treat-
that hate crimes in both jurisdictions drug problems and anti-drug initiatives ment program using causal attribution
differ from similar offenses not in- in small cities and towns across the theory and etiology of bias theory.
volving bias and from the public im- United States. Results show that eco-
age of such offenses. nomic issues and school matters are “Comparative Study of Male and Fe-
the main concerns in these communi- male Prison Misconduct Careers,”
“Predicting Pretrial Misconduct With ties; residents’ anxieties about drugs Prison Journal, Volume 76, Number
Drug Tests of Arrestees: Evidence focus mainly on alcohol and marijuana. 1, March 1996, by A. Craddock, grant
from Eight Settings,” Journal of number 86–IJ–CX–0015, ACCN
Quantitative Criminology, Volume 12, “Adjusting to Criminal Victimization: 162102. This article examines patterns
Number 3, September 1996, by W. The Correlates of Postcrime Distress,” of male and female inmate misconduct
Rhodes, R. Hyatt, and P. Scheiman, Violence and Victims, Volume 11, (rule violations) to determine whether
grant number OJP–89–C–009, ACCN Number 1, Spring 1996, by R.C. an inmate’s misconduct continues
163379. This article questions whether Davis, B. Taylor, and A.J. Lurigio, throughout imprisonment (i.e., an
testing arrestees for drugs always grant number 83–IJ–CX–0044, ACCN inmate’s misconduct career). The
improves predictions of pretrial mis- 163370. This study examines the cor- stages of such a career are delineated.
conduct. Although the authors acknowl- relates of immediate and short-term Approximately half the males were
edge that the findings do not settle the psychological distress among victims found to have had rule violations,
debate about the predictive value of of burglary, robbery, and nonsexual while only about one-third of the
pretrial drug testing, they advise that assault. The findings suggest the thera- women violated prison rules.
considering how drug test results peutic usefulness of encouraging vic-
might be improved could be a produc- tims to reinterpret the event in ways “Determinate Sentencing and Abolish-
tive strategy. that will restore their previctimization ing Parole: The Long-Term Impacts
view of the world. on Prisons and Crime,” Criminology,
“Predicting Criminal Recidivism: A Volume 34, Number 1, February
Comparison of Neural Network Mod- “Preventing Retail Theft: An Applica- 1996, by T.B. Marvell and C.E.
els With Statistical Methods,” Journal tion of Environmental Criminology,” Moody, grant number 88–IJ–CX–
of Criminal Justice, Volume 24, Num- Security Journal, Volume 7, Number 0045, ACCN 163189. This paper
ber 3, 1996, by J. Caulkins, J. Cohen, 1, April 1996, by M. Felson, grant studies the impact of determinate sen-
W. Gorr, and J. Wei, grant number number 91–IJ–CX–K021, ACCN tencing laws (DSLs) on prison com-
86–IJ–CX–0039, ACCN 162895. This 162436. This article discusses how mitments, prison populations, and
article, which applies neural network routine activity theory and environ- Uniform Crime Reports crime rates.
and conventional statistical models to mental criminology apply to retail There is little or no evidence that
predicting criminal recidivism, does sales prevention in countering shop- DSLs affect crime rates. The authors
not find any gains in accuracy by us- lifting, employee floor theft, and stor- conclude that DSLs are not likely to
ing these models. age room theft. Findings show that worsen prison overcrowding unless
control of retail theft requires that re- they are accompanied by “get tough”
“Rural Crime and Justice: Implica- tailers take into account space, mi- policies, and lawmakers can use DSLs
tions for Theory and Research,” Crime croenvironments within stores, and to limit prison population growth.
and Delinquency, Volume 42, Number
NEW TITLES
The following titles are final reports of “Geographic and Temporal Sequenc- Material,” by B.K. Logan, NCJ
NIJ-sponsored research recently re- ing of Serial Rape: Final Report,” by 159312, 1996, grant number 91–IJ–
ceived by NCJRS. J. Warren, R. Reboussin, and R.R. CX–0022. This final report describes
Hazelwood, NCJ 162419, 1995, grant two automated methods for (1) detec-
“Advanced Electronic Monitoring for number 91–IJ–CX-R027. This report tion and quantitation of hydrogen cya-
Tracking Persons on Probation or Pa- focuses on the behavior exhibited by nide gas liberated from inorganic
role: Final Report,” by J.H. Murphy, serial rapists and relates this behavior cyanide in biological material, and (2)
G.O. Hitchins, T.A. Oblak, H.C. Coo- to patterns in the temporal sequenc- detection and quantitation of carbon
per, and A.A. Anderson, NCJ 162420, ing and geographic distribution of monoxide gas derived from fire gases
1996, grant number 94–IJ–CX–K010. sex offenses. The results show that or automobile exhaust.
This report presents an assessment of serial rapists tended to rape strangers,
the technological feasibility of elec- that victims were usually raped in “Mental Health Services in American
tronic monitoring. The study, which their own homes, and that victims Jails: A Survey of Innovative Prac-
followed offenders in Pittsburgh, were most often taken by surprise. tices,” by S.M. Morris, H.J. Steadman,
shows that electronic monitoring in and B.M. Veysey, NCJ 162365, 1996,
locations other than the offender’s “Identification and Measurement of grant number 92–IJ–CX–K020. This
home is feasible given the new tech- Carbon Monoxide and Inorganic final report presents the results of a
nologies being advanced. Cyanide in Post Mortem Biological study designed to elicit information
June 1997 27
NEW TITLES
about policies and practices for man- Court Experiment: Final Report,” by closed-circuit television, videotape
aging detainees with mental illnesses J.S. Goldkamp, NCJ 163410, 1996, equipment, and training in the use of
in five sizes of jails. Findings show grant number 93–IJ–CX–0028. This that equipment for child sexual abuse
that screening, evaluation, and suicide research addresses the role of sub- trials. States, in compliance with BJA
prevention have been emphasized in stance abuse in domestic violence, the requirements, conducted needs as-
U.S. jail mental health services. impact of the domestic violence court sessments to determine how to dis-
approach, and the effect of an innova- tribute the technologies. Many States
“Pepper Spray Disperser Final Re- tive treatment approach that integrates selected an informal assessment pro-
port,” by R. Kelly, NCJ 162418, 1996, batterer and substance abuse treat- cess, and most elected to distribute
grant number 93–IJ–CX–K020. This ment. Findings show that the com- funds on a countywide, not statewide,
final report examines a research and bined treatment produces some basis.
development project initiated in 1994 positive, practical results in reaching
involving dispersal of oleoresin capsi- domestic violence offenders and re- “User Accountability and Long-Term
cum, or pepper spray. This project re- taining them in treatment. The study Recidivism: A Final Report,” by J.R.
sulted in an improved less-than-lethal also suggests that the hybrid program Hepburn, NCJ 163406, 1996, grant
projectile that can be carried and oper- may prevent reoffending among number 94–IJ–CX–0028. This final
ated by an individual. The projectile batterers. report analyzes relationships among
can be used in hostage, barricade, and offender characteristics, offense char-
tactical assault situations. “Understanding the Use of Force By acteristics, treatment exposure, and
and Against the Police,” by J. Garner, length of time to rearrest. Study re-
“Priority Prosecution of the Serious J. Buchanan, J. Fagan, T. Schade, and sults reveal significant differences
Habitual Juvenile Offender: Road- J. Hepburn, NCJ 159602, 1996, grant in the recidivism of four offender
blocks to Early Warning, Early number 92–IJ–CX–K028. This final groups. The rate and level of
Intervention, and Maximum Effective- report, based on the Phoenix Use of reoffending were greater for those
ness—The Philadelphia Study,” by Force project, analyzes incidents in who failed to enter the program de-
N.A. Weiner, NCJ 163380, 1996, which force was used by and against spite eligibility than for those who
grant number 90–IJ–CX–0065. “Ex- Phoenix police officers, focusing on entered the program and failed to
ecutive Summary of Findings,” NCJ the amount of force used and the char- complete it. Offenders who com-
163792. This report examines the na- acteristics of arrest situations, sus- pleted treatment performed substan-
ture and effectiveness of the selection pects, and officers associated with the tially better than those who did not.
criteria used by the Philadelphia Juve- use of force.
nile Court Habitual Offender Unit Other final reports received include:
(HOU) to determine which youths to “Use of Closed-Circuit Television and
designate as serious habitual offenders Videotaped Testimony in Child “Juvenile Justice Programs in Pros-
and involve in specialized prosecu- Sexual Abuse Trials: An Evaluation of ecutor Offices: An Overview of Four
tion. The report concludes that HOU BJA’s (Bureau of Justice Sites Final Report,” by A. Taylor,
selection criteria might be improved Assistance’s) Funding Program: Final NCJ 163412, 1995, grant number 94–
with the use of additional official Report,” S.G. Elstein, D. Rebovich, IJ–CX–0020.
records and the testing of additional B.E. Smith, K. Free, H. Davidson, M.
“Management of Special Populations:
criteria through a field experiment. Ells, and C. Sempel, NCJ 162930,
Mentally Disabled Offenders: Final
1996, grant number 94–IJ–CX–0054.
“Role of Drug and Alcohol Abuse in Report,” by H.J. Steadman, NCJ
This report presents the findings of an
Domestic Violence and Its Treatment: 163143, grant number 92–IJ–CX–
evaluation of a BJA program that pro-
Dade County’s Domestic Violence K020.
vides assistance to States to purchase
NIJ AWARDS
Awards support The 1994 Crime Act authorized the vative technology to community po-
community policing Department of Justice to support the licing efforts.
development of new technologies to
technology The solicitation, issued in 1996, re-
assist State and local governments in
Law enforcement agencies around the reorienting the emphasis of their ac- quested proposals from teams or part-
Nation are actively engaged in explor- tivities to proactive crime prevention. nerships of public- and private-sector
ing and implementing new techniques As a result, the Office of Community agencies, such as those between a po-
and methods to manage limited police Oriented Policing Services (COPS) lice department and a company with
resources more skillfully, reduce and the National Institute of Justice technological expertise or a consor-
crime rates, and improve relations collaborated in issuing a solicitation tium that includes members of a po-
with the communities they serve. for proposals to create and apply inno- lice department and private companies
or academic institutions.
June 1997 29
NIJ AWARDS
NIJ received 117 proposals in re- munity problems innovatively, and cess arrest information, check data
sponse to the solicitation. Peer panels (3) facilitate the restructuring of agen- bases or mug shots using wireless
and office staff reviewed the proposals cies to allow the fullest use of depart- technology, and pinpoint an officer’s
and recommended 15 for awards with mental and community resources. For location (for safety purposes). Several
the available funding. example, the Nashville, Tennessee, grants are being used to upgrade or
Police Department is developing soft- enhance computer software and hard-
The 15 projects are intended to (1) ware for a palmtop computer to en- ware so that officers will have more
improve police-citizen cooperation able officers assigned to walking, time to spend solving problems in
and communication, (2) increase po- bicycle, or motorcycle patrols to ac- their communities.
lice and citizen ability to solve com-
3. Battelle Memorial • Washington State ”Artificial Neural Developing software for the
Institute Attorney General’s Network System for Washington State Attorney
Office Classification of General’s Office that would
Offenders in Murder compare unknown murder
and Rape Cases“ and rape offenders and
their methods of operating
to similar cases on file.
9. City of Charlotte, • University of North “Future Alert and Developing the Future Alert
North Carolina, Carolina Contact Network” and Contact Network
Police Department (FALCON) to predict
community problems and allow
beat officers to be more
proactive in community
policing.
10. City of Arlington, • Tiburon “Arlington Police Developing a system for beat
Texas, Police Department Intranet/ officers to access information
Department Briefing Stations” through a number of methods,
such as computerized briefing
stations, electronic mail,
and beat inquiries.
June 1997 31
NIJ AWARDS
11. City of Davis, • University of “Internet Community Using the Internet to develop
California, Police California at Davis Oriented Policing community partnerships between
Department • Davis Community Tools” law enforcement and students,
Network parents, and teachers. The
• Davis Joint Unified project will provide a two-way
School District dialogue between police and
citizens for problem solving
and goal setting.
15. Chang Industries • Los Angeles County “Portable Concealed Developing the prototype of
Sheriff’s Office Weapon Detector” a handheld device to detect
metal or plastic concealed
weapons at a distance of up
to 10 feet.
Janet Reno
Attorney General
U.S. Department of Justice
John C. Dwyer
Acting Associate Attorney General
Laurie Robinson
Assistant Attorney General
Jeremy Travis
Director, National Institute of Justice
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use $300