EVOLUTION

Maintenance is an age old function, which developed and progressed, knowingly or unknowingly, along with the
operation of equipments. In early ages, maintenance was, probably, not a separate identity but the job of maintenance
was considered as part and parcel of operators job. his was possible because of simplicity and openness of machines
and equipments. In these days, nailing of a cracked wooden frame of a chariot or tying a broken or cracking piece with
rope was done by the same person who was operating the same. !ven the ancient carvings on the !gyptian tomb of
"a#!n#$a %about &'(( to )*(( +,- shows that a sledge is being used to transport a stone monument and a man is
pouring some liquid, probably to lubricate the runners of the sledge, for easy movement. hus, even lubrication job,
which is basically a maintenance job, as done by the same personnel without giving the job a separate identity.
.owever, with the growth of industriali/ation, the comple0ity of the machines increased and the
machines became less simple and less open. his started creating problems for the operating personnel and the
concept of maintenance as a separate discipline and separate identity started. Maintenance 1revention %M1- was
probably first known in )2'(s from a factory Maga/ine in 3nited 4tates and that Maintenance 1revention %M1- meant
design, manufacture or purchase of equipment, which is free from maintenance.
he growth and speed of inflation in )2*(s gave rise to new awareness of the rising costs for
downtimes or loss of use. 5lso the asset and equipment 6 component replacement costs became so inflated and
increased that well managed maintenance programs, to enhance the life of e0isting equipments and components,
became the essential aspects of all management strategies.
In an industry of today, 1lant !ngineering is probably the biggest force to increase productivity %other
than the motivation work force- and Maintenance !ngineering 6 Maintenance Management is the most important
component of 1lant !ngineering. Maintenance is an investment that buys 6 gives more production time. 7ith the
increase of comple0ity, sophistication and automation of equipments, a very serious burden now falls on maintenance
engineers regarding the quality and quantity of maintenance, maintenance aids and their documentation etc. 1roblems
do not increase in linear proportion to the increase in production but increase in astronomical proportions. 7e can take
a rough e0ample of problems in a family of husband and wife when another women or man comes in.
5lso we cannot cope up todays jobs and problems with yesterdays tools and techniques. 7e have to
use tools and technique of today, compatible with todays problems and also with the anticipated problems of
tomorrow %near future-. !ducational and research institutions should cooperate with industries to ease out the
problems. If all these are not taken care of, a maintenance man would be so busy in committing suicides that he would
hardly have any time to live i.e. he would be busy in fire fighting breakdowns rather than preventing 6 eliminating the
same.
5 maintenance system of today includes many aspects some of which are given below8
). 1rotecting the buildings, structures and plants.
&. Increasing equipment availability and reducing downtimes9 also helping in increasing utili/ation of
equipments.
:. ,ontrolling and directing labour forces.
;. !conomy in maintenance department.
<. Ma0imi/ing utili/ation of available resources.
'. !nsuring safety of installations and reducing environmental pollution.
*. "ecording e0penditure and costing of individual jobs and of department 6 section.
=. 1reventing waste of tools, spares and other materials.
2. !mphasis on waste recovery.
)(. 1reparing maintenance budgets.
)). Improving technical communications.
)&. Measuring plant performance as a guide for future actions.
):. raining of maintenance personnel on related topics.
MAINTENANCE OBJECTIVES
>rom various aspects of maintenance, mentioned in preceding paragraph, the maintenance objectives of a big
industrial undertaking like steel plants, can be enumerated as below8
)
o maintain plant and equipments at its ma0imum operating efficiency, ensuring operational safety and
reducing downtime.
o safeguard investments by minimi/ing rate of deterioration and achieving this at optimum cost through
budgeting and control.
o help management in taking decisions on replacements or new investments and activity participate in
specification preparation, equipments selection, its erection and commissioning.
?evelopment pf resources for equipments and spares and providing technical help for @endors 6 equipment
suppliers selection 6 rating and import substitution.
.elp in implementation of suitable procedures for procurement, storage and consumption of spares, tools and
consumables etc.
4tandardi/ation of spares and consumables in conformity with plant, national and international standards and
help in adoption of these standards by all uses in the plant. 5lso help in variety reduction and inventory
control.
"unning of centrali/ed services like 4team Aeneration, water supply, air supply and fuel supply etc.
"unning of captive workshops for repair and reconditioning and also making some new spares.
.elp in training and development of skilled workmen and e0ecutives.
MAINTENANCE POLICIES AND PHILOSOPHIES
In order to streamline the understanding of different types6systems of maintenance functions, the classification can be
done on the basis of planning and critically6essentially of jobs. 4ome jobs may be planned in advance but some jobs
may have to be taken up immediately and un#planned. 1lanned and un#planned jobs can be classified further
depending on the nature of the job and its essentiality. he detailed classification is shown below.
Maintenance system has two types8
). 3n#planned
&. 1lanned
Un-planned maintenance has three types:
). ,orrective Maintenance
&. Bpportunistic Maintenance
:. !mergency or +reak down maintenance
Planned maintenance has four types:
). "outine Maintenance
&. 1reventive Maintenance
:. 1redictive Maintenance
;. ?esign#out Maintenance
Breakdown Maintenance
In a break down maintenance system, repair is undertaken only after the failure of the equipment. he equipment is
allowed to run un#disturbed till it fails. Bff course, lubrication and minor adjustment %pressure, flow etc.- are done
during this period. Bnly when equipment fails to perform designed functions or comes to grinding halt, any other
maintenance6repair job is taken.
&
Bn the face value, this system appears to be simple and less e0pensive but it is not really so. It may work well
in a small factory6plant where8
Cumbers of equipment are few.
!quipments are very simple and repair does not call for specialist tools6tackles.
7here sudden stoppage6failure of equipments will not cause serve financial loss in terms of delivery
commitment or further damage to other equipments6components.
7here sudden failure will not cause serve safety or environmental ha/ards.
In such small factories, generally there is no speciali/ed maintenance crew. Maintenance is normally done by
persons operating the machine and other connected persons. Maintenance is generally done to put back the breakdown
m6c into operation but not much job is done to prevent recurrences of such breakdowns. 4pears are generally kept with
persons operating the machine or their superiors.
CORRECT!E M"#TE#"#CE
,orrective maintenance as it implies, means maintenance actions for correcting or restoring a failed unit %or the units
going to fail-. Its scope is very vast and may include different types of actions from small actions like typical
adjustments and minor repair to re#design of equipment. It includes both planned and un#planned actions and is
governed by failure of the items as wells as condition of the items.
5ctions in corrective maintenance can be sub#divided, according to priority, as follow8
). !mergency work, high priority, generally off#line so that, after stopping the equipment, normally less than &;
hours notice is given for taking the job.
&. ?eferred work#jobs of lower order priority9 generally off#line.
:. o eliminate6reduce repetitive breakdown.
;. "econditioning or "e#design jobs.
,orrective maintenance is generally one tie task so that once taken up competed fully. !ach corrective
maintenance job may differ from the other. 4ome of the corrective maintenance jobs may differ from the
other. 4ome of the corrective maintenance jobs may call for collection of e0tensive data6information about
breakdowns and their causes etc. and proper analysis of those data before coming to conclusion about actual
jobs to be done. echniques like ,ause and !ffect 5nalysis %>ish#bone diagram61arameter diagram- etc. help
these cases. 4ome jobs may have the following stages8
,ollection of data6informations and analysis.
Identify likely causes.
>ind out the best possible solutions to eliminate likely causes.
Implement those solutions, etc.
OPPORTU#$TC M"#TE#"#CE
In multi#component system, with several failing components often it is advantageous to follow opportunistic
maintenance also. 7hen an equipment or system is taken down for maintenance6changing of one or few worn#out
components, the opportunity can be utili/ed for maintaining6changing other wearing out components even though they
have not failed. his would probably be economical in the long run than taking shut down when other components
fail. Cormally cost of replacing several parts jointly is much less than the some of the costs of several separate
replacements. .owever, cost of left over life of the components, which are going to be changed, has to be taken into
considerations in such calculations.
Bpportunistic maintenance is very beneficial for non#monitored components, which are in
assessable for inspection without replacement, replacement policy can be considered. >or non#monitored components,
which can be inspected before replacement, inspection policy can be considered. 5s a commonly used e0ample in
automobile engine, if one valve gives problem and needs grinding, all other valves are also ground in the some shut
down.
ROUT#E M"#TE#"#CE
"outine maintenance is the simplest form of planned maintenance but very essential. 5s the name implies, routine
maintenance means carrying out minor maintenance jobs regular intervals. It involves minor jobs such as cleaning,
:
lubrication inspection and minor adjustment of pressure flow, tightness etc. and tightening of loose parts etc. it also
includes inspection of bearings, @ belts, couplings, joining, foundations. +olts etc. he small and critical defects
during inspection are rectified immediately and bigger jobs are planned for rectification during ne0t available shut
down. 4uch maintenance is essentially for effective, scheduled and preventive maintenance.
"outine maintenance is not need#based. In an equipment some motors may be running four
hours a day and some motors may be running twenty hours in a day, but, in routine maintenance, all are
inspected at the same frequency. his may lead to some amount of over#maintenance on some equipments
or components but this system pays handsomely in the long run. D"egularityE i.e. carrying out planned jobs
regularly in simple cyclic schedules is very essential in routine maintenance. 4uch schedules are simple
Flike check, clean. Gubricate, tighten. 5djust etcH and repetitive. "outine maintenance may also consider a
small portion of preventive maintenance.
PRE!E#T!E M"#TE#"#CE
his is one of the oldest maintenance systems being practiced in industries. It is easy to understand and is still being
used e0tensively. oday corrective maintenance and ,ondition#+ased Maintenance Idiagnostic maintenanceJ etc. are
also added to this concept to some e0tent. 1reventive maintenance I1MJ is the planned maintenance of plants and
equipments Iincluding and resulting from periodic inspectionsJ in order to prevent or minimi/e breakdowns and
depreciation rates. 5s it covers vast areas, occasionally some people get misled about its coverage.
In general, the various component of 1M are as follows8
). ,heck drawings design and installation of equipments including subsequent redesign and minor modifications
depending on specific nature of problems
&. 1roper identification of all items, proper documentations and conditions8
.istory cards6records
4pares catalogues, equipment catalogues and inventory list
Kob manuals etc.
Maintenance 7ork order etc.
:. 1eriodic inspection of plants and equipments8
3se of checklists by inspectors and its frequency, daily, shift#wise, weekly, monthly etc.
7ell#qualified and e0perienced inspectors.
3se of necessary aidsLest equipments, @ibration meters, 3ltrasonic and M#ray equipments etc.
1reparing total defect lists and their categori/ation.
;. "epetitive 4ervicing, repairs, upkeep and overhauls8
Minor repairs
Medium "epairs#roughly around <(N of job of major overhauls.
Major overhauls or capital repairs.
!mergency repairs or corrective repairs.
"ecovery or 4alvaging# when equipment has undergone several major repairs.

;
TEROTECHNOLOGY

he life O reliability of a equipment can be improved by proper application of ribology O terotechnology. ribology
the science O tech. of friction, wear, O fear aspects. It deals with study of friction, wear, tear, O their control.
Industrial study has believed that cost O replacement of born#out components may be as high *(N of total component.
In any industry it is highly desirable that equipment remain available for operational utili/ation. herefore cause for
design out maintenance, which is the main theme of terotechnology.
he application of this concept is following design features included in equipment8 #
). he design of equipment should be such that it requires no or minimum maintenance work. his
ensures better performance O productivity.
&. 1rovision should be made to send periodic feed back on the performance of system to the designer to
enable him to make modification to achieve the desire performance.
:. 5ll consult person should be proper training on the working O maintenance aspects of equipment.
;. he important area of terotechnology is condition monitoring, protective device O application of
advance maintenance engg.

APPLICATION
he nature of the maintenance activity was determined by the manner in which plant and equipment was
designed, selected, installed, commissioned, operated, removed and replaced. Major benefits could come to +ritish
industry from the adoption of a broadly based technology which embraces all these areas, and because no suitable
word e0isted to describe such a multidisciplinary concept, the name Pterotechnology %based on the Areek work
Ptero###to guard or look after- was adopted.
In )2*< the committee for terotechnology defined terotechnology as follows8 #
P5 combination of management, financial, engineering and other practices applied to physical assets in pursuit of
economic life cycle costs
the following was then added###
PIts practice is concerned with the specification and design for reliability and maintainability of plant, machinery,
equipment, buildings and structures, with their installation and replacement, and with the feedback of information on
design, performance and costs.
It can be seen that the concept of terotechnology had drifted from a point where maintenance and unavailability costs
were of central importance to a very general and less tangible subject area, the relevance and applicability of which is,
as yet, far from gaining full acceptance by industry.
he author is inclined to the view that the definition attempts to encompass too diverse a range of Pphysical assets
%e.g. from school buildings to steel processing plant- across which the main cost factors may differ by many orders of
magnitude. his book will therefore be mainly concerned with industrial plant where the main maintenance#related
costs are those of resources, unavailability and, in life cycle terms, useful life .the author has arrived at a clear
<
5udit
performance
>unction e0pects
echnology
Infrastructure
Identify short
coming
Material science
o enhance
problem
solving
capability
1roblem
4olution
Metallurgical
Gubrication
4olution
Implementatio
n
Manufacturin
g Bperation
>eed back " O d s
preference for understanding this important subject area in terms of the Poptimi/ation of total maintenance costs over
the equipment life cycle. It is implicit in this definition that certain categories of unavailability can be classified as
indirect maintenance costs, and the costs of maintenance resources as direct maintenance costs.
ECONOMY OF MAINTENANCE
Maintenance economy is approved allocation of funds with in which maintenance engineers and in charges can
operate with reasonable amount of freedom for their activities 6 jobs.
!conomy of maintenance is essential and also very advantageous to control maintenance is a service organi/ation and
probably no better way is available to control its costs. Bther benefits of such economy are that8 #
It improves the system effectiveness and efficiency of maintenance organi/ation, increase of e0penditure over
economy is generally because of some inadequate 6 wrong planning or untimely planning.
Maintenance personnel know their economy in advance and, so, they plan their e0penditure judiciously and timely
so that no job is held up and never there is shortage of funds.
It is very effective technique for projecting future and additional requirements of funds.
Aenerally there are no disadvantages of economy maintenance e0penditure if the economy has been done properly and
with foresight. .owever disadvantages and problems are faced if the economy is not done properly with foresight and
if economy is not fle0ible and, in that case, a maintenance in charge has to run from pillar to post to carry out some
urgent job and delay is also caused.
Economy can %e of the followin& three types:
5ppropriation economy, which set a lump sum as the ma0imum amount that, can be spent for a given item.
>i0ed economy which specify the allowable amount of costs for a period of time.
>le0ible economy, which relate the allowable cost to some measure of activity.
!conomy for maintenance cost would require a combination of all three types mentioned above. ,ertain type of
maintenance work are best planned as D1rojectsE or DKobsE such as ,apital "epairs, major overhauls, and
rearrangement of shop equipments etc. and the appropriations type economy should be used in regard to such jobs.
his may be, to some e0tent, similar to capital economy mentioned earlier. he bulk of such costs take the form of
maintaining lab our and facilities in a state of ready to serve and these are best in the form of a fi0ed economy.
TRAINING IN MAINTENANCE
raining is very essential for maintenance personnel because9
Maintenance personnel have to encounter more uncertainties and unpredictable situations.
Maintenance jobs are a multi#disciplinary function.
Maintenance repair technology is changing very fast and new developments are taking place regularly in that
direction.
raining increase the effectiveness of maintenance personnel with situations where many necessary behaviour aspect
and technical and skill aspect. It gives a clear picture of what is e0pected of them. raining also creates a feeling
amongst maintenance personnel that skills are important, needed and highly valued. >or maintenance personnel
manpower effectiveness and manpower potential, following can be considered8 #
Manpower Effecti'eness ( Manpower potential ) "pplication factor
he application factor is the product of morale, skill and management factors and is always less than one. he job of
training and human resource development is to increase his application factor to as near to one as possible so that the
effectiveness of maintenance manpower improves towards the potential and they are able to give more and better
output.
OBJECTIVES OF MAINTENANCE
'
raining and development of maintenance personnel is, primarily, planned and designed to achieve following
objectives9
). *nowled&e O%+ecti'e: - hese objectives refer to knowledge acquired during training regarding maintenance
policies and systems, preventive, predictive and corrective maintenance, condition monitoring and diagnosing,
fault and defect analysis, planning, scheduling and recording keeping etc.
&. "ttitudinal O%+ecti'es: - It is commonly believed that attitudes influence the behaviour, which affects the output
and effectiveness of maintenance personnel.
:. $kill O%+ecti'es: - 4kill generally refers to ability and e0pertness of a person to perform his job. Bne of the
important objectives of training is to improve the skill of maintenance personnel in his own trade and to impart
skill of other necessary trades, especially in case of multi#trade concepts.
;. ,o% Beha'iour O%+ecti'es: - .ere the attention is focused on the e0tent to which knowledge, skills and abilities
acquired during the training can be generali/ed or transferred to maintenance problems solving efforts.
<. "d'anced technolo&ical O%+ecti'es: - hese objectives refer to short term training programs aimed to acquaint
maintenance engineers and supervisors about the modern developments taking place in the field of repair and
maintenance technologies.
TEN COMMANDMENTS OF TRAINING: -
+efore designing any training and management development program, following principles should be considered
which would increase the productivity in maintenance personnel, which, in turn, will enhance the organi/ational
productivity.
). ?evelopment depends place largely on the job.
&. ?ifferent jobs require different skills.
:. he job must obtain challenge.
;. he challenge e0perienced must be continual but gradual.
<. 1eriodic recuperation eases and consolidates learning.
'. ?evelopment must be an essential part of management, job.
*. 5ll development is basically self#development.
=. Brgani/ation should base promotions as much on assessed potential as on observed performance. his is a
common practice now a day in almost all industries.
2. Brgani/ation must consider the total individual.
)(. 4uccessful development program require monitoring.
Cate&ories of Trainin&
In an industry, the training may be of different types and categories and on different subjects. @arious training and
development program for maintenance personnel can be roughly grouped into the following categories8 #
4afety and environment management 6 protection.
Induction and orientation.
.uman behaviour and management aspects.
Kob and skill related training.
4pecific trainings as part of commissioning and handing over of new equipments.
4peciali/ed training.
raining of trainers.
Modes of Trainin&
Mode of training is selected mainly on type and critically of training and number and profile of participants. Aenerally
a combination of modes is used. >ew are mentioned below8 #
,lassroom and blackboard lecture.
,harts, posters, displays, wall mock#ups etc.
*
Bn job training.
@isits to workshops and functional shops and discussions.
,omputer displays.
Interaction and visits to manufactures places.
=
Maintenance Types- $ystems
In earlier days very few terms were used in maintenance management like repair, overhauling, 1.M.
etc. but with the involvement of management e0perts in maintenance and also attempting to differentiate between
various maintenance jobs, several new terms were invented and used such as 1lanned Maintenance, scheduled
maintenance, routine maintenance, periodic maintenance, breakdown maintenance, corrective maintenance, predictive
maintenance, opportunity maintenance, need based maintenance, optimum maintenance, fi0ed time maintenance,
condition based maintenance and reliability centered maintenance etc. however, with so many terms available now,
there are more chances of confusion in the minds of maintenance personnel.
In order to streamline the understanding of different types6systems of maintenance functions, the
classification can be done on the basis of planning and critically6essentially of jobs. 4ome jobs may be planned in
advance but some jobs may have to be taken up immediately and un#planned. 1lanned and un#planned jobs can also be
classified further depending on nature of the job and its essentially. he detailed classification is shown below8#
!mergency or breakdown maintenance
Bpportunsitic Maintenance
,orreective maintenance
,orrective Maintenance
"outine Maintenance
1reventive Maintenance
1redictive Maintenance
?esign#out maintenance
Breakdow Ma!"ea#e $E%er&e#' Re(a!r):
In a breakdown maintenances system, repair is undertaken only after the failure
of the equipment. he equipment is allowed to run undistributed till it fails. Bf course,
lubrication and minor adjustment %for pressure, flow etc.- are doing during this period. Bnly
when equipment fails to perform designed functions or comes to a grinding help, any other
maintenance6repair job is taken.
Bn the face value, this system appears to be simple and less e0pensive but it is really
so, it may work good in a small factory6plant where8
Cumber of equipment are few.
!quipments are very simple and repair does not call for specialist or special
tools6tackles.
7here sudden stoppage6failure of equipments will not cause severe financial loss in
terms of delivery commitment or further damage to other equipments6components.
7here sudden failure will not cause severe safety or environmental ha/ards.
In such small factories, generally there are no speciali/ed maintenance crew9
Maintenance is normally done by the persons operating the machine and other connected
persons. Maintenance is generally done to put back the breakdown m6c into operation but not
much job is done to prevent recurrences of such breakdowns. 4pares are generally kept with
persons operating the m6c or their superiors.
.owever, such breakdown maintenance system cant work in a big industry having
large number of equipments, some which may be quite intricate. his is not used in chemical
2
Maintenance
4ystem
3n#planed
1lanned
and process industries where reliability requirement is quite high and where failure may lead
to safety or pollution ha/ards or where restart of the equipment6plant will take considerable
time. +reakdown maintenance in such big and process industries proves to be very costly as
downtime and restart costs are huge. >requency of breakdown becomes more and downtime
period often increases as resources %man#power and facilities6tools etc.- may not be available
or deployed elsewhere at the time of breakdown on an m6c. 5s such, in these industries,
other more reliable maintenance systems %1.M. or ,+M4 etc.- are adopted.
.owever, a maintenance personnel may, sometimes, be forced to adopt breakdown
maintenance because of some technological or resource constraints.
5 rough flow diagram of breakdown maintenance is shown in figure.
Corre#"!*e Ma!"ea#e:
,orrective Maintenance, as the name implies, means maintenance actions for
correcting or restoring a failed unit %or the units going to fail-. Its scope is very vast and may
include different types of actions from small actions like typical adjustments and minor
repairs to re#design of equipment. It includes both planned and unplanned %or scheduled and
unscheduled- actions and is governed by failure of the items as well as condition of the
items.
5ctions in corrective maintenance can be sub#divided, according to priority, as follows8
%i- !mergency work, high priority, generally off#line i.e. after stooping the equipment,
normally less than &; hours notice is given for taking the job.
%ii- ?eferred work#jobs of lower order priority, generally offline.
%iii- o eliminate6reduce respective breakdowns.
%iv- "econditioning or re#design jobs %both major and minor-.
,orrective maintenance is generally one time task i.e. once taken up,
completed fully. !ach corrective maintenance job may differ from the other. 4ome of the
corrective maintenance jobs may call for collection of e0tensive data6information about
the breakdowns and their causes etc. and proper analysis of those data before coming to
conclusion about actual jobs to be done. echniques like cause and affect analysis
%>ish#bone diagram61areto diagram- etc. help these cases. 4ome jobs may call for
research O development %"O?- activities. hus, such corrective maintenance jobs may
have the following stages8
,ollection of data6informations and analysis.
Identify likely causes.
>ind out the best possible solutions to eliminate likely causes.
Implement those solutions etc.
4ome of the differences between preventive maintenance %1.M.- and corrective
maintenance may be as follows8#
%i- 1.M. jobs are generally taken before the equipment has stopped working whereas
corrective maintenance may be done before or after the equipment has stopped
working.
)(
%ii- Gevel and type of 1.M. jobs are generally decided within the maintenance
department whereas in corrective maintenance help of other departments may be taken.
%iii- 1M jobs are planned well in advance corrective maintenance jobs may be taken
at shorter notice.
,orrective maintenance jobs may also include some of the D?esign#out
maintenanceE jobs.
Mr. @.Q. 1riel of 3.$., in his book 4ystematic Maintenance Brgani/ation,
e0plains that Dthe emphasis in corrective maintenance is an obtaining full information of all
the breakdowns and their causes. !fforts are made to identify and eliminate the cause by
the activities such ass improving maintenance practices, changing frequency of
maintenance services, improving process control practices, modifying equipments or
components of equipments etc.E
Breakdown in Maintenance .low /ia&ram
O((or"+!,"!# Ma!"ea#e:
In multi component system, with several failing components, often it is advantageous to follow
opportunistic maintenance also. 7hen an equipment or system is taken down for maintenance6changing of one or few
worn#out components, the opportunity can be utili/ed for maintenance6changing other wearing out the components
even through they have not failed. his would probably be economical in the long run than taking shut#down when
other components fail. Cormally cost of replacing several parts jointly is much less than the sum of the costs of
several separate replacements. .owever, cost of left over %residual- life of the components, which are going to be
changed, has to be taken into considerations in such calculations.
Bpportunistic maintenance is very beneficial for non#monitored components. >or non#monitored components,
which are inaccessible for inspection without replacement, replacement policy may be considered. >or non#monitored
components, which can be inspected before the replacement, inspection policy may be considered. >or monitored
components, if fault is detected in one of the check and repair other similar components. 5s a commonly used
e0ample in automobiles engine, if one value gives problem %worn out- and needs grinding, all other valves are alsoR
ground in the same shutdown. It would be very e0pensive to dismantle, grind and re#assemble the values as and when
they show problems. %worn#out-.
))
Bften, in an equipment comple0, which are taken down every year for statutory annual overhaul and
inspection %like boilers etc.- if any components fails a month or two earlier than the scheduled date of start of ne0t
shutdown and if that repair is going to take some time, the ne0t annual overhaul and inspection is prepared to start
immediately and total job in taken together. his can be a case of opportunistic maintenance.
Bpportunistic maintenance is actually not a specific maintenance system but is a system of utili/ing an
opportunity which may come up anytime. o carry out the actual jobs, we use different telephone systems.
Ro+"!e Ma!"ea#e:
"outine maintenance is the simplest form of the planned maintenance but very essential. 5s the name
implies, routine maintenance means carrying out minor maintenance jobs at the regular intervals. It involves minor
jobs such as cleaning, lubrication, inspection and minor adjustment of pressure, flow tightness etc. and tightening of
loose parts etc. It also includes inspection of bearings, @#belts, couplings, jointings, foundation bolts, earthings and
protective covers etc. he small and critical defects, observed during such inspection, are rectified and bigger jobs are
planned for rectification during ne0t available shutdown. 4uch maintenance is essential for effective scheduled and
preventive maintenance.
"outine maintenance is not need#based. In anequipment, some motors may be running four hours a day and
some motors may be running twenty hours in a day, but, in routine maintenance, all are inspected at the same factory.
his may lead to some amount of over# maintenance, on some equipments or components but this system pays
handsomely in the long run. D"egularity i.e. carrying out planned jobs regularly in simple cyclic schedules is very
essential in routine maintenance. 4uch schedules are simple %like check, clean, lubrications, tighten, adjust etc.- and
respective. "outine maintenance may also consider a small portion of preventive maintenance.
>requency of routine maintenance is generally once every shift %at the start of shift- or once every day. Bf
course, in sophisticated and automatic Rworking equipments or in equipments having enough condition monitoring
gadgets to indicate failures, the period of routine maintenance may change. 5gain, depending on the e0tent of jobs and
time available either the same jobs may be planned for every day or one group of jobs may be planned for Monday,
another group of jobs for uesday and so on.
"outine maintenance needs very little investment in time and money. he duration of routine maintenance in
a day is generally so small that it is does not affect the output from the m6c appreciably. 5s the jobs are not big and
dont need much spares and materials, costs of doing routine maintenance is also very small. .owever, cost of not
doing routine maintenance may be very high as small defect, which could have been rectified during routine
maintenance with little time and effort, may lead to a major problem and crisis causing severe production disruption
and needing lot of money and resources for rectification.
Bne e0ample of routine maintenance is one "ailway suburban electric train system is that whenever a train
stops at few bigger stations, a group of maintenance people immediately start checking brakes etc. he whole job is
over in )( to )& minutes by the time the train is due to start for onward journey. In industries, during shift change
periods a small group of maintenance personnel carry out necessary inspection, lubrication, adjustment and tightening
etc. for about )< minutes by the time operating personnel are ready to start the equipment. "ough flow diagram of
routine maintenance is shown in figure. 4imilar flow diagram can be made for other maintenance systems.
Pre*e"!*e Ma!"ea#e:
his is one of the oldest maintenance systems being practiced in industries. It is easy to understand
and is still being used e0tensively. oday corrective maintenance and ,ondition based maintenance %diagnostic
maintenance- etc. are also added to this concept to some e0tent. 1reventive maintenance %1M- is the planned
maintenance of plants and equipments %including and resulting from periodic inspections- in order to prevent or
minimise breakdowns and depreciation rates. 5s it covers vast areas occasionally some people get misled about its
coverage. 4ome people think 1M is just a routine inspection, cleaning, lubrication, adjustment and doing minor
repairs6jobs on equipments. 4ome other think that 1M means internal cleaning of equipments and components,
lubrication and oil changing and replacement of consumables like gaskets, belts, seals, bearings etc. Set some other
link that 1M includes only major jobs like overhauling and reconditioning etc. 5ctually 1M includes all the three
types of activities mentioned here. 5fter 1M repairs, the equipments health is restored back nearly to the equipments
original condition. .owever, it does not include much improvement and upgradation jobs.
)&
.low /ia&ram for Routine Maintenance
In general, the various components of 1M are as follows8#
%i- ,heck drawings, design and installation of equipments including subsequent re#design and minor
modifications depending on specific nature of problems.
%ii- 1roper identification of all items, proper documentations and conditions8
.istory ,ards6"ecords
4pares catalogues, equipment catalogue and inventory list.
Kob manuals etc.
Maint work orders etc.
%iii- 1eriodic inspection of plants and equipments8
3se of checklists by inspectors and its frequency, daily, shift#wise, weekly monthly etc.
7ell qualified and e0perienced inspectors.
3se of necessary aids est equipments, vibration meters, ultrasonic and M#ray equipments etc.
1reparing total defect lists and their categori/ations.
%I@- "epetitive 4ervicing, repairs, upkeep and overhauls8
Minor repairs
Medium "epairs roughly around <(N of jobs of major overhauls.
Major overhauls or capital repairs.
!mergency repairs or corrective repairs.
"ecovery or 4alvaging#when equipment ahs undergone several major repairs.
%@- 5dequate lubrication, cleaning and painting of equipments. ,hanging of oils and lubricants of systems as
per inspection report.
%vi- ypical failures analysis and planning for their elimination.
%vii- Brgani/ation for 1.M.
%viii- +udgetary ,ontrol of "epairs and 1.M.
,rew carrying out 1.M. jobs should normally be separate from crew attending breakdowns. If the two types of
jobs are given to same crew. 1.M. jobs often get neglected or get less importance and less supervision as not during
1.M. jobs does not immediately reflect in downtime, +ut, in the long run, this practice would prove disastrous as
breakdowns would occur more frequently.
!ssence of 1.M. is proper planning of all activities beforehand so that the following common delays are
avoided.
7aiting for job orders at the start of the shift, and also finishing one job.
@isiting the site to find out what to do and how to do.
3nnecessary trips to stores as complete lists of tools6spares not available at start of the shift and tools are
brought from stores as and when needed.
Bperating personnel not clearly aware of time of sparing the m6c and doing their preparatory jobs %opening of
dies6jaws etc.- before the handling over the m6c to maintenance for 1.M.
Gosing time because of lack of safety permit etc.
):
Fre-+e#' o. P/M/
he frequency of 1.M. jobs are generally cyclic in nature, but the in the interval between two 1.M.
schedules for same jobs i.e. frequency of 1.M. is not same throughout the life cycle of the equipment. 5s discussed
earlier, failure rate also follows the bathtub curve. 5s indicated in figure. >ailure rates are high during initial stage i.e.
just after commissioning %also called de#bugging phase or wear#in#phase-, failure rates are less during normal working
period %also known as chance failure phase- and failure rates are again high towards the end of life cycle or working
cycle i.e. just before the discard of equipment or equipment is taken down for major revamping %also known as wear#
out phase-. 5s such the 1.M. frequency between these three phases are decided accordingly.
Bath Tu% Cur'e
5gain, during the chance failure#phase, the inspection, cleaning, lubrication and minor repair components etc.
may have pre#determined fi0ed frequency and interval but the major overhauls and capital repair components etc. may
sometimes follow slightly differing frequency and intervals. In figure, the periods 0), 0& and 0: indicate the actual
operating periods during which the equipment condition deteriorates and periods y), y& O y: are the periods of capital
repairs6overhauls during which a deteriorated equipments is restored back to near its original condition. In actual
practice, because of some difference in local conditions at the time, the periods 0), 0& and 0: may or may not be equal
and similarly periods y), y& andy: may or may not be equal.
.re0uency of P1M1
,BC?IIBC MBCIB"ICA
Condition monitorin& is the process of monitoring a parameter of condition in machinery, such that a significant
change is indicative of a developing failure. It is a major component of predictive maintenance. he use of conditional
monitoring allows maintenance to be scheduled, or other actions to be taken to avoid the consequences of failure,
before the failure occurs. It is typically much more cost effective than allowing the machinery to fail. 4erviceable
machinery includes rotating machines and stationary plant such as boilers and heat e0changers.
);
B+K!,I@!4 B> ,BC?IIBC +54!? MBCIB"ICA
In broad sense maintenance is Dto keep fit any 4ystem for useE. It may be defined as an overall combination of all
those activities which are required to keep an item as in built condition so that it continues to have its original
procedure capacity.
he following are the main objectives of condition based monitoring
o intervene before the failure occurs
o do maintenance only when needed
o reduce number of failure and also number of shut down
o reduce maintenance cost and cost due to production loss
Increase in the operating life of replacement items
"eduction in maintenance manpower
"eduction of spare inventory
7.5 B MBCIB"
5 general impression is generally taken that once the planning, design manufacture, erection and commissioning is
done successfully and the plant6equipment goes for regular operation, the rest is the matter of planned periodic
maintenance schedules for upkeep of the plant6equipment. It is essential and by measuring emanated signals at the
correct locations and in correct manner it is possible to judge the physical condition of plants and equipments and
timely action can be initiated. 5ll m6c emanate or indicate both D1rimary signalsE and D4econdary signals.E 1rimary
signals are generally those signals or parameter which are required to asses the performance of the equipments and
which are design to emanated such as oscillation in vibratory screens etc. all other signals, which are appear as loss
o6p like vibration, sound, chemical and physical changes etc. as secondary signals are generally result or form of loss
output, monitoring of these signals becomes inevitable for equipment health monitoring and technical diagnostics.
.ence we need tom monitor all the signals i.e. 1rimary as well as 4econdary signals.
7.!C B MBCIB"
,ondition monitoring is almost essential and by measuring emanated signals at the correct location and in correct
manner it is possible to judge the physical condition
Bf plants and equipments and timely action can be intiated.now the question arises that when to monitor the
system,there are several possibilities when monitoring is essential or it is required which are discussed below8
3ndue noise from machines or its parts.
3npleasant smell from any machine.
Geakage from any part of the machine.
5 part or many of a machine undergoing regular wear and tear.
>ailure of parts.
PRINCIPLES OF CONDITION BASED MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS $CBMS)
hese are the main principles of condition base monitoring.
5 simplified method of ,ondition#+ased Maintenance 4ystem may include following steps8
21 3istin& and Codification of all machines-e0uipments: for proper identification and location.
41 $electin& Critical Machines and $ystems: Machine and system may be classified as very critical, critical, less
critical and least critical. ,riteria for very critical and critical machines and systems may be8
)<
If the machine6system is very important for the production.
If the machine6system is very costly to repair.
If the failure of the machine6system could result in injury or loss of life %health ha/ard- or serious damage to
environment
Major machines not having any stand#by units.
,+M4 is very beneficial for critical and very critical machines6systems and generally continuous condition
monitoring program are used for these machines. 4ometimes e0pensive on#line continuous monitoring is
preferred for very critical machines and systems. Bn less critical machines6system, periodic monitoring is
enough. >or least critical machines fi0ed time maintenance %1.M.- is preferred or those may be allowed to run
to failure. If the machine are classified as @ital, !ssential and ?esirable %@!? analysis-, continuous
monitoring, periodic monitoring and fi0ed time maintenance may be preferred respectively.

51 dentifyin& Components-tems8 @ery critical, critical and less critical machines6systems are sub#divided into
process components, mechanical components and control components etc. >rom these, individual components
%items- are identified for monitoring such as roller bearing, seals, oils6lubricants etc.
61 .i7in& Condition Parameters: hese identified components %items- have to be transformed into condition
parameters which are actually measured or monitored such as temperature, pressure, flow, vibration, noise, strain,
level, magnetic flu0, electrical insulation etc. >or specific component, most appropriate condition parameters are
fi0ed.
81 Monitorin& Techni0ues8 >or each condition parameters, relevant measuring and monitoring techniques are
selected and for those, suitable equipments6instruments6implements are identified and obtained. ?ifferent
techniques have their own merits and demerits. 5ll techniques cannot be used and often not required for all
machines. 4election of measuring techniques and instruments are primarily based on operating conditions, past
e0perience, fluid handled and likely defect that may occur while in operation.
5fter deciding the techniques and instruments, the mode of monitoring is ascertained such as displacement mode,
velocity mode or acceleration mode for vibration monitoring. hen comes fi0ing up of monitoring points or
sampling points. hese points should be so located that they give truly representative signals6symptoms and
conditions. 5lso, generally same points are used for successive monitoring and trend monitoring. >or e0ample, in
vibration monitoring points should be so selected that we get radial vibration %in two planes- and a0ial vibration
for each bearing. In lubricant monitoring, for wear#debris analysis, the sampling points should be so located that it
gives representative value of debris generated#it should not be at the e0treme bottom of tank as debris is normally
accumulated there and it should generally not be at the top most level where debris normally do not reach on
surface.
91 Monitorin& $chedule and .re0uency8 .aving finali/ed the monitoring techniques, instruments and points, the
ne0t is to decide about the frequency of monitoring %daily, weekly, monthly, continuous etc.-. 4ome monitoring or
inspection can be done only DonlineE i.e., when the machines6systems are running and some can be done only
DofflineE. ,ondition parameters such as vibration, temperature, bearing conditions, strain etc. can be monitored
only when machines6 systems are running %on#line-. 5gain such monitoring can be periodic or continuous
depending on criticality. 4ome other condition parameter such as checking the internal clearances, gaps,
backlashes etc. can be inspected6monitored when the machines6systems are not working or dismantled %off#line-
,onsidering the above aspects and also considering the severity6criticality of the machines and the defects likely
to be generated, a master inspection6monitoring schedule is prepared, monitoring6inspections are carried out as per
the schedule and recorded. In case a defect or deviation is observed, often rechecking is done %through not
scheduled- or ne0t inspection date is proponed to ascertain the defect6deviation. If possible, severity limits of
condition parameters are also ascertained.
:1 Trend Monitorin&8 he inspection records, thus obtained, are decoded, analy/ed and compared with the
ma0imum allowable limits or earlier data if available. oday the equipment manufacturer often supplies vibration
)'
signature6records and records of the other condition parameters of the new machines along with their test#reports.
hese can be taken as reference value for monitoring. .owever for older machines6systems, where such reference
value are not available, successive inspection6monitoring records of same machines are analy/ed and trend is
established which helps in finding out the e0tent of deviation6defect. ,omparison with inspection results of other
similar machines also help in such trend monitoring. In case of increasing trend, more frequent
inspections6monitoring are made. >ailure statistics %M+>, M" etc.-, if available, can also be considered
his assessment will indicate the deterioration developing in the machine and will also indicate the time when
corrective repairs are to be done to avid failure.
;1 Repair $chedule and E7ecution8 +ased on the assessments indicated by trend monitoring, necessary repair
actions are planned, scheduled and e0ecuted for correcting the deterioration reaches higher limits.
<1 .ollow-up8 5fter the repairs, the condition parameters are again inspected and analy/ed to ensure the defects,
identified earlier, were repaired correctly and this goes on.
he success of this program depends on the effective use of monitoring instruments and proper analysis of
inspection data by skilled persons and also by taking timely repair action.
CONDITION BASED MONITORING TECHNI0UES
@isual Monitoring.
Geakage Monitoring.
emperature Monitoring.
Gubricant Monitoring F7ear ?ebris 5nalysisH
@ibration Monitoring.
4ound6 5coustic Monitoring.
,racks monitoring
,orrosion monitoring
Coise6sound monitoring
4mell6odour monitoring
)*
@I435G
@isual monitoring is the most commonly used method. 4uch monitoring can be done using9
)- .uman eyes
&- Bptical probes
:- Bptical probes with television
he selection is done based on sophistication6comple0ity involved. Bptical probes are use when man cannot easily
approach to see or it as ha/ardous to see with human eye. 7ith the use of set of televisions, man sitting at one place
can see and monitor the conditions of different places. hese can again be computeri/ed.
!M1!"53"! MBCIB"ICA
he techniques6instruments used in temperature monitoring are
emperature crayons and tapes
hermometers and optical pyrometers
hermocouples
>usible plugs
Infrared meters
hermography %infrared radiation scanner-
a. Infrared hermography. 5 non contact technique employing either a video system or a scanning#type temperature
probe that measures infrared radiation emitted and reflected from surfaces. he technique is also effective in detecting
thermal cavities and roof leaks.
)=
b. ,ontact ?evices. ?evices such as thermometers, resistance temperature detectors, thermocouples, decals, and
crayons that detect temperatures within (.&<o,.
c. ?eep#1robe emperature 5nalysis. 3sing temperature probes inserted into the soil in the vicinity of buried pipes
carrying steam or hot fluid to determine the degree of leakage and energy loss.
hermography
Thermo&raphy, or thermal ima&in&, is a type of infrared imaging. hermographic cameras detect radiation in the
infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum %roughly 2(();,((( nanometers or (.2); Tm- and produce images
of that radiation. 4ince infrared radiation is emitted by all objects based on their temperature, according to the black
body radiation law, thermography makes it possible to UseeU oneVs environment with or without visible illumination.
he amount of radiation emitted by an object increases with temperature therefore thermography allows one to see
variations in temperature, hence the name. 7ith a thermographic camera warm objects stand out well against cooler
backgrounds.
hermal imaging photography finds many other uses. >or e0ample, firefighters use it to see through smoke, find
persons, and locali/e hotspots of fires. 7ith thermal imaging, power lines maintenance technicians locate overheating
joints and parts, a telltale sign of their failure, to eliminate potential ha/ards. 7here thermal insulation becomes faulty,
building construction technicians can see heat leaks to improve the efficiencies of cooling or heating air#conditioning.
he appearance and operation of a modern thermo graphic camera is often similar to a camcorder. !nabling the user to
see in the infrared spectrum is a function so useful that ability to record their output is often optional. 5 recording
module is therefore not always built#in.
)2
he basis for I" imaging technology is that any object whose temperature is above ( W$ radiates infrared energy. he
amount of radiated energy is a function of the objectVs temperature and its relative efficiency of thermal radiation,
known as emissivity. >ig. shows an image of an aluminum housing.
"adiated energy %power- is proportional to the bodyVs temperature, raised to the ;th power. >or e0ample, a black body
%emissivity of )((N- at :(W , would have a radiation density of <.;m76cmX. hat same blackbody at a temperature of
)<(W , would have a radiation density of ):2.&m76cmX. his energy can be measured and an instrument calibrated to
indicate the corresponding temperature of the surface itVs Ulooking at.U Instruments which UscanU an object and create
an image or spatial map of surface temperatures are referred to as thermal imagers
G3+"I,5C MBCIB"ICA
Bil analysis is used to determine the condition of a given oil, fuel, or grease sample by testing for viscosity9 particle,
fuel, and water contaminants9 acidity6alkalinity %p.-9 breakdown of additives9 and o0idation.
,oupled with other technologies such as vibration and temperature measurements, oil analysis identifies the
equipment condition and aids in identifying the root cause of failures.
he methods of lubricant monitoring or wear debris monitoring can be classified in to following three categories
). ?irect ?etection Method8 he wear debris in the machine is detected by arranging the oil to flow through a device
which is sensitive to the presence of the debris.
&. ?ebris collection Method8 7ear debris is collected in a device fitted to the machine so that the debris can be
e0tracted periodically for the e0amination.
:. Gubricant sample 5nalysis8 In such method, a representative sample of lubricant is taken out periodically from the
machine and is analy/ed for wear debris types, concentration and pattern etc.
+ased on these methods, the following techniques6equipments %which are component of wear debris monitoring- are
used for monitoring the health and condition of the plant6equipment with which the oils6lubricants come into contact.
@isguage or viscosity meters
3sed engine oil test rigs
&(
Magnetic plugs
Bil monitoring filters
>errography
4pectroscopy
1article counter
!is&ua&e: his is actually a viscosity comparator which quickly tells the rough viscosity of the oil. .owever correct
viscosity of the oil can be measured in a laboratory through viscosity meters.
3sed !ngine Bil est "igs
It is a small portable kit which can be taken near the engines of any ?.A. set, "ail or any other engine. It is a very
convenient, quick and reasonably dependable and efficient oil monitoring system which helps in identifying the
defective operating conditions in the engine which are caused by fuel dilution, dirty air filters, faulty combustion,
e0cessive wear etc. It also helps in indicating the correct engine oil change period and this conserves precious oil.
It incorporates five technical tests which are8
a.- @iscosity test
b.- 5dditive acidity test
c.- "eserve alkanity test
d.- ?etergent dispersancy test
e.- 7ater content test
Magnetic 1lugs
hese are simple magnetic 1robes positioned in the lubricating system for ma0imum catch efficiency of the wear
debris. hese are generally fitted at the bottom portion of the sump, reservoir so that these can be periodically
removed along with the collected metallic debris.
he magnetic plugs are of debris collection method type. his plug, in addition to collecting metallic debris for
monitoring also helps in cleaning of oils.
Bil Monitoring >ilters
hese works on the debris collection method. hese filters can be used with an DIntegrated oil analy/erE or otherwise.
In this a unique filter is used which passes the very small particles of little interest but captures and retains small wear
particles. >ig. shows a filter unit which consists of a syringe pump to force the oil at constant flow, a filter to capture
&)
the particles, a means to measure the pressure drop across the filter and a magnet and flu0 sensor to measure the
magnetic particles. 5s the syringe pump starts forcing the oil through filter at constant flow, the pressure drop
continues to increase. he pressure drop across the filter rise quickly to equilibrium value proportional to the viscosity
and remains nearly constant in case of clean oil. hus the rate of rise in pressure drop can be correlated to particle
concentration and also to wear generated. >urther analysis of wear6debris particles, deposited on filter, can reveal the
components which are wearing out.
>errography
>errography, or wear#particle analysis, is the identification of all particles suspended in the lubricating fluids of any
oil#wetted machinery. his technology was developed by the 3.4. Cavy in the )2*(s. oday, it is available worldwide
through commercial laboratories. >errography provides a non#invasive look at historic, current and future conditions
of a machineVs lubricated components. his is all accomplished without the time and e0pense of physical e0amination.
5nalytical methods identifying the si/e, shape, composition and concentration of particles is the core of >errography.
Bnce a trained analyst determines these factors, an association between the wear particles and the specific component
of origin can be determined. his is done through direct e0amination of the particles. Alass substrate, or >errogram
analysis, is one common method of particle identification. 1redict6?GI of ,leveland developed a method of particle
distribution that uses a magnetic gradient field. 5 combination of incline, sample preparation and a magnetic field
ensure all particles present in the lubricant sample are deposited on the substrate for e0amination.
his technique uses a powerful magnetic field to separate wear particle from a sample of lubricating oil of the
machine. his technique works in the following two stages8
?etection of the onset of a machine failure using a Pdirect reading >erro graph.
P?iagnosis of the failure type by identification of the wear particles using P5nalytical >erro graph.
In Pdirect reading >erro graph a magnetic field aligns the particles according to si/e within a glass capillary tube.
Garge particles %< microns and above- are clustered near the entry point of the tube and the small particles%less than <
microns- are concentrated down stream. he instrument measurers the total number of large particles%?G-and total
number of small particles %?4-.however when the condition of the machine deteriorates, the total number of wear
particles%?GY?4- increased and concentration of large to small particles%?G6?4- increases.
&&
>or a bad sample, diagnosis of failure mode is done with the help of Panalytical >erro graph. 7ith this instrument,
lube oil is pumped at a very slow and controlled rate across a glide slide held at as light inclination above the poles of
a very powerful magnet. he wear debris deposits on the slide in a fashion ideally suited for a microscopic
e0amination of individual wear particles, magnifying the particles from )(( to )(((times.the shape, configuration
and surface characteristic of particle indicate the type of wear and type6mode of failure, such as particles in the form
of loops, spirals and bent wires indicate abrasive wear.
4pectroscopy
4pectroscopy is the study of matter by investigating light, sound, or particles that are emitted, absorbed or scattered by
the matter under investigation.
4pectroscopy may also be defined as the study of the interaction between light and matter. .istorically, spectroscopy
referred to a branch of science in which visible light was used for theoretical studies on the structure of matter and for
qualitative and quantitative analyses. "ecently, however, the definition has broadened as new techniques have been
developed that utili/e not only visible light, but many other forms of electromagnetic and non#electromagnetic
radiation8 microwaves, radiowaves, 0#rays, electrons, phonons %sound waves- and others.
4pectroscopy is often used in physical and analytical chemistry for the identification of substances through the
spectrum emitted from them or absorbed in them. 5 device for recording a spectrum is a spectrometer. 4pectroscopy
can be classified according to the physical quantity which is measured or calculated or the measurement process.
4pectroscopy is also heavily used in astronomy and remote sensing. Most large telescopes have spectrographs, which
are used either to measure the chemical composition and physical properties of astronomical objects or to measure
their velocities from the ?oppler shift of spectral lines.
S1!4 B> 41!,"B4,B1S
Emission spectroscopy uses the range of electromagnetic spectra in which a substance radiates. he
substance first absorbs energy and then radiates this energy as light. his energy can be from a variety of
sources, including collision %either due to high temperatures or otherwise-, and chemical reactions.
"%sorption spectroscopy uses the range of electromagnetic spectra in which a substance absorbs. In atomic
absorption spectroscopy, the sample is atomi/ed and then light of a particular frequency is passed through the
vapour. 5fter calibration, the amount of absorption can be related to the concentrations of various metal
ions
$catterin& spectroscopy measures certain physical properties by measuring the amount of light that a
substance scatters at certain wavelengths, incident angles, and polari/ation angles. 4cattering spectroscopy
differs from emission spectroscopy due to the fact that the scattering process is much faster than the
absorption6emission process.
1!">B"M5C,! MBCIB"ICA
1erformance monitoring may be used to achieve several aims. hese include8
o improve the performance of individual units %such as particular schools, hospitals, police forces-. his is
often linked to Pbest practice e0ercises.
o improve the performance of the overall organi/ation. In this case, the focus of the e0ercise is to improve
the performance of the parent organi/ation as a whole, as well as possibly providing some developmental
information for a single unit. >or e0ample, 1M may improve the overall performance of the education system
even if it does not give many clues of itself to the problems within any one school.
&:
o foster or generate pseudo#competition, for e0ample, where purchasers in health care buy care from
providers on the basis of measures of performance
o improve accountability in the public sector %for e0ample, to highlight Dfailing schoolsE-.
he 1M for organi/ations is for whole, not individuals. 7e have identified two main ways of instituting such 1M8
5n in#depth evaluation of an organi/ations processes and outcomes, typically involving a site#visit and large
amounts of documentation. !0amples are B>4!? visits, police inspections, Z55 in universities, .MI
1rison reports.
he collection and publication of summary performance indicators. hese can be broad or narrow in focus.
>or e0ample, schools essentially face just three8 truancy rates and two measures of A,4! pass rates. Gocal
5uthorities face a long list.
he more detailed measures are more e0pensive to collect, and if it can be shown that the summary measures provide
as good a measure as more detailed ones, there is then a case for moving to such measures.
,3""!C MBCIB"ICA
,urrent monitoring enables the current consumed around the home as well as in industry to be analysed. Monitoring
supply currents can highlight areas of e0cessive current consumption and once the problem has been identified ideas
can be implemented to reduce this e0cess. his will help reduce bills, increasing profits and in turn help the
environment.
5s machinery gets older the current consumed will often increase as parts become worn and the machine becomes
inefficient. ?ata collected from separate machines over long periods of time can highlight problems before they
become critical. 4ervicing or replacement can then be scheduled before the
machine fails, which saves any loss in production.
5larms can be set to warn of higher or lower than normal current
consumption of machinery. his can be used to highlight problems, which if
sustained may incur e0pensive servicing costs.
@I+"5IBC MBCIB"ICA
@ibration is probably the most prominently considered secondary signal.
vibrations in its simplest form is said to be the motion of a machine or a part
of machine, back and forth from its position of rest or neutral position
vibration of machine also includes changes in velocity, frequency and phase
from their position of rest.
>ig shows the characteristics of vibration in simple form
&;
he four characteristics of vibration mentioned below some specific significance about the vibration.
). ?isplacement indicates Dhow muchE vibration is present which also indicate how good or bad is the condition
of the machine.
&. 1eak velocity also indicates Dhow muchE vibrations are present which again indicates how good or bad is the
condition of the machine.
:. >requency of the vibration indicates DwhatE is causing the vibration. his vibration reading are said to be on
frequency mode. his is the most important vibration characteristics
;. 1hase of the vibration indicates DwhereE the vibration or problem originates .1hase is the position of vibrating
part at a given instant with reference to a fi0ed point .phase measurement is mainly used in dynamic balancing
of machine and helpful in identifying certain causes of vibration.
>or vibration study and monitoring the following three basic principles are taken
a- 5ll machine vibrate because there is no perfect machine with /ero vibration.
b- 7ith increase in mechanical trouble vibration increases.
c- ?ifferent troubles cause vibration s in different ways.
@ibrations are measured by various types of vibration meters. 4ome of the vibration analysis methods are8
a- 4pectral analysis
b- 4tatistical analysis and $urtosis method
c- !nvelope analysis
%a- 4pectral analysis
>requency analysis of low frequency components of vibration is commonly used for condition assessment and fault
diagnosis of a wide variety of rotating machines.
he followings are the two improved versions of such analysis
"1M 4pectral Maps or ,ascade diagrams
,ambell ?iagram
>or a rotating machine the spectral changes wit the speed of rotation arranging the various spectra vertically in
ascending value of this parameter result in a very useful diagram for fault identification. 4uch a plot is called a
spectral map or cascade diagram
In a ,ambell diagram the machine speed in rpm is plotted along the hori/ontal a0is and frequency as vertical a0is.
Brders of harmonics are shown as broken lines originating at the lower left corner.
&
)
:
;
&<
%b- 4tatical analysis and kurtosis method
@ibration analysis and monitoring of rolling contact bearing get ma0imum attention as8
"olling bearing are most commonly used components
"olling bearing generally fails through fatigue
"olling bearing has high tolerance to abuse.
5s such simple techniques for detection of damage in rolling contact bearings rely on the observations that, in the
presence of a damage. his impulsiveness is reflected to some e0tent in the power spectrum and is often detected by
magnitude changes either in broad or narrow spectrum bands.
5n alternative statical approach is provided by kurtosis bearing damage detection method. $urtosis value is one of the
statical parameters and this value of high frequency is e0amined for sensitivity to both bearing damage and to speed
and load. Mi0ing of such signals to noise has some limitations for kurtosis method.
%c- !nvelop analysis
his is also sometimes known as demodulate resonance analysis. he detection of the damage relies upon correct
identification of the characteristic vibration that occurs during the interaction of sound and defective surfaces within
the faulty bearing. his feature can be used by processing such as vibration signal through a series of rectification and
filter circuit to isolate and further highlight the train of impulse generated as a shaft rotates.
%d- 4pike !nergy method
4pike energy, are measuring unit for judging varying condition, is based on high frequency peak acceleration. It is
used for rolling element bearings, where damage is generally in the form of local spalling. !ach time a rolling element
passes or the local damage, there is a short impact which results in the release of a certain amount of energy. his is
known as short shock pulse. 4pike energy measurements differ from ordinary acceleration measurement as it detects
only high frequency vibration and hold their peak amplitudes. he spike energy measuring circuit uses a high
frequency band pass filter to reject low frequency signals caused by unbalanced, misalignment etc.
+ased on these methods and characteristics, the following types of vibration monitoring are used for maintenance in
industries8
otal signal monitoring.
>requency analysis%4pectral analysis- 3sing wide frequency range can establish out of balance and rolling
bearings problems
4hock#1ulse monitoring%41M-
$urtosis meters

,B""B4IBC MBCIB"ICA
&'
he principle of corrosion monitoring equipment is based on the corrosion or chemical wear of the test
material.he use of such technique sfor condition monitoring of machines6components %for helping in condition
base dmaintenance or other maintenance jobs- is very limited an dselective.5gain some of these mey not give
accurate machine deterioration rate.
>or common corrosion monitoring techniques are enumerated below8
7eight loss method
!lectrical resistance method
Ginear polari/ation method%G1"-
Aalvanic or /ero resistance method
.ydrogen monitoring method.
CBI4!64B3C? MBCIB"ICA
Coise and sound are basically the same e0cept that the noise may be considered harsh, unpleasant and undesirable
sound.
Coise is the result of transient vibrations of the structures and components of machines and such vibrations are
induced by rapid energy release, rapid pressure and temperature rise, cavitations and air ingress, leakages and other
malfunctions etc.
>or identifying the noise source following techniques may be used8
4ubjective assessment
5coustic duct%such as horn-
4urface intensity approach%using accelerometer on vibrating surface and a microphone-
5coustic intensity approach
Gead wrapping technique%using sound absorbing porous material blanket, pasted on lead sheet and placing on
machine vibrating surface so that the porous material is sandwithched between the lead sheet and machine
surface-
.owever for condition based maintenance vibration monitoring has overshadowed noise monitoring.
4M!GG6B?B3" MBCIB"ICA
!fficient smell6odour monitoring systems have probably not yet been developed though smelling through nose as used
since ages to determine the leakages and presence of few gases %coke oven gas, ammonia etc.-.owever many gas
detection system %on#line and off#line- and instruments are available in the market which mostly work on chemical,
electro#chemical and infrared actions6reactions. e.g.
4B
&
5naly/er %based on heated 3@ instrument- to measure 4B
&
in flue gases in sulphuric acid plants and
paper6pulp mills etc.

,B, ,B, C.
:
, ,.
;
detectors analy/ers are based on infrared techniques using gas filled detectors.
.ydrocarbon 5naly/ers for monitoring stack gases of boilers6furnaces.
CB
&
analy/er based in chemiluminescent technique etc.
+!C!>I4 B> ,BC?IIBC MBCIB"ICA
echnical benefits8#
a- Increased system availability
b- "educed consequential damage
c- Improved product quality
d- Improved safety
e- Improved 1lant operation
f- Improved maintenance
&*
Brgani/ational +enefits8#

a- Improved customer satisfaction
b- Improved plant availability.
c- Improved production
RE3"B3T=-CE#TERE/ M"#TE#"#CE
Introduction to "eliability#centered Maintenance
The Chan&in& >orld of Maintenance
Bver the past twenty years, maintenance has changed, perhaps more so than any other management discipline. he
changes are due to a huge increase in the number and variety of physical assets %plant, equipment and buildings-
which must be maintained throughout the world, much more comple0 designs, new maintenance techniques and
changing views on maintenance organi/ation and responsibilities.
Maintenance is also responding to changing e0pectations. hese include a rapidly growing awareness of the e0tent to
which equipment failure affects safety and the environment, a growing awareness of the connection between
maintenance and product quality, and increasing pressure to achieve high plant availability and to contain costs.
he changes are testing attitudes and skills in all branches of industry to the limit. Maintenance people have to adopt
completely new ways of thinking and acting, as engineers and as managers. 5t the same time the limitations of
maintenance systems are becoming increasingly apparent, no matter how much they are computeri/ed.
In the face of this avalanche of change, managers everywhere are looking for a new approach to maintenance. hey
want to avoid the false starts and dead ends which always accompany major upheavals. Instead they seek a strategic
framework which synthesi/es the new developments into a coherent pattern, so that they can evaluate them sensibly
and apply those likely to be of most value to them and their companies.
his chapter provides a brief introduction to ",M, starting with a look at how maintenance has evolved over the past
fifty years.
Relia%ility-centered Maintenance
Its !volution and @arious stages
+efore looking at where we going, lets see where we have come from. In the period up to and shortly after the >irst
7orld 7ar equipment was generally simple and robust. he ways in which it could fail were easily treated since the
simplicity aided diagnostics and in some cases equipment failure was an acceptable reason for loss of production. In
this environment, maintenance was largely reactive9 simply to fi0 things when they tailed, supplemented with simple
tasks such as lubrication. 5s an e0ample, consider a steam train. he operating principle is well understood, the
systems are simple with a low level of automation and low configurability %essentially doing one job-, the construction
is robust O contains redundant elements and operational tolerances are broad. here had to be a lot wrong before the
train actually stopped running.
.owever, during the 4econd 7orld 7ar, things began to change and the availability of manpower declined in
industriali/ed economies of the time. !quipment became more comple0, thus replacing the need for manual
&=
intervention and reducing manpower requirements. Goss of production through equipment failure also became
unacceptable leading to work on prevention of failures before they occurred. ,onventional wisdom suggests that as
equipment gets older it Uwears outU and becomes more likely to fail. 3sing this model it was believed that failures
could be avoided if equipment was maintained before items Uwore outU and the failure occurred, i.e. planned
intervention at the right time would prevent failures, all that had to be determined was the right time.
Interestingly, this line of thought yields an insight into the use of the principal maintenance performance indicators to
this day i.e. the ratio of planned to breakdown maintenance. If the likelihood of item failure increases with age, then
planned intervention before the failure should reduce the number of failures that occur. 3sing this model suggests that
if we continue to see failures then we have not intervened early enough i.e. we do not yet know the right age.
herefore it would seem appropriate to measure the effectiveness of our strategy by measuring the amount of planned
to unplanned maintenance. his is widely reported in industry9 improvement targets are even established for this ratio
%in most cases, the target is parity-. .owever, as will shortly be shown, this takes no account of the technical
characteristics of the failure and assumes that we want to prevent all failures. his is not the case and the measurement
is essentially meaningless e.g. one Aerman car plant has determined its most effective ratio of planned to unplanned
maintenance as )8';[
he growth of civil aviation in late )2;(Vs and <(s triggered the ne0t step. 5t about the same time the >ederal
5viation 5dministration %>55-, the body responsible for regulating airlines in the 345 was worried about aircraft
reliability. In an effort to reduce the number of failures, the industry concluded that the maintenance was being done
too late based on the accepted Uwear outU model of failure. 4o the frequency of scheduled maintenance was increased.
his lead to higher maintenance costs which by the late )2<(Vs prompted the industry to look at the concept of
preventive maintenance. In addition the >55 was concerned that the reliability of some engines had not been
improved by changing either the type or frequency of overhaul. he data available at the time indicated that although
the frequency of occurrence of some failures had been reduced, many more had remained unchanged or actually
increased[ here was no way this finding could be e0plained using the model of failure accepted at that time.
5 task force, consisting of representatives from both the >55 and the airlines, was established to investigate planned
maintenance policies. 7hat evolved was a statement from the committee that the reliability and the overhaul
frequency of equipment was not necessarily directly related and the common belief that reliability declined with
increasing age was not generally true. In fact8
). 4cheduled overhaul has little effect on the overall reliability of a comple0 item unless there is a dominant failure
mode.
&. here are many items for which there is no effective form of scheduled maintenance.
It became obvious that too much emphasis had been placed on the Vright age model.
he task force went on to develop a propulsion system reliability program, each airline involved developed reliability
programs for their own particular areas of interest. hese became the .andbook for the Maintenance !valuation and
1rogram ?evelopment for the +oeing *;*, more commonly known as M4A#) %Maintenance 4teering Aroup )-. M4A#
) was subsequently improved and became M4A#&. In )2*2 the 5ir ransport 5ssociation %55- reviewed M4A#& to
incorporate further developments in preventive maintenance9 this resulted in M4A#:, the 5irline6Manufacturers
Maintenance 1rogram 1lanning ?ocument.
3nited 5irlines was sponsored by the 34 ?epartment of ?efense to write a comprehensive document on the
relationships between Maintenance, "eliability and 4afety. he report was prepared by 4tanley Cowlan and .oward
.eap, it was called P"eliability ,entred MaintenanceV. Butside the aerospace industries, the application of M4A#: is
generally known as ",M. he work of the airlines predated similar problems that spread throughout industry during
the )2=(s, consequently industry has been fortunate in being able to use the airlines prior e0perience.
&2
hus after the evolution of maintenance in)2:(Vs , its evolution can be traced through three generations. ",M is
rapidly becoming a cornerstone of the hird Aeneration, but this generation can only be viewed in perspective in the
light of the >irst and 4econd Aenerations.
:(
The .irst ?eneration
he >irst Aeneration covers the period up to 7orld 7ar II. In those days industry was not very highly mechani/ed, so
downtime did not matter much. his meant that the prevention of equipment failure was not a very high priority in the
minds of most managers. 5t the same time, most equipment was simple and much of it was over#designed. his made
it reliable and easy to repair. 5s a result, there was no need for systematic maintenance of any sort beyond simple
cleaning, servicing and lubrication routines. he need for skills was also lower than it is today.
The $econd ?eneration
hings changed dramatically during 7orld 7ar II. 7artime pressures increased the demand for goods of all kinds
while the supply of industrial manpower dropped sharply. his led to increased mechani/ation. +y the )2<(Vs
machines of all types were more numerous and more comple0. Industry was beginning to depend on them.
5s this dependence grew, downtime came into sharper focus. his led to the idea that equipment failures could and
should be prevented, which led in turn to the concept of preventive maintenance. In the )2'(Vs, this consisted mainly
of equipment overhauls done at fi0ed intervals.
he cost of maintenance also started to rise sharply relative to other operating costs. his led to the growth of
maintenance planning and control systems. hese have helped greatly to bring maintenance under control, and are
now an established part of the practice of maintenance
>inally, the amount of capital tied up in fi0ed assets together with a sharp increase in the cost of that capital led people
to start seeking ways in which they could ma0imi/e the life of the assets.
The Third ?eneration
4ince the mid#seventies, the process of change in industry has gathered even greater momentum. he changes can be
classified under the headings of new e0pectations, new research and new techniques.
>igure ). ) shows how e0pectations of maintenance have evolved.
:)
?owntime has always affected the productive capability of physical assets by reducing output, increasing operating
costs and interfering with customer service. +y the )2'(Vs and )2*(Vs, this was already a major concern in the mining,
manufacturing and transport sectors. In manufacturing, the effects of downtime are being aggravated by the
worldwide move towards just#in#time systems, where reduced stocks of work#in#progress mean that quite small
breakdowns are now much more likely to stop a whole plant. In recent times, the growth of mechani/ation and
automation has meant that reliability and availability have now also become key issues in sectors as diverse as health
care, data processing, telecommunications and building management.
Areater automation also means that more and more failures affect our ability to sustain satisfactory quality standards.
his applies as much to standards of service as it does to product quality. >or instance, equipment failures can affect
climate control in buildings and the punctuality of transport networks as much as they can interfere with the consistent
achievement of specified tolerances in manufacturing.
More and more failures have serious safety or environmental consequences, at a time when standards in these areas
are rising rapidly. In some parts of the world, the point is approaching where organi/ations either conform to societyVs
safety and environmental e0pectations, or they cease to operate. his adds an order of magnitude to our dependence
on the integrity of our physical assets # one which goes beyond cost and which becomes a simple matter of
organi/ational survival.
5t the same time as our dependence on physical assets is growing, so too is their cost # to operate and to own. o
secure the ma0imum return on the investment which they represent, they must be kept working efficiently for as long
as we want them to.
>inally, the cost of maintenance itself is still rising, in absolute terms and as a proportion of total e0penditure. In some
industries, it is now the second highest or even the highest element of operating costs. 5s a result, in only thirty years
it has moved from almost nowhere to the top of the league as a cost control priority.
#ew research
Zuite apart from greater e0pectations, new research is changing many of our most basic beliefs about age and failure.
In particular, it is apparent that there is less and less connection between the operating age of most assets and how
likely they are to fail.
>igure ).& shows how the earliest view of failure was simply that as things got older, they were more likely to fail. 5
growing awareness of Vinfant mortalityV led to widespread 4econd Aeneration belief in the UbathtubU curve.
.owever, third ?eneration research has re'ealed that not one or two %ut si7 failure patterns actually occur in
practice1 his is discussed in detail later, but it too is having a profound effect on maintenance.
:&
#ew techni0ues
here has been e0plosive growth in new maintenance concepts and techniques. .undreds have been developed over
the past fifteen years, and more are emerging every week.
>igure ).: shows how the classical emphasis on overhauls and administrative systems has grown to include many new
developments in a number of different fields.
he new developments include8
?ecision support tools, such as ha/ard studies, failure modes and effects analyses and e0pert systems
Cew maintenance techniques, such as condition monitoring
?esigning equipment with a much greater emphasis on reliability and maintainability
5 major shift in organi/ational thinking towards participation, team#working and fle0ibility.
5 major challenge facing maintenance people nowadays is not only to learn what these techniques are, but to decide
which are worthwhile and which are not in their own organi/ations. If we make the right choices, it is possible to
improve asset performance and at the same time contain and even reduce the cost of maintenance. If we make the
wrong choices, new problems are created while e0isting problems only get worse.
The challen&es facin& maintenance
In a nutshell, the key challenges facing modem maintenance managers can be summari/ed as follows8
o select the most appropriate techniques to deal with each type of failure process in order to fulfill all the
e0pectations of the owners of the assets, the users of the assets and of society as a whole
In the most cost#effective and enduring fashion
7ith the active support and co#operation of all the people involved.
",M @6s Bther Maintenance Methods
"eliability ,entered Maintenance %",M- has its place, but many times plants jump into training programs and
attempt to implement "eliability ,entered Maintenance long before they are ready for it. he academia of
maintenance management still argues about the definition of ",M. 4ome even say that if it is not done e0actly the
way they prescribe, then it is not ",M. 4o what\ he whole idea is that you want to achieve more cost#effective
reliability through the implementation of better operations and maintenance practices.
::
"eliability ,entered Maintenance %",M- has its definite place in the specification and design phase of new equipment
and systems, and for e0isting critical and complicated systems. he thought process used, for e0ample, to analy/e
e0isting preventive programs, is good, but can easily be made overcomplicated to serve the purpose. I have analy/ed
the results of many ",M implementations, and the fact is that after a very lengthy criticality and failure mode
analysis, the end results have not changed the fact that a @#belt drive needs to be inspected for an obviously critical
belt conveyor[ 7hat is often missing is a document describing how to inspect it while the equipment is operating. In
the worst cases, belts, couplings, heat e0changers, control valves, and other common components are, even after the
",M analyses, inspected during shutdowns. 1erhaps some inspections have been deleted because equipment was not
critical. 4o, there you might have saved an inspection that only takes two minutes for an operator who will inspect the
process in that area every shift anyway[
7orking steps in "eliability ,entered Maintenance
). ?o your maintenance prevention well9
&. ?o your basic inspections well9
:. ?o your predictive maintenance well.
he first two of the above activities are low cost and easy to implement because of high acceptance by people in your
organi/ation. Sou can use standard training material to train people when and how to do inspections. 7hat you do
with, for e0ample, a coupling, can be decided without a complicated analysis. he failure developing period for
misalignment might be two to eight weeks, so you need to inspect it every week on the run using an infrared
thermometer. .ow to do this is described in a ,ondition Monitoring 4tandard for each common component
. he time to implement is short9 a production area can have all inspections documented, people trained, and
inspections e0ecuted in less than four weeks. 5n ",M approach and implementation could take si0 months with no
different result. 5n ",M analysis might lead you to spend days deciding that the primary screen is critical, and that if
the bearings fail the screen goes down9 therefore, you need to inspect the bearingsLall of which is obvious.
",M does not consider planning and scheduling and people efficiency at all, nor does it include vital support systems
such as a technical database and its interface with stores. RCM is therefore a tool that should %e used selecti'ely
for critical and 'ery complicated systems and e0uipment. It is not a complete reliability and maintenance system.
?o not fall into the trap of believing it is something completely new and different, or that it is a complete program for
reliability and maintenance. here are certain mills that have spent over three years on ",M implementation and they
still do not have the basics in place and6or e0ecuted well. It cannot be reinforced often enough to do the basics well
before you start complicating things.
:;
"eliability#,entered Maintenance %",M- 5s a ,urrent Maintenance echnique
Relia%ility-Centered Maintenance @RCMA is the optimum mi0 of reactive, time# or interval#based, condition#based,
and proactive maintenance practices. he basic application of each strategy is shown in >ig. ). hese principal
maintenance strategies, rather than being applied independently, are integrated to take advantage of their respective
strengths in order to ma0imi/e facility and equipment reliability while minimi/ing life#cycle costs
",M includes reactive, time#based, condition#based, and proactive tasks. In addition, a user should understand
system boundaries and facility envelopes, system6equipment functions, functional failures, and failure modes, all of
which are critical components of the ",M program.
his modern concept of ",M has been adopted across several government and industry operations as a strategy for
performing maintenance. ",M applies maintenance strategies based on consequence and cost of failure. In addition,
",M seeks to minimi/e maintenance and improve reliability throughout the life#cycle by using proactive techniques
such as improved design specifications, integration of condition monitoring in the commissioning process, and the
5ge !0ploration %5!- process.
",M a 1rocess
Involves answering seven critical questions8
7hat are the functions and associated performance standards of the asset in its present operating conte0t\
In what ways does it fail to fulfill its function\
7hat causes each functional failure\
7hat happens when each failure occurs\
In what way does each failure matter\
7hat can be done to predict or prevent each failure\
7hat should be done if a suitable proactive task cannot be found\
+y answering each of the seven questions above, one can identify the failure modes of the equipments, the causes of
the failure, the criticality of each failure modes, and the corresponding action to prevent the failure modes.
:<
he seven key stages of the ",M process are shown in >igure ) below8
"reas co'ered within the RCM $corecard
he data collected through establishing an effective maintenance program allows a company to generate a range of
1ead!& indicators/ Measures that lead performance, or tell you that something is likely to begin to perform badly
before it actually does.
:'
he diagram depicts the relative impact of these areas of 1ead!& indicators, and the smaller impact of performance
measures established in the traditional 1a&&!& approaches. hese are the key areas of the ",M 4corecard.
.owever, the basic thrust of the ",M scorecard is to allow companies to measure the effectiveness of their
maintenance policy initiatives through applying measures to the data captured in the course of doing the day#to#day
work.
RCM Principles
he primary ",M principles are8
RCM !, F+#"!o Or!e"edL",M seeks to preserve system or equipment function, not just operability for
operabilityVs sake. "edundancy of function, through multiple pieces of equipment, improves functional
reliability but increases life#cycle cost in terms of procurement and operating costs.
RCM !, S',"e% Fo#+,edL",M is more concerned with maintaining system function than with individual
component function.
RCM !, Re1!a2!1!"' Ce"eredL",M treats failure statistics in an actuarial manner. he relationship between
operating age and the failures e0perienced is important. ",M is not overly concerned with simple failure
rate9 it seeks to know the conditional probability of failure at specific ages %the probability that failure will
occur in each given operating age bracket-.
RCM A#kow1ed&e, De,!& L!%!"a"!o,L",M objective is to maintain the inherent reliability of the
equipment design, recogni/ing that changes in inherent reliability are the province of design rather than of
maintenance. Maintenance can, at best, only achieve and maintain the level of reliability for equipment that
was provided for by design. .owever, ",M recogni/es that maintenance feedback can improve on the
original design. In addition, ",M recogni/es that a difference often e0ists between the perceived design life
and the intrinsic or actual design life and addresses this through the 5ge !0ploration %5!- process.
RCM !, Dr!*e 2' Sa.e"'3 Se#+r!"'3 ad E#oo%!#,L4afety and security must be ensured at any cost9
thereafter, cost#effectiveness becomes the criterion.
RCM De.!e, Fa!1+re a, 4A' U,a"!,.a#"or' Cod!"!o4Lherefore, failure may be either a loss of
function %operation ceases- or a loss of acceptable quality %operation continues but impacts quality-.
RCM U,e, a Lo&!# Tree "o S#ree Ma!"ea#e Ta,k,Lthis provides a consistent approach to the
maintenance of all kinds of equipment.
RCM Ta,k, M+," Be A((1!#a21eLthe tasks must address the failure mode and consider the failure mode
characteristics.
RCM Ta,k, M+," Be E..e#"!*eLthe tasks must reduce the probability of failure and be cost#effective.
RCM A#kow1ed&e, T5ree T'(e, o. Ma!"ea#e Ta,k,Lthese tasks are time#directed %1M-, condition#
directed %,M-, and failure finding %one of several aspects of 1roactive Maintenance-. ime#directed tasks
are scheduled when appropriate. ,ondition#directed tasks are performed when conditions indicate they are
needed. >ailure#finding tasks detect hidden functions that have failed without giving evidence of pending
failure. 5dditionally, performing no maintenance, "un#to#>ailure, is a conscious decision and is acceptable
for some equipment.
RCM !, a L!*!& S',"e%L",M gathers data from the results achieved and feeds this data back to improve
design and future maintenance. his feedback is an important part of the 1roactive Maintenance element of
the ",M program.
Types of RCM
here are several ways to conduct and implement an ",M program. he program can be based on Ri&orous .ailure
Modes and Effects "nalysis @.ME"AB complete with mathematically#calculated probabilities of failure based on
design or historical data, intuition or common#sense, and6or e0perimental data and modeling. hese approaches may
be called ClassicalB Ri&orous, ntuiti'eB $treamlinedB or "%%re'iated. Bther terms sometimes used for these same
approaches include ,oncise, 1reventive Maintenance %1M- Bptimi/ation, "eliability +ased, and "eliability !nhanced.
5ll are applicable. he decision of what technique to use should be left to the end user and be based on8
,onsequences of failure
:*
1robability of failure
.istorical data available
"isk tolerance
"esource availability
C1a,,!#a16R!&oro+, RCM
a. Benefits8 ,lassical or rigorous ",M provides the most knowledge and data concerning system functions,
failure modes, and maintenance actions addressing functional failures of any of the ",M approaches.
"igorous ",M analysis is the method first proposed and documented by Cowlan and .eap and later
modified by Kohn Moubray, 5nthony M. 4mith, and others. In addition, this method should produce the
most complete documentation of all the methods addressed here.
b. Concerns: ,lassical or rigorous ",M historically has been based primarily on the >M!5 with little, if any,
analysis of historical performance data. In addition, rigorous ",M analysis is e0tremely labor intensive and
often postpones the implementation of obvious condition monitoring tasks.
c. "pplications8 his approach should be limited to the following three situations8
he consequences of failure result in catastrophic risk in terms of environment, health, or safety,
and6or complete economic failure of the business unit.
he resultant reliability and associated maintenance cost is still unacceptable after performing and
implementing a streamlined type >M!5.
he system6equipment is new to the organi/ation and insufficient corporate maintenance and
operational knowledge e0ists on function and functional failures.
A22re*!a"ed6I"+!"!*e6S"rea%1!ed RCM
a1 Benefits8 he intuitive approach identifies and implements the obvious, usually condition#based, tasks with
minimal analysis. In addition, it culls or eliminates low value maintenance tasks based on historical data and
Maintenance and Bperations %MOB- personnel input. he intent is to minimi/e the initial analysis time in
order to reali/e early#wins that help offset the cost of the >M!5 and condition monitoring capabilities
development.
%1 Concerns: "eliance on historical records and personnel knowledge can introduce errors into the process that
may lead to missing hidden failures where a low probability of occurrence e0ists. In addition, the intuitive
process requires that at least one individual has a thorough understanding of the various condition
monitoring technologies.
c1 "pplications: his approach should be utili/ed when8
he function of the system6equipment is well understood.
>unctional failure of the system6equipment will not result in loss of life or catastrophic impact on
the environment or business unit.
>or these reasons, the streamlined or intuitive approach has been recommended for ?B4, C545,
and C5@>5, facilities. In addition, a streamlined or intuitive approach has been successfully
used in both discrete and continuous manufacturing facilities.
RCM 3o&ic
he ",M analysis should carefully consider and answer the following questions8
7hat does the system or equipment do9 what are the functions\
7hat functional failures are likely to occur\
7hat are the likely consequences of these functional failures\
7hat can be done to reduce the probability of the failure%s-, identify the onset of failure%s-, or reduce the
consequences of the failure%s-\
:=
5nswers to these four questions can be used with the decision logic tree depicted in >ig. :,
Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM) Decision Logic Tree, to determine the maintenance approach for the
equipment item or system.
>ig. :. "eliability ,entered Maintenance %",M- Gogic ree
Cote that the analysis process as depicted in >ig. : has only four possible outcomes8
1erform ,ondition#+ased actions %,M-.
1erform Interval %ime# or ,ycle#- +ased actions %1M-.
?etermine that redesign will solve the problem and accept the failure risk, or determine that no maintenance
action will reduce the probability of failure install redundancy.
1erform no action and choose to repair following failure %"un#to#>ailure-.
.ailure
>ailure is the cessation of proper function or performance. ",M e0amines failure at several levels8 the system level,
sub#system level, component level, and sometimes even the parts level. he goal of an effective maintenance
organi/ation is to provide the required system performance at the lowest cost. his means that the maintenance
approach must be based on a clear understanding of failure at each of the system levels. 4ystem components can be
degraded or even failed and still not cause a system failure. 5 simple e0ample is the failed headlamp on an
automobile. hat failed component has little effect on the overall system performance. ,onversely, several degraded
components may combine to cause the system to have failed, even though no individual component has itself failed.
Re1!a2!1!"'
"eliability is the probability that an item will survive a given operating period, under specified operating conditions,
without failure usually e0pressed as +
)(
%G
)(
- Gife and6or Mean ime to >ailure %M>- or Mean ime +etween
>ailure %M+>-. he conditional probability of failure measures the probability that an item entering a given age
:2
interval will fail during that interval. If the conditional probability of failure increases with age, the item shows wear#
out characteristics. he conditional probability of failure reflects the overall adverse effect of age on reliability. It is
not a measure of the change in an individual equipment item.
>ailure rate or frequency plays a relatively minor role in maintenance programs because it is too simple a measure.
>ailure frequency is useful in making cost decisions and determining maintenance intervals, but it tells nothing about
which maintenance tasks are appropriate or about the consequences of failure. 5 maintenance solution should be
evaluated in terms of the safety, security, or economic consequences it is intended to prevent. 5 maintenance task
must be applicable %i.e., prevent failures or ameliorate failure consequences- in order to be effective.
Fa!1+re Mode, ad E..e#", Aa1',!, $FMEA)
>M!5 is applied to each system, sub#system, and component identified in the boundary definition. >or every function
identified, there can be multiple failure modes. he >M!5 addresses each system function %and, since failure is the
loss of function, all possible failures- and the dominant failure modes associated with each failure, and then e0amines
the consequences of the failure. 7hat effect did the failure have on the mission or operation, the system, and on the
machine\
!ven though there are multiple failure modes, often the effects of the failure are the same or very similar in nature.
hat is, from a system function perspective, the outcome of any component failure may result in the system function
being degraded.
Gikewise, similar systems and machines will often have the same failure modes. .owever, the system use will
determine the failure consequences. >or e0ample, the failure modes of a ball bearing will be the same regardless of the
machine. .owever, the dominate failure mode will often change from machine to machine, the cause of the failure
may change, and the effects of the failure will differ.
>ig. *, FME !or"sheet, provides an e0ample of a >M!5 worksheet.
>ig. *. >M!5 7orksheet
Cod!"!oa1 (ro2a2!1!"' #+r*e,
he failure characteristics shown in >igs. ; and <,. >ollow#on studies in 4weden in )2*:, and by the 3.4. Cavy in
)2=:, produced similar results. In these studies, random failures accounted for **#2&N of the total failures and age
related failure characteristics for the remaining =#&:N.
;(
>ig. ;. "andom conditional probability of failure curves
>ig. <. "andom conditional probability of failure curves
he basic difference between the failure patterns of comple0 and simple items has important implications for
maintenance. 4ingle#piece and simple items frequently demonstrate a direct relationship between reliability and age.
his is particularly true where factors such as metal fatigue or mechanical wear are present or where the items are
designed as consumables %short or predictable life spans-. In these cases an age limit based on operating time or stress
cycles may be effective in improving the overall reliability of the comple0 item of which they are a part.
,omple0 items frequently demonstrate some infant mortality, after which their failure probability increases gradually
or remains constant. 5 marked wear#out age is not common. #n $any cases scheduled overhaul increases the overall
failure rate by introducing a high infant $ortality rate into an other%ise stable syste$&
Criticality and Pro%a%ility of Occurrence
,riticality assessment provides the means for quantifying how important a system function is relative to the identified
Mission. able ), ,riticality64everity ,ategories, provides a method for ranking system criticality. his system,
adapted from the automotive industry, provides )( categories of ,riticality64everity. It is not the only method
available. he categories can be e0panded or contracted to produce a site#specific listing.
Ta%le 21 Criticality-$e'erity Cate&ories
Rankin& Effect Comment
) Cone
Co reason to e0pect failure to have any effect on safety, health,
environment, or mission.
& @ery Gow Minor disruption to facility function. "epair to failure can be
;)
accomplished during trouble call.
: Gow
Minor disruption to facility function. "epair to failure may be longer
than trouble call but does not delay mission.
;
Gow to
Moderate
Moderate disruption to facility function. 4ome portion of mission
may need to be reworked or process delayed.
< Moderate
Moderate disruption to facility function. )((N of mission may need
to be reworked or process delayed.
'
Moderate to
.igh
Moderate disruption to facility function. 4ome portion of mission is
lost. Moderate delay in restoring function.
* .igh
.igh disruption to facility function. 4ome portion of mission is lost.
4ignificant delay in restoring function.
= @ery .igh
.igh disruption to facility function. 5ll of mission is lost.
4ignificant delay in restoring function.
2 .a/ard
1otential safety, health, or environmental issue. >ailure will occur
with warning.
)( .a/ard
1otential safety, health, or environmental issue. >ailure will occur
without warning.
"eliability, Maintainability, and 4upportability Auidebook, hird !dition, 4ociety of 5utomotive !ngineers, Inc.,
7arrendale, 15, )22<.
he 1robability of Bccurrence %of >ailure- is also based on work in the automotive industry. able &, 'robability of
(ccurrence Categories, provides one possible method of quantifying the probability of failure. If there is historical
data available, it will provide a powerful tool in establishing the ranking. If the historical data is not available, a
ranking may be estimated based on e0perience with similar systems in the facilities area. he statistical %U!ffectU-
column in able & can be based on operating hours, day, cycles, or other unit that provides a consistent measurement
approach. he statistical bases %U,ommentU- may be adjusted to account for local conditions. >or e0ample, one
organi/ation changed the statistical approach for ranking ) through < to better reflect the number of cycles of the
system being analy/ed.
Ta%le 41 Pro%a%ility of Occurrence Cate&ories
Rankin& Effect Comment
) )6)(,(((
"emote probability of occurrence9 unreasonable to e0pect failure to
occur.
& )6<,(((
Gow failure rate. 4imilar to past design that has, in the past, had low
failure rates for given volume6loads.
: )6&,(((
Gow failure rate. 4imilar to past design that has, in the past, had low
failure rates for given volume6loads.
; )6),(((
Bccasional failure rate. 4imilar to past design that has, in the past, had
similar failure rates for given volume6loads.
< )6<((
Moderate failure rate. 4imilar to past design that has, in the past, had
moderate failure rates for given volume6loads.
' )6&((
Moderate to high failure rate. 4imilar to past design that has, in the past,
had moderate failure rates for given volume6loads.
;&
* )6)((
.igh failure rate. 4imilar to past design that has, in the past, had high
failure rates that has caused problems.
= )6<(
.igh failure rate. 4imilar to past design that has, in the past, had high
failure rates that has caused problems.
2 )6&( @ery .igh failure rate. 5lmost certain to cause problems.
)( )6)(Y @ery .igh failure rate. 5lmost certain to cause problems.
"eliability, Maintainability, and 4upportability Auidebook, hird !dition, 4ociety of 5utomotive !ngineers, Inc.,
7arrendale, 15, )22<.
RCM "#"3=$$
he ",M analysis is a systematic approach for identifying preventative maintenance tasks or scheduled maintenance
tasks for an equipment end item and establishing necessary preventative %or scheduled- maintenance task intervals.
Bne of the key objectives of the ",M analysis is to develop a maintenance schedule that would ensure that reliability
of a system %or end- is enhanced. In essence a maintenance task would be implemented prior to the failure occurrence
of the component in question.
he consolidated results from the ",M analysis process forms the basis of a 1reventive Maintenance %1M- program
for the system. 5 ",M analysis is conducted to determine which 1M tasks would provide increased equipment
reliability for the life cycle. The RCM analysis would use the information &enerated %y the .ME" to identify
which hardware components ha'e the &reatest effect on the e0uipment relia%ility and a'aila%ilityB %y
identifyin& pro%a%le failure modes.
3sing the decision tree process of ",M analysis, a complete analysis of each >unctional 4ignificant Item and their
assigned failure modes can be conducted. he results of the analysis provide a clear decision as to which preventive
maintenance tasks should be developed to support the system. he ",M analysis when used in conjunction with the
>M!,5 can be used to identify potential hidden safety related failures for electronic systems.
5gain if the ",M analyses in conjunction with the >M!5 are implemented early in the design process, safety related
failure modes could be more easily removed from the system during the design phase. 5s the maturity of the design
progresses this option becomes increasingly more difficult and e0pensive to address.
RCM MP3EME#T"TO#
here is no one set path for successfully implementing ",M because ",M is more than just performing a >ailure
Modes and !ffects 5nalysis %>M!5-, adopting condition monitoring techniques, and6or optimi/ing a maintenance and
overhaul program through the application of an 5ge !0ploration %5!- process. 5 successful ",M implementation
process first must recogni/e what and where the source of return on investment %"BI- resides. he source%s- of "BI
may be tangible and6or intangible. >or the former, a quantifiable business case may be developed based on financial
benefit %savings, cost avoidance, reduced 7ork in 1rogress %7I1- and6or reduced liability- to the organi/ation while
for the latter, the benefit may be unquantifiable %employee skills, morale, customer relations, etc.- In either case, a
baseline and goal must be established through some mechanism such as internal or e0ternal benchmarking, which
results in a defined gap between the U5s#IsU and the Uo#+eU state and the "BI identified for closing all or a portion of
the gap.
"emember, caveat emptor. hat is, ",M is not for everyone and very few organi/ations will benefit from
implementing all elements of a classical ",M program. ",M like all tools6processes has an element of diminishing
return. Cot all the elements of ",M which are applicable to a nuclear power plant, the aircraft industry, and6or a &;6*
continuous process plant in a sold out condition, will be applicable to a batch process operation or a non#production
facility. .owever, there are a few truths everyone should follow and there is no need to pilot or perform an >M!5
analysis. hey are8
;:
). $ey performance indicators %aka metrics6performance indicators- are essential for establishing the baseline,
goal, and the gap. 1rogress cannot be measured or sustained without $1Is. %4ee 4ection A#$ey 1erformance
Indicator %$1Is- 4election-
&. hermography works for electrical distribution, boilers, couplings, roofing systems and building fa]ades.
:. If your specifications for alignment, imbalance, motor circuit phase impedance, oil condition and
cleanliness, and vibration are not quantified, the product you receive will have latent defects =(N of the
time.
;. If you do not commission and check the sequence of operation of your equipment and buildings to a
predetermined quantifiable specification, you will not get what you e0pect.
<. 1areto analysis is the best tool for determining where to start your ",M process. Gook for the bottlenecks,
the recurring failures, and follow the money.
'. ",M implementation in a team environment works better.
*. >ailure modes for identical equipment are the same. It is only the consequence and probability of failure that
changes.
=. he impact of poor water chemistry is underestimated in terms of energy consumption and life#cycle cost.
2. he majority of failures are random. @ery few machines understand how a calendar works. 5ge !0ploration
can reveal hidden assets.
)(. ,elebrate and advertise your successes and address your failures. ,redibility is a key to building support for
long#term success.
*ey Performance ndicators @*PsA $election
4ignificant thought must go into the process of selecting $1Is to support the maintenance program. he value of
meaningful $1Is cannot be overstated9 however the significance of $1Is that are inaccurate or inapplicable cannot be
understated. >irst identify the goals and objectives of the organi/ation because they will have an impact on the
selection of $1Is at all levels of maintenance activity. $1Is that cannot possibly be obtained should not be chosen,
and only those that may be controlled should be selected. Issues of concern should also be identified so that they will
be considered in the selection of $1Is. 5ll processes owners who are key to the implementation of the overall effort
should have a self#selected metric to indicate goals and progress in meeting those goals. his will foster the
acceptance of collecting data to support the $1Is and will also promote the use of the $1Is for continuous
improvement. 5lso one must consider the capabilities of the organi/ation to collect the data for $1Is, i.e. the process
used for collecting and storing the data and the ease of e0tracting and reporting the $1Is. In doing this, the cost of
obtaining data for the $1Is and the relative value they add to the overall program must be calculated. 7hile
advocating doing the right things within the maintenance program with life#cycle cost as a driver, the cost of the
capturing supporting $1Is must also be watched closely.
TOT"3 PRO/UCT!E M"#TE#"#CE
IC"B?3,IBC
otal productive maintenance %1M- is the systematic e0ecution of maintenance by all employees through small
group activities.
he dual goals of 1M are /ero breakdowns and /ero defects9 this obviously improves equipment efficiency rates and
reduces costs. It also minimises inventory costs associated with spare parts.
;;
It is claimed that most companies can realise a )<#&< percent increase in equipment operation rates within three years
of adopting 1M. Gabour productivity also generally increases by a significant margin, sometimes as high as ;(#<(
percent.
Meanin& of total producti'e maintenance
Cow a days the meaning of maintenance is that it is all about preserving the functions of physical assets. In other
words, carrying out tasks that serve the central purpose of ensuring that our machines are capable of doing what the
users want them to do, when they want them to do it. he possible maintenance policies can be grouped under four
headings vi/.
). ,orrective # wait until a failure occurs and then remedy the situation %restoring the asset to productive capability- as
quickly as possible.
&. 1reventive # believe that a regular maintenance attention will keep an otherwise troublesome failure mode at bay.
:. 1redictive # rather than looking at a calendar and assessing what attention the equipment needs, we should e0amine
the Vvital signsV and infer what the equipment is trying to tell us. he term V,ondition MonitoringV has come to mean
using a piece of technology %most often a vibration analy/er- to assess the health of our plant and equipment.
;. ?etective # applies to the types of devices that only need to work when required and do not tell us when they are in
the failed state e.g. a fire alarm or smoke detector. hey generally require a periodic functional check to ascertain that
they are still working.
5part etective maintenance, the central problem that companies have struggled with is how to make the choice
between the other three. his has led to the increasing interest within industry in two strategies, which offer a path to
long term continuous improvement rather than the promise of a quick fi0. hese are "eliability ,entered Maintenance
%",M- and otal 1roductive Maintenance %1M-. he two strategies, although having similar names, actually have
very different strengths.
1M is a manufacturing led initiative that emphasises the importance of people, a Vcan doV and Vcontinuous
improvementV philosophy and the importance of production and maintenance staff working together. It is presented as
a key part of an overall manufacturing philosophy. In essence, 1M seeks to reshape the organi/ation to liberate its
own potential.
he modern business world is a rapidly changing environment, so the last thing a company needs if it is to compete in
the global marketplace is to get in its own way because of the way in which it approaches the business of looking after
its income generating physical assets. 4o, 1M is concerned with the fundamental rethink of business processes to
achieve improvements in cost, quality, speed etc. It encourages radical changes, such as9
flatter organisational structures # fewer managers, empowered teams,
multi#skilled workforce,
rigorous reappraisal of the way things are done # often with the goal of simplification.
Meanin& of the 5 components:
otal
o all employees are involved
o it aims to eliminate all accidents, defects and breakdowns
1roductive
o actions are performed while production goes on
;<
o troubles for production are minimi/ed
Maintenance
o keep in good condition
o repair, clean, lubricate
1M # .istory8
1M is a innovative Kapanese concept. he origin of 1M can be traced back to )2<) when preventive maintenance
was introduced in Kapan. .owever the concept of preventive maintenance was taken from 345. Cippondenso was the
first company to introduce plant wide preventive maintenance in )2'(. 1reventive maintenance is the concept
wherein, operators produced goods using machines and the maintenance group was dedicated with work of
maintaining those machines, however with the automation of Cippondenso, maintenance became a problem as more
maintenance personnel were required. 4o the management decided that the routine maintenance of equipment would
be carried out by the operators. % his is 5utonomous maintenance, one of the features of 1M -. Maintenance group
took up only essential maintenance works.
hus Cippondenso which already followed preventive maintenance also added 5utonomous maintenance done by
production operators. he maintenance crew went in the equipment modification for improving reliability. he
modifications were made or incorporated in new equipment. his lead to maintenance prevention. hus preventive
$aintenance along with Maintenance prevention and Maintainability #$prove$ent gave birth to 'roductive
$aintenance. he aim of productive maintenance was to ma0imi/e plant and equipment effectiveness to achieve
optimum life cycle cost of production equipment.
+y then Cippon ?enso had made quality circles, involving the employees participation. hus all employees took part
in implementing 1roductive maintenance. +ased on these developments Cippondenso was awarded the distinguished
plant pri/e for developing and implementing 1M, by the )apanese #nstitute of 'lant Engineers % KI1! -. hus
Cippondenso of the oyota group became the first company to obtain the 1M certification.
he !volution of 1M
raditionally high buffer stocks were allowed to develop between major pieces of the plant O equipment to ensure
that if there was a problem with one piece of the plant or equipment then it would not affect production from the rest
of the plant. .ence the role of maintenance was to cost effectively ensure major pieces of plant O equipment were
available for an agreed period of scheduled time, for e0ample 2(N.
+ecause of the accepted practice of retaining high buffer stocks, most items of equipment could be considered
independent. If the equipment in a process was maintained such that it achieved 2(N availability, the availability of
the process was 2(N. If the equipment started to cause quality problems, these would probably be noticed in final
quality inspection and the cause traced back to the offending piece of equipment and corrected by maintenance.
;'
5t Cippon ?enso in )2*( with the introduction of the oyota 1roduction 4ystem, the buffer stocks were substantially
reduced in their quest for shorter leadtimes and improved quality. 4tatistical 1rocess ,ontrol %41,- supported by
UZuality at 4ourceU was introduced to ensure quality right first time so to provide ma0imum customer value through
the highest quality at the lowest cost supported by quick responsiveness and superior customer service. .ence in this
quest for ma0imum customer value, buffer stocks were reduced to both reduce leadtimes and force the identification
of cost consuming problems. his resulted in individual equipment problems affecting the whole process.
If one piece of equipment stopped then shortly afterwards the whole process stopped. his made the equipment
interdependent. 3nder these circumstances, the availability of the process became the product of the individual
availabilities of each piece of equipment. hus, a process involving four pieces of equipment maintained at 2(N no
longer had an overall process availability of 2(N, but an availability of 2(N M 2(N M 2(N M 2(N, or ''N[
>urthermore, as the quality approach changed to U1revention at 4ourceU by controlling process variables, equipment
performance problems were identified much earlier. ,onformance and reliability became much more important.
5s buffer stocks reduced substantial pressure was placed on the maintenance department to improve process
performance. >rom a maintenance perspective, the maintenance departmentVs performance had not deteriorated, yet
demand for the substantial improvement in equipment availability was overwhelming.
his caused friction between the production and maintenance departments. 1roduction departments demanded former
levels of process availability and quicker response times from maintenance, who were often unable to comply due to
traditional organisation structures which keep maintenance as a separate function. 5fter much conflict between
;*
maintenance and production, engineering were called in to find a solution. hey soon realised that mathematically for
the four pieces of equipment to achieve their original goal of 2(N availability, their individual availabilities needed to
increase from 2(N to 2*.<N.
he traditional view of maintenance was to balance maintenance cost with an acceptable level of availability and
reliability often influenced by the level of buffer stocks which hid the immediate impact of equipment problems. In
traditional companies, maintenance is seen as an e0pense that can easily be reduced in relation to the overall business,
particularly in the short term. ,onversely, maintenance managers have always argued that to increase the level of
availability and reliability of the equipment, more e0penditure needs to be committed to the maintenance budget. 7ith
the on set of substantial availability problems caused by the new way of running the plant, management soon realised
that just giving more resources to the maintenance department was not going to produce a cost effective solution.
his conflict between maintenance cost and availability is similar to the old quality mind#set before the advent of
otal Zuality ,ontrol %Z,-8 that higher quality required more resources, and hence cost, for final inspection and
rework. Z, emphasised Uprevention at sourceU of the problem rather than by inspection at the end of the process.
Instead of enlarging the inspection department, all employees were trained and motivated to be responsible for
identifying problems at the earliest possible point in the process so as to minimise rectification costs. his did not
mean disbanding the quality control department but having it now concentrate on more specialist quality activities
such as variation reduction through process improvement. his new approach to quality demonstrated that getting
quality right first time does not cost money but actually reduces the total cost of operating the business.
his new Zuality approach of Cpre'ention at sourceC was translated to the maintenance environment through the
concept of 1M resulting in not only superior availability, reliability and maintainability of equipment but also
significant improvements in capacity with a substantial reduction in both maintenance costs and total operational
costs. 1M is based on Uprevention at sourceU and is focused on identifying and eliminating the source of equipment
deterioration rather than the more traditional approach of either letting equipment fail before repairing it, or applying
preventive 6 predictive strategies to identify and repair equipment after the deterioration has taken hold and caused the
need for e0pensive repairs.
1M has developed over the years since its first introduction in )2*(. Briginally there were < 5ctivities of 1M that
is now referred to as )st Aeneration 1M %otal 1roductive Maintenance-. It focused on improving equipment
performance or effectiveness only. Gate in the =(Vs it was reali/ed that even if the shop floor were committed fully to
1M and the elimination or minimi/ation of the Usi0 big lossesU there were still opportunities being lost because of
poor production scheduling practices resulting in line imbalances or schedule interruptions. .ence the development of
&nd Aeneration 1M %otal 1rocess Management- which focused on the whole production process.
>inally, in more recent times it has been recogni/ed that the whole company must be involved if the full potential of
the capacity gains and cost reductions are to be reali/ed. .ence :rd Aeneration 1M %otal 1roductive Manufacturing
6 Mining- has evolved which now encompasses the = 1illars of 1M with the focus on the )' Major Gosses
incorporating the ;Ms # Man, Machine, Methods, Materials. 5t the ,1M we have e0panded the Kapanese = 1illars to
)( 1illars of 5ustralasian :rd Aeneration 1M to better suit our needs in 5ustralia and Cew Qealand based on our
e0tensive research of the past two and a half years.
). 4afety O !nvironmental Management
&. >ocused !quipment O 1rocess Improvement
:. 7ork 5rea Management
;. Bperator !quipment Management
<. Maintenance !0cellence for 1M
'. !ducation O raining
*. .uman "esource Management
=. 5dministration O 4upport 4ystems Improvement
2. Cew !quipment Management
)(. 1rocess Zuality Management
;=
5n important outcome of this new approach to equipment management which is now supported by many success
stories throughout the world in a variety of operational industries, has been that senior management have realised that
1M is both strategically important for a world competitive business, and that 1M cannot be implemented by the
maintenance department alone. 1M is a company wide improvement initiative involving all employees.
5lthough each enterprise may approach 1M in its own unique way, most approaches recognise the importance of
measuring and improving overall equipment effectiveness along with the need to reduce both operational and
maintenance costs in an environment that promotes continuous improvement.
Bbjectives of the 1M8
o ma0imise Bverall !quipment !ffectiveness %B!!- through total employee involvement.
o improve the equipment reliability and maintainability which will improve quality and productivity.
o ensure ma0imum economy in equipment and management for the entire life of the equipment.
o cultivate the equipment#related e0pertise among operators and skills among operators.
o create an enthusiastic work environment.
?irect benefits of 1M
). Increase productivity and B1! % Bverall 1lant !fficiency - by ).< or & times.
&. "ectify customer complaints.
:. "educe the manufacturing cost by :(N.
;. 4atisfy the customers needs by )(( N % ?elivering the right quantity at the right time, in the required quality. -
<. "educe accidents.
'. >ollow pollution control measures.
Indirect benefits of 1M
). .igher confidence level among the employees.
&. $eep the work place clean, neat and attractive.
:. >avorable change in the attitude of the operators.
;. 5chieve goals by working as team.
<. .ori/ontal deployment of a new concept in all areas of the organi/ation.
'. 4hare knowledge and e0perience.
*. he workers get a feeling of owning the machine
Motives of 1M
). 5doption of life cycle approach for improving the overall performance of production equipment.
&. Improving productivity by highly motivated workers which is achieved by job enlargement.
:. he use of voluntary small group activities for identifying the cause of failure, possible plant and equipment
modifications.
;2
3niqueness of 1M
The ma+or difference %etween TPM and other concepts is that the operators are also made to in'ol'e in the
maintenance process1 The concept of C @ Production operators A OperateB =ou @ Maintenance
department A fi7C is not followed1
>I@! AB5G4 B> 1M8
%)- Improve equipment effectiveness8 e0amine the effectiveness of facilities by identifying and e0amining all losses
which occur # downtime losses, speed losses and defect losses.
%&- 5chieve autonomous maintenance8 allow the people who operate equipment to take responsibility for, at least
some, of the maintenance tasks. his can be at 8
the repair level %where staff carry out instructions as a response to a problem-9
the prevention level %where staff take pro#active action to prevent foreseen problems-9 and the
improvement level %where staff not only take corrective action but also propose improvements to prevent
recurrence-.
%:- 1lan maintenance8 have a systematic approach to all maintenance activities. his involves the identification of the
nature and level of preventive maintenance required for each piece of equipment, the creation of standards for
condition#based maintenance, and the setting of respective responsibilities for operating and maintenance staff. he
respective roles of UoperatingU and UmaintenanceU staff are seen as being distinct. Maintenance staff are seen as
developing preventive actions and general breakdown services, whereas operating staff take on the UownershipU of the
facilities and their general care. Maintenance staff typically move to a more facilitating and supporting role where they
are responsible for the training of operators, problem diagnosis, and devising and assessing maintenance practice.
%;- rain all staff in relevant maintenance skills8 the defined responsibilities of operating and maintenance staff require
that each has all the necessary skills to carry out these roles. 1M places a heavy emphasis on appropriate and
continuous training.
%<- 5chieve early equipment management8 the aim is to move towards /ero maintenance through Umaintenance
preventionU %M1-. M1 involves considering failure causes and the maintainability of equipment during its design
stage, its manufacture, its installation, and its commissioning. 5s part of the overall process, 1M attempts to track all
potential maintenance problems back to their root cause so that they can be eliminated at the earliest point in the
overall design, manufacture and deployment process.
TPM works to eliminate losses :
?owntime from breakdown and changeover times
4peed losses %when equipment fails to operate at its optimum speed-
Idling and minor stoppages due to the abnormal operation of sensors, blockage of work on chutes, etc.
1rocess defects due to scrap and quality defects to be repaired
"educed yield in the period from machine start#up to stable production.
<(
1IGG5"4 B> 1M
1illars of 1M
P33"R 2 # <4 8
1M starts with <4. 1roblems cannot be clearly seen when the work place is unorgani/ed. ,leaning and organi/ing
the workplace helps the team to uncover problems. Making problems visible is the first step of improvement.
Kapanese erm !nglish ranslation !quivalent V4V term
*eiri Brganisation 4ort
*eiton idiness 4ystematise
*eiso ,leaning 4weep
*ei"etsu 4tandardisation 4tandardise
*hitsu"e ?iscipline 4elf # ?iscipline
4!I"I # 4ort out 8 his means sorting and organi/ing the items as critical, important, frequently used items, useless, or
items that are not need as of now. 3nwanted items can be salvaged. ,ritical items should be kept for use
nearby and items that are not be used in near future, should be stored in some place. For this step+ the %orth
of the ite$ should be decided based on utility and not cost . 5s a result of this step, the search time is
reduced.
1riority >requency of 3se .ow to use
Lo% Gess than once per year, Bnce per year^
hrow away, 4tore away from the
workplace
verage
5t least &6' months, Bnce per month,
Bnce per week
4tore together but offline
,igh Bnce 1er ?ay Gocate at the workplace
<)
4!IBC # Brganise 8
he concept here is that UEach ite$s has a place+ and only one placeU. he items should be placed back after usage at
the same place. o identify items easily, name plates and colored tags has to be used. @ertical racks can be used for
this purpose, and heavy items occupy the bottom position in the racks.
4!I4B # 4hine the workplace 8
his involves cleaning the work place free of burrs, grease, oil, waste, scrap etc. Co loosely hanging wires or oil
leakage from machines.
4!I$!43 # 4tandardi/ation 8
!mployees has to discuss together and decide on standards for keeping the work place 6 Machines 6 pathways neat and
clean. his standards are implemented for whole organi/ation and are tested 6 Inspected randomly.
4.I43$! # 4elf discipline 8
,onsidering <4 as a way of life and bring about self#discipline among the employees of the organi/ation. his
includes wearing badges, following work procedures, punctuality, dedication to the organi/ation etc.
P33"R 4 # KI4.3 .BQ!C % 5utonomous maintenance - 8
his pillar is geared towards developing operators to be able to take care of small maintenance tasks, thus freeing up
the skilled maintenance people to spend time on more value added activity and technical repairs. he operators are
responsible for upkeep of their equipment to prevent it from deteriorating.
1olicy 8
). 3ninterrupted operation of equipments.
&. >le0ible operators to operate and maintain other equipments.
:. !liminating the defects at source through active employee participation.
;. 4tepwise implementation of K. activities.
KI4.3 .BQ!C argets8
). 1revent the occurrence of )5 6 )+ because of K..
&. "educe oil consumption by <(N
:. "educe process time by <(N
;. Increase use of K. by <(N
4teps in KI4.3 .BQ!C 8
). 1reparation of employees.
&. Initial cleanup of machines.
:. ake counter measures
;. >i0 tentative K. standards
<. Aeneral inspection
'. 5utonomous inspection
<&
*. 4tandardi/ation and
=. 5utonomous management.
!ach of the above mentioned steps is discussed in detail below.
). rain the !mployees 8 !ducate the employees about 1M, Its advantages, K. advantages and 4teps in K..
!ducate the employees about abnormalities in equipments.
&. Initial cleanup of machines 8
o 4upervisor and technician should discuss and set a date for implementing step)
o 5rrange all items needed for cleaning
o Bn the arranged date, employees should clean the equipment completely with the help of maintenance
department.
o ?ust, stains, oils and grease has to be removed.
o >ollowing are the things that has to be taken care while cleaning. hey are Bil leakage, loose wires,
unfastened nits and bolts and worn out parts.
o 5fter clean up problems are categori/ed and suitably tagged. 7hite tags is place where problems can
be solved by operators. 1ink tag is placed where the aid of maintenance department is needed.
o ,ontents of tag is transferred to a register.
o Make note of area which were inaccessible.
o >inally close the open parts of the machine and run the machine.
:. ,ounter Measures 8
o Inaccessible regions had to be reached easily. !.g. If there are many screw to open a fly wheel door,
hinge door can be used. Instead of opening a door for inspecting the machine, acrylic sheets can be
used.
o o prevent work out of machine parts necessary action must be taken.
o Machine parts should be modified to prevent accumulation of dirt and dust.
;. entative 4tandard 8
o K. schedule has to be made and followed strictly.
o 4chedule should be made regarding cleaning, inspection and lubrication and it also should include
details like when, what and how.
<. Aeneral Inspection 8
o he employees are trained in disciplines like 1neumatics, electrical, hydraulics, lubricant and coolant,
drives, bolts, nuts and 4afety.
o his is necessary to improve the technical skills of employees and to use inspection manuals
correctly.
o 5fter acquiring this new knowledge the employees should share this with others.
o +y acquiring this new technical knowledge, the operators are now well aware of machine parts.
'. 5utonomous Inspection 8
o Cew methods of cleaning and lubricating are used.
o !ach employee prepares his own autonomous chart 6 schedule in consultation with supervisor.
o 1arts which have never given any problem or part which donVt need any inspection are removed from
list permanently based on e0perience.
o Including good quality machine parts. his avoid defects due to poor K..
o Inspection that is made in preventive maintenance is included in K..
o he frequency of cleanup and inspection is reduced based on e0perience.
'. 4tandardi/ation 8
<:
o 3pto the previous stem only the machinery 6 equipment was the concentration. .owever in this step
the surroundings of machinery are organi/ed. Cecessary items should be organi/ed, such that there is
no searching and searching time is reduced.
o 7ork environment is modified such that there is no difficulty in getting any item.
o !verybody should follow the work instructions strictly.
o Cecessary spares for equipments is planned and procured.
*. 5utonomous Management 8
o B!! and B1! and other 1M targets must be achieved by continuous improve through $ai/en.
o 1?,5 % 1lan, ?o, ,heck and 5ct - cycle must be implemented for $ai/en.
1IGG5" : # $5IQ!C 8
U$aiU means change, and UQenU means good % for the better -. +asically kai/en is for small improvements, but carried
out on a continual basis and involve all people in the organi/ation. $ai/en is opposite to big spectacular innovations.
$ai/en requires no or little investment. he principle behind is that Ua very large number of small improvements are
move effective in an organi/ational environment than a few improvements of large value. his pillar is aimed at
reducing losses in the workplace that affect our efficiencies. +y using a detailed and thorough procedure we eliminate
losses in a systematic method using various $ai/en tools. hese activities are not limited to production areas and can
be implemented in administrative areas as well.
$ai/en 1olicy 8
). 1ractice concepts of /ero losses in every sphere of activity.
&. relentless pursuit to achieve cost reduction targets in all resources
:. "elentless pursuit to improve over all plant equipment effectiveness.
;. !0tensive use of 1M analysis as a tool for eliminating losses.
<. >ocus of easy handling of operators.
$ai/en arget 8
5chieve and sustain /ero loses with respect to minor stops, measurement and adjustments, defects and unavoidable
downtimes. It also aims to achieve :(N manufacturing cost reduction.
ools used in $ai/en 8
). 1M analysis
&. 7hy # 7hy analysis
:. 4ummary of losses
;. $ai/en register
<. $ai/en summary sheet.
he objective of 1M is ma0imi/ation of equipment effectiveness. 1M aims at ma0imi/ation of machine utili/ation
and not merely machine availability ma0imi/ation. 5s one of the pillars of 1M activities, $ai/en pursues efficient
equipment, operator and material and energy utili/ation, that is e0tremes of productivity and aims at achieving
substantial effects. $ai/en activities try to thoroughly eliminate )' major losses.
)' Major losses in a organisation8
Loss Category
). >ailure losses # +reakdown loss Gosses that impede equipment efficiency
<;
&. 4etup 6 adjustment losses
:. ,utting blade loss
;. 4tart up loss
<. Minor stoppage 6 Idling loss.
'. 4peed loss # operating at low speeds.
*. ?efect 6 rework loss
=. 4cheduled downtime loss
2. Management loss
)(. Bperating motion loss
)). Gine organi/ation loss
)&. Gogistic loss
):. Measurement and adjustment loss
Goses that impede human work efficiency
);. !nergy loss
)<. ?ie, jig and tool breakage loss
)'. Sield loss.
Goses that impede effective use of production resources
Classification of losses :
"spect $poradic 3oss Chronic 3oss
,ausation
,auses for this failure can be easily
traced. ,ause#effect relationship is
simple to trace.
his loss cannot be easily identified and
solved. !ven if various counter
measures are applied
"emedy
!asy to establish a remedial measure
his type of losses are caused because of
hidden defects in machine, equipment
and methods.
Impact 6 Goss
5 single loss can be costly
5 single cause is rare # a combination of
causes trends to be a rule
>requency of occurrence
he frequency of occurrence is low and
occasional.
he frequency of loss is more.
,orrective action
3sually the line personnel in the
production can attend to this problem.
4pecialists in process engineering,
quality assurance and maintenance
people are required.
P33"R 6 - P3"##E/ M"#TE#"#CE :
It is aimed to have trouble free machines and equipments producing defect free products for total customer
satisfaction. his breaks maintenance down into ; UfamiliesU or groups which was defined earlier.
). 1reventive Maintenance
&. +reakdown Maintenance
<<
:. ,orrective Maintenance
;. Maintenance 1revention
7ith 1lanned Maintenance we evolve our efforts from a reactive to a proactive method and use trained maintenance
staff to help train the operators to better maintain their equipment.
Policy :
). 5chieve and sustain availability of machines
&. Bptimum maintenance cost.
:. "educes spares inventory.
;. Improve reliability and maintainability of machines.
Tar&et :
). Qero equipment failure and break down.
&. Improve reliability and maintainability by <( N
:. "educe maintenance cost by &( N
;. !nsure availability of spares all the time.
$i7 steps in Planned maintenance :
). !quipment evaluation and recoding present status.
&. "estore deterioration and improve weakness.
:. +uilding up information management system.
;. 1repare time based information system, select equipment, parts and members and map out plan.
<. 1repare predictive maintenance system by introducing equipment diagnostic techniques and
'. !valuation of planned maintenance.
P33"R 8 - DU"3T= M"#TE#"#CE :
It is aimed towards customer delight through highest quality through defect free manufacturing. >ocus is on
eliminating non#conformances in a systematic manner, much like >ocused Improvement. 7e gain understanding of
what parts of the equipment affect product quality and begin to eliminate current quality concerns, then move to
potential quality concerns. ransition is from reactive to proactive %Zuality ,ontrol to Zuality 5ssurance-.
ZM activities is to set equipment conditions that preclude quality defects, based on the basic concept of maintaining
perfect equipment to maintain perfect quality of products. he condition are checked and measure in time series to
very that measure values are within standard values to prevent defects. he transition of measured values is watched
to predict possibilities of defects occurring and to take counter measures before hand.
Policy :
). ?efect free conditions and control of equipments.
&. ZM activities to support quality assurance.
:. >ocus of prevention of defects at source
;. >ocus on poka#yoke. % fool proof system -
<. In#line detection and segregation of defects.
'. !ffective implementation of operator quality assurance.
<'
Tar&et :
). 5chieve and sustain customer complaints at /ero
&. "educe in#process defects by <( N
:. "educe cost of quality by <( N.
?ata requirements 8
Zuality defects are classified as custo$er end defects and in house defects. >or customer#end data, we have to get data
on
). ,ustomer end line rejection
&. >ield complaints.
In#house, data include data related to products and data related to process
?ata related to product 8
). 1roduct wise defects
&. 4everity of the defect and its contribution # major6minor
:. Gocation of the defect with reference to the layout
;. Magnitude and frequency of its occurrence at each stage of measurement
<. Bccurrence trend in beginning and the end of each production6process6changes. %Gike pattern change,
ladle6furnace lining etc.-
'. Bccurrence trend with respect to restoration of breakdown6modifications6periodical replacement of quality
components.
?ata related to processes8
). he operating condition for individual sub#process related to men, method, material and machine.
&. he standard settings6conditions of the sub#process
:. he actual record of the settings6conditions during the defect occurrence.
P33"R 9 - TR"##? :
It is aimed to have multi#skilled revitali/ed employees whose morale is high and who has eager to come to work and
perform all required functions effectively and independently. !ducation is given to operators to upgrade their skill. It
is not sufficient know only U$now#.owU by they should also learn U$now#whyU. +y e0perience they gain, U$now#
.owU to overcome a problem what to be done. his they do without knowing the root cause of the problem and why
they are doing so. .ence it become necessary to train them on knowing U$now#whyU. he employees should be
trained to achieve the four phases of skill. he goal is to create a factory full of e0perts. he different phase of skills
are
1hase ) 8 ?o not know.
1hase & 8 $now the theory but cannot do.
1hase : 8 ,an do but cannot teach
1hase ; 8 ,an do and also teach.
Policy :
). >ocus on improvement of knowledge, skills and techniques.
&. ,reating a training environment for self learning based on felt needs.
:. raining curriculum 6 tools 6assessment etc conductive to employee revitali/ation
<*
;. raining to remove employee fatigue and make work enjoyable.
Tar&et :
). 5chieve and sustain downtime due to want men at /ero on critical machines.
&. 5chieve and sustain /ero losses due to lack of knowledge 6 skills 6 techniques
:. 5im for )(( N participation in suggestion scheme.
$teps in Educatin& and trainin& acti'ities :
). 4etting policies and priorities and checking present status of education and training.
&. !stablish of training system for operation and maintenance skill up gradation.
:. raining the employees for upgrading the operation and maintenance skills.
;. 1reparation of training calendar.
<. $ick#off of the system for training.
'. !valuation of activities and study of future approach.
P33"R : - O..CE TPM :
Bffice 1M should be started after activating four other pillars of 1M %K., $$, ZM, 1M-. Bffice 1M must be
followed to improve productivity, efficiency in the administrative functions and identify and eliminate losses. his
includes analy/ing processes and procedures towards increased office automation. Bffice 1M addresses twelve
major losses. hey are
). 1rocessing loss
&. ,ost loss including in areas such as procurement, accounts, marketing, sales leading to high inventories
:. ,ommunication loss
;. Idle loss
<. 4et#up loss
'. 5ccuracy loss
*. Bffice equipment breakdown
=. ,ommunication channel breakdown, telephone and fa0 lines
2. ime spent on retrieval of information
)(. Con availability of correct on line stock status
)). ,ustomer complaints due to logistics
)&. !0penses on emergency dispatches6purchases of equipment
4imilarities and differences between ZM and 1M 8
he 1M program closely resembles the popular otal Zuality Management %ZM- program. Many of the tools such
as employee empowerment, benchmarking, documentation, etc. used in ZM are used to implement and optimi/e
1M.>ollowing are the similarities between the two.
21 otal commitment to the program by upper level management is required in both programmes
41 !mployees must be empowered to initiate corrective action, and
51 5 long range outlook must be accepted as 1M may take a year or more to implement and is an on#going
process. ,hanges in employee mind#set toward their job responsibilities must take place as well.
The difference %etween TDM and TPM is summariEed %elow1
<=
,ategory ZM 1M
Bbject Zuality % Butput and effects - !quipment % Input and cause -
Mains of attaining goal
4ystemati/e the management. It is
software oriented
!mployees participation and it is
hardware oriented
arget Zuality for 11M !limination of losses and wastes.
The Relationship %etween RCM and TPM:
he original precepts for ",M were developed for the aircraft industry where Vbasic equipment conditionsV %no
looseness, contamination or lubrication problems- are mandatory, and where operators %pilots- skill level, behaviour
and training is of a high standard. 3nfortunately in most manufacturing and mining operations these Vbasic equipment
conditionsV and operator skill and behaviour levels do not e0ist thus undermining the basis of any ",M application.
>or this reason, the application of 1M as a company wide improvement strategy is highly advisable to ensure8
Vbasic equipment conditionsV are established9 and
Vequipment#competentV operators are developed
+efore attempting a full blown ",M analysis or a partial ",M approach following the basic ",M process. >ailure to
do this in an environment where basic equipment conditions and operator error are causing significant variation in the
life of your equipment parts will block your ability to cost effectively optimise your maintenance tactics and spares
holding strategies.
he other key difference between ",M and 1M is that ",M is promoted as a maintenance improvement strategy
whereas 1M recognises that the maintenance function alone cannot improve reliability. >actors such as operator Vlack
of careV and poor operational practices, poor Vbasic equipment conditionsV, and adverse equipment loading due to
changes in processing requirements %introduction of different products, raw materials, process variables etc- all impact
on equipment reliability. 3nless all employees become actively involved in recognising the need to eliminate or
reduce all UlossesU and to focus on Vdefect avoidanceV or Vearly defect identification environment.
,BC,G34IBC8
It should be acknowledged that a 1M implementation is not a short#term fi0. It is a continuous journey based on
changing the work#area then the equipment so as to achieve a clean, neat, safe workplace through a U13GGU as
opposed to a U134.U culture change process. 4ignificant improvement should be evident within si0 months, however
full implementation can take many years to allow for the full benefits of the new culture created by 1M to be
sustaining. his time frame obviously depends upon where a company is in relation to its quality and maintenance
activities and the resources being allocated to introduce this new mind#setmanagement.
). IC"B?3,IBC
In broad sense maintenance is Dto keep fit any 4ystem for useE. It may be defined as an
overall combination of all those activities which are required to keep an item as in built
condition so that it continues to have its original procedure capacity.
<2
In order to streamline the understanding of different types6streams of maintenance functions,
the classification can be done on basis of planning and criticality6essentiality of jobs. 4ome
jobs may be planned in advance but some jobs may have to taken up immediately and up#
planned.
_ !M+!? 1+rush ___
>ig.). he graph here shows a relation between amount of wear and time for which the
component is being used.
Introduction to otal 1roductive Maintenance
1M is a manufacturing#led initiative that creates a collaborative approach among all
stakeholders within an organi/ationLparticularly between operations and maintenanceLin
an effort to achieve production efficiency, uninterrupted operations and ensure a quick,
proactive maintenance response to prevent equipment#specific problems.
It is the maintenance strategy for plant and equipment usually involves a change in the
mind#set of personnel towards their job responsibilities. It requires commitment to the
programme by members of the upper level management team as well as empowering
employees to initiate corrective actions for defaulting aspects of the system or process under
their jurisdiction
!fficiency and effectiveness of equipment plays a dominant role in modern manufacturing
industry to determine the performance of the organi/ational production function as well as
the level of success achieved in the organi/ation. >or more then two decades, the
development of the Malaysian manufacturing sector had registered an e0cellent performance
and attracted a large number of foreign capital investments to this country. hese e0cellent
performances have enabled the Malaysian manufacturers to enjoy an important competitive
advantage in the global market, especially in terms of cost and quality. .owever, as time
passed, the impact of equipment efficiency has become more and more critical as the
widespread utili/ation and application of highly sophisticated and automated machines in the
industry increases. he maintenance of these complicated equipment and machines thus
became very crucial and costly to manufacturers. Many organi/ations began to reali/e that
the continuity of this e0cellent performance must be supported by a strong backbone of
efficient and effective equipment. raditional maintenance technicians are regarded as
passive and non#productive to the current production function. .ence, implementing otal
1roductive Maintenance %1M- in the manufacturing industry has emerged as an important
operational strategy to overcome the production losses due to equipment inefficiency. 1M
is an innovative approach, which holds the potential for enhancing the efficiency and
effectiveness of production equipment by taking advantages of abilities and skills of all
individuals in the organi/ation. 1M focuses on ma0imi/ing the Bverall !quipment
!fficiency %B!!- with involvement of each and everyone in the organi/ation. It will not only
establish a complete maintenance system, but also aims to improve the maintenance skills
and knowledge among the shop floor operators. Cow, 1M and its implications received
prestigious worldwide recognition in achieving the ultimate Qero ?efects and Qero
+reakdown targets.
'(
1M %otal 1roductive Maintenance- is a company#wide team#based effort to build quality
into equipment and to improve overall equipment effectiveness.
Meaning of the : components8
otal
all employees are involved
it aims to eliminate all accidents, defects and breakdowns
1roductive
actions are performed while production goes on
troubles for production are minimi/ed
Maintenance
keep in good condition
repair, clean, lubricate
Moderni/ation and the ongoing automation in different industries have noticeably amplified
the gap between operators and their machines.
Sears ago, machine operators were limited to manning their respective posts. 7henever
there is a mechanical trouble, operators would stop working and would call in the mechanics
to fi0 the problem. !ven with the slightest snag, operators would leave everything to the so#
called De0pertsE for fear of making the problem worse, and besides they dont want to take
on the mechanics jobs.
Bn the other hand, the traditional mechanics loved the smell of a breakdown. hey know that
they have become indispensable specialists in the tradeLthey are assured of a stable job
every time a fi0 is needed. 4o, the vicious cycle goes on and on, and the aftermath of which
is immense amount of waste8 man hours, production time, opportunity lost, and ballooning
maintenance e0pense.
+ut with the adoption and adaptation of 1M, the vicious cycle has come to an end. oday,
1M builds on the classical Kapanese concepts of autonomous maintenance with process
mapping for cross#functional duties.
,oupled with the right tools and training, 1M equips the operators the necessary skills to
address mechanical or equipment#related issues. ,alling the engineers and mechanics is no
longer necessary since operators are already prepared and confident in dealing with the
problems.
5utonomous maintenance by operators, therefore, is most important in 1M.
Moreover, offering workshops and trainings to stakeholders improve the interaction between
people operations and maintenance. he objective of which is the implementation of
improved B!! %Bverall !quipment !fficiency- metrics. he implementation of 1M is will
be easier if D<4E is already working in the plant.
3ndoubtedly, 1M is one of the most effective ways to create a lean organi/ation with
reduced cycle time and improved operational efficiency
Meaning of total productive maintenance
Cow a days the meaning of maintenance is that it is all about preserving the functions of
physical assets. In other words, carrying out tasks that serve the central purpose of ensuring
that our machines are capable of doing what the users want them to do, when they want them
to do it. he possible maintenance policies can be grouped under four headings vi/.
). ,orrective # wait until a failure occurs and then remedy the situation %restoring the asset to
productive capability- as quickly as possible.
')
&. 1reventive # believe that a regular maintenance attention will keep an otherwise
troublesome failure mode at bay.
:. 1redictive # rather than looking at a calendar and assessing what attention the equipment
needs, we should e0amine the Vvital signsV and infer what the equipment is trying to tell us.
he term V,ondition MonitoringV has come to mean using a piece of technology %most often a
vibration analy/er- to assess the health of our plant and equipment.
;. ?etective # applies to the types of devices that only need to work when required and do
not tell us when they are in the failed state e.g. a fire alarm or smoke detector. hey
generally require a periodic functional check to ascertain that they are still working.
5part etective maintenance, the central problem that companies have struggled with is how
to make the choice between the other three. his has led to the increasing interest within
industry in two strategies, which offer a path to long term continuous improvement rather
than the promise of a quick fi0. hese are "eliability ,entered Maintenance %",M- and
otal 1roductive Maintenance %1M-. he two strategies, although having similar names,
actually have very different strengths.
1M is a manufacturing led initiative that emphasises the importance of people, a Vcan doV
and Vcontinuous improvementV philosophy and the importance of production and maintenance
staff working together. It is presented as a key part of an overall manufacturing philosophy.
In essence, 1M seeks to reshape the organi/ation to liberate its own potential.
he modern business world is a rapidly changing environment, so the last thing a company
needs if it is to compete in the global marketplace is to get in its own way because of the way
in which it approaches the business of looking after its income generating physical assets.
4o, 1M is concerned with the fundamental rethink of business processes to achieve
improvements in cost, quality, speed etc. It encourages radical changes, such as9
flatter organisational structures # fewer managers, empowered teams,
multi#skilled workforce,
rigorous reappraisal of the way things are done # often with the goal of simplification.
!@BG3IBC8
he concept of 1M originated in Kapans manufacturing industries, initially with the aim of
eliminating production losses due to limitations in the KI process for production operations
I=J. 4eichi Cakajima is credited with defining the fundamental concepts of 1M and seeing
the procedure implemented in hundreds of plants in Kapan9 the key concept being
autonomous maintenance I2J.

1M is a major departure from the Dyou operate, I maintainE philosophy I)(J. It is the
implementation of productive maintenance by all associated personnel %whether machine
operators or members of the management team-, based on the involvement of all in the
continual improvement of performance. 1M endeavours to eliminate the root causes of
problems, through team#based decisions and their implementation. 5chieving low#cost
improvements and /ero#deficit product quality are striven for, while designing for minimum
G,, maintenance and using the KI procedure. 5ll employees through small#group
activities, which include aiming for /ero breakdowns and /ero defects, should implement it.
he three components of the concept are8
%i- Bptimised equipment#effectiveness,
'&
5utonomous#operator maintenance and
,ompany#led small#group activities, throughout the entire organisation.
his is aDhigh#employee involvementE approach. It leads to improved creative group#
efforts,greater individual effort, personal responsibility, and lively innovative problem#
solving meetings. 1M concepts involve commitments to long#range planning,especially on
the part of senior management. ypically, 1M is initiated as a Dtop#downE e0ercise, but
only implemented successfully via Dbottom#upE participation. .owever, consensus building
may take about three years, from the planning phase, for sustainability to be achieved in a
large organisation.
1M is a manufacturing#led initiative that emphasises the importance of following 8
1eople with a Pcan do and continual improvement attitude and
%ii- 1roduction and maintenance personnel working together in unison.

In essence, 1M seeks to integratethe organisation to recognise, liberate and utilise its own
potential and skills I))J.1M combines the best features of productive and 1M procedures
with innovative management strategies and encourages total employee involvement. 1M
focuses attention upon the reasons for energy losses from, and failures of equipment due to
design weaknesses that the associated personnel previously thought they had to tolerate.
5utonomous maintenance looks into the means for achieving a high degree of cleanliness,
e0cellent lubrication and proper fastening %e.g. tightening of nuts on bolts in the system- in
order to inhibit deterioration and prevent machine breakdown. he Kapanese Institute of
1lant Maintenance in )22' introduced autonomous maintenance for operations as a role for
all employees in order to achieve greater financial profits.
5IM B> 1M8
he aim of 1M is to bring together management, supervisors and trade union members to
take rapid remedial actions as and when required.
M5IC B+K!,I@!4.
Its main objectives areis to achieve /ero breakdowns, /ero defects and improved throughputs
by8
` Increasing operator involvement and ownership of the process.
` Improving problem#solving by the team.
` "efining preventive and predictive maintenance activities.
` >ocussing on reliability and maintainability engineering.
` 3pgrading each operators skills.
1M strategies8
.uman#oriented 4trategy
':
.uman#oriented strategy is, generally, strategies that actively involve human administrative
application of management methods in achieving high e0tent of 1M. hree important
aspects that are often discussed as the core of .uman#oriented strategy are8
%)- op management commitment and leadership,
%&- otal !mployee Involvement, and
%:- raining and !ducation
op Management ,ommitment and Geadership
he role of top managements commitment and leadership has been frequently emphasi/ed
in many literatures to have the decisive influence over successful 1M implementation
%sang O ,han, &(((-. 1M requires a drastic change in the traditional mindset of work
culture and maintenance approaches. .owever at the present moment, high resistance is
often encountered from the shop floor operators and as well as the maintenance personnel.
o this e0tent, active top management support is crucial to overcome such resistance,
especially during the transition period %>redendall, )22*-. +amber et al. %)222- wrote that
the major obstacle in implementing 1M in 3$ was the lack of top management
commitment to follow through which resulted in many organi/ations to struggle when
attempting to implement 1M. 1atterson %)22'- e0plained that to successfully implement
1M, an organi/ation must be led by top management that is supportive understanding and
committed to the various kinds of 1M activities. op management has the primary
responsibility of preparing a suitable and supportive environment before the official kick#off
of 1M within their organi/ation. his may include resources allocation and training and
education provided to the middle management level as well as the production floor
operators. Cakajima %)2=2- stated that the top managements primary responsibility is to
establish a favorable environment where the work environment can support autonomous
activities.
otal !mployee Involvement
7hile top management commitment and leadership is essential for 1M success, it is not
sufficient on its own. 1M embraces empowerment to production operators establishing a
sense of ownership in their daily operating equipment %sang O ,han, &(((-. his sense of
ownership is an important factor that underpins 1M to its continual success with every
operator being responsible to ensure her own machine is clean and maintained. It involves
the employees to have a common understanding of the basic principles of 1M. he
importance of total employee involvement is based on the beliefs that shop floor operators
have the most hands#on e0perience with the machines they operate daily. hus, 1M
demands active participation from the shop floor operators in the continuous improvements
activities, cross#functional teamwork, work suggestion schemes %Cakajima, )2=2-. .igh
level of maintenance awareness and simple routine maintenance tasks are integrated into
their daily duties and the final mission ahead is to achieve profitable 5utonomous
Maintenance by operators. 1M accomplished the ma0imi/ation of equipment effectiveness
through total employee participation and incorporated the use of 5utonomous Maintenance
in the small group activities to improve on the equipment reliability, maintainability and
productivity %,hen, )22*-.
';
raining and !ducation
+lanchard %)22*- pointed out that training and educational issues had become one of the
critical factors to establish successful 1M implementation, where proper education begin as
early as during the 1M introduction and initial preparation stages. he entire workforce in
the organi/ation need to acquire new knowledge, skill and abilities related to 1M.
hiagarajan and Qairi %)22*- further addressed that education and training is the single most
important factor once the necessary commitment has been assured and had become a long#
term strategy in the planning schedule to obtain aspirations and skills. >urther
implementation of 1M sees the training to be essential to the implementation and work
performance.
Impact of .uman#oriented 4trategy
he findings show that there is a positive relationship between human#oriented strategy and
the e0tent of 1M implementation. his can be related to the emphasis that the e0tent of
1M implementation mainly requires new system development and adoption of a new
strategy to the organisation itself and its success depends e0clusively on work culture,
organisational practices and so on, which are human related issues. he findings that training
is a significant determinant of 1M implementation supports the works of +lanchard %)22*-
who pointed out that training and educational issues become the critical factors to establish
successful 1M implementation. It is also supported by the study of hiagarajan and Qairi
%)22*- singled out education and training as the important drivers after the initial
commitment to carry out the 1M implementation has been mad. 1rocess#oriented 4trategy
7hile .uman#oriented 4trategy is important to prepare the foundation prior to implementing
1M, 1rocess#oriented 4trategy plays an important role in the ne0t part to achieve a
successful 1M implementation in the organi/ation. 1rocess#oriented 4trategy includes all
kinds of technical approaches to ma0imi/e the overall equipment efficiency through
quantitatively, increasing the equipment availability and qualitatively, eliminating all
production losses that resulted from inefficient equipment %Cakajima, )2=2-. he primary
goal of 1M is to achieve the ultimate target of Qero Goss and Qero +reakdown so that all
equipments are performing at its optimal condition. he production function performance is
diminished by inefficient equipment that generates losses in terms of failure#loss,
performance#loss or defect#loss. In detail, such losses can be refined as !quipment
breakdown9 4etup and adjustment time loss9 Idling and minor stoppages9 reduced
performance rate %slower speed-9 1rocess failure %defects- and reworks and 4tartup time
losses. herefore, one of the major features of 1rocess#oriented 4trategy emphasi/es on
hands#on and practical approaches to identify and quantify all the above losses in the
production floor %4u/uki, )22;-. he sequential step#wise procedure of 1rocess#oriented
4trategy begins with8
Identifying failures or losses and analy/e causes9
4etting improvements to eliminate failures and losses9
,onfirming and consolidating results.
'<
he immediate subsequent action after identifying and quantifying the equipment losses is to
stratify and analy/e the relevant root causes. 4ome of the analytical methods that had been
developed and widely deployed to promote the thorough and systematic elimination of
defects in 1rocess#oriented 4trategy are 1M analysis, >ault#tree analysis %>5-, >ailure
Mode and !ffect analysis %>M!5- and so on %4u/uki, )22;-. 7ith all failure phenomena
being clearly described, improvements become crucial in the second stage to eliminate these
pertinent causes. Improvement plans had to be, in balance, carried out on both equipment
and process. 4himbun %)22<- stated that, for improvement of equipment, the very basic
activities are to restore all forms of deterioration in the equipment and establishing the basic
condition.
hereupon, 1rocess#oriented 4trategy should concentrate on process improvement to its
optimal condition. 5ny human factors or operations which lead to the accelerated
deterioration of the equipment are eliminated as well as improved in terms of operation and
maintenance skills. In addition to the process improvement, the payoff from the
simplification of operation has many direct advantages as well as various useful spin#off
benefits in terms of increased equipment efficiency %4u/uki, )22;-. he cycle of 1rocess#
oriented 4trategy is completed by counter#checking and consolidating the positive results of
improvements that was being implemented. o these circumstances, equipment
standardi/ation and work instruction controls are e0tensively carried out across the board of
production floor.
Impact of 1rocess#oriented 4trategy
he importance of 1rocess#oriented 4trategy is also a basic part of the philosophy of 1M,
as 1M in itself is a technical process approach to achieve maintenance e0cellence.
7orkplace improvement was found to be positively related to e0tent of 1M
implementation. his goes to show that 1rocess#oriented strategy is also important in
determining the e0tent of 1M implementation. Bnce the decision to adopt is made, there
has to be an equal investment in the workplace improvement which the organi/ation has to
undertake in terms of equipment standardi/ation and work instruction controls need to be
carried out across the production floor. his finding is supported by the works of 4u/uki
%)22;- and 4himbun %)22<-.
.uman#oriented 4trategy and 1rocess#oriented 4trategy8 ,omparison
he impact and effectiveness of human and process oriented strategies towards the e0tent of
1M is simultaneously measured in hypothesis : and Multiple "egression analysis showed
that .uman#oriented 4trategy is having a greater impact compared to 1rocess#oriented
4trategy. >or the reason that introduction and implementation of 1M are considered as one
of the form of change management in the organisation where changes in work culture,
process and management systems, organisational environment, and the individual
perspective within the organisation are crucial to the enforcement of commitment,
involvement and matured attitudes. 7hen all these human related issues has been restored in
the environment then only the technical skills and knowledge of maintenance have the
foundation to ma0imi/e their effectiveness.
he 1M strategy includes8
''
` Ma0imising equipment effectiveness.
` Improving quality, increasing safety and reducing costs.
` "aising the morale of the team that is implementing 1M
1M vis#a#vis ero#echnolgy8
he pupose of1M andero#echnology is, to some e0tent, samei.e., topursue
ecoconomically efficient life cycle cost, but the scope of tero#technology is much larger as it
involves designers, manufacturers, erectors and other outside agencies in adition to user but
the 1M is connected only with the users. here are lot of differences in approach also such
as 1M calls for direct and total involvement ofall connected member for same goal
whereas in ero#echnology goals for all groups6 agencies may not be same. >ollowing
figure shows the rough relationship b6w the two8
_
+asic 4ystem of 1M8
+asically 1M can be adopted in two system or concepts8
4mall 5utonomous Aroup ,oncept8 this is recent concept and gained widespread
acceptance in Kapanese firms. .ere the small group activities are company led and inter#
woven in companys over#all activities. he companys organi/ation is so build up that over
laps at several levels#from small groups of senior e0ecutives down to small groups of shop#
floor workmen and this company led overlapping organi/ation of small group involves
effective participation of almost all employees from top management to shop#floor
workmen. In this, leader of each group level works as link and binder by acting as member
of small group of the level above. his improves the vertical and hori/ontal communication.
!ach autonomous group is totally responsible for maintenance and all other jobs of their
area. >ig. 4hows a BM promotion system indicating roughly the overlapping of small
groups at different levels. hese group also called as productive maintenance circles at
different levels.
Cormal 1roductive Maintenance ,oncept8 in this, operational personnel, maintenance
personnel and connected planning groups are fully involved in the maintenance and upkeep
the plant work together for common goal. Bther centrali/ed group are also involved to some
e0tent by taking one of their task asE helping in good maintenance and upkeep the plant by
accessing the materials needed and supplying right quality at right time.E his concept can
of course be adopted in big Indian industries.
Aoals of 1M8
%)- 5chieving sustainability,
%&- 4tandardisation,
%:- 1ertinent education and training in 1M,
%;- Measuring 1M effectiveness,
%<- ?eveloping an autonomous maintenance programme and
'*
%'- Implementing $ai/en#teian programmes
he main goal of 1M is to create a production environment free from mechanical
breakdowns and technical disturbances by involving everybody in maintenance duties
without heavily relying on mechanics or engineers.
7orkshop management is responsible for implementing 1M goals via group 1M, small#
group activities, ma0imising equipment effectiveness, /ero#accident and /ero#pollution aims,
improving operating reliability, reducing the G,,, and problem solving.
+est practices adapted to the maintenance process8
5 definition of best practice, adapted to the maintenance process, is D the integrated
maintenance practices that enable a company achieve a competitive advantage over its
competitors in the maintenance processE. 4pecifically, benchmarking is the practice of
measuring performance against a preset standard. +enchmarking is used by industries to
learn about practices that have been proven to lead to superior performances and then to
adopt them into their own organisational process. McZueen I)2J suggested three types8
` Internal benchmarking, whereby multiple#plant organisations set company# wide standards
for each of the sites to follow, and then charts each sites performance relative to those
standards` Industry benchmarking, where a companys performance is measured against
those of other organisations in the same industrial sector..

` +est#practice benchmarking, via which performance is measured against those of other
companies considered to be the leaders of that industry, regardless of the end product or
provided service of the particular business. +enchmarking is performed preferably after a
detailed internal audit has been conducted.
+enefits
1M helps organise maintenance activities by applying the following actions8
` ,ultivate a sense of ownership in the operator by introducing autonomous maintenance
the operator takes responsibility for the primary care of his6her plant. he tasks include
cleaning, routine inspection, lubrication, adjustments, minor repairs as well as the cleanliness
of the local workspace.
` 3se cross#functional teams consisting of operators, maintainers, engineers and managers to
improve individual employee and equipment performances.
` !stablish an optimal schedule of clean#up and 1M to e0tend the plants life# span and
ma0imise its uptime.
Many 1M operators have achieved e0cellent progress I))J, in instances such as8#
` 7iser assessments of and improvements in the performance of critical equipment, e.g. in
terms of B!! and determining what are the reasons for any non#achievement.
'=
` +etter understanding of the equipments criticality and where and when is it financially
worth improving.
` More cooperative teamwork e.g. less adversarial or competitive approaches between
production and maintenance workers.
` Improved procedures for
%)- change#overs and set#ups,
%&- carrying out maintenance tasks and
%:- better training of operators and maintainers8
all of these lead to reduced unit costs of production and better service.
` Increased enthusiasm, loyalty and involvement of the workforce. Implementation of 1M
forces fundamental rethinks of business processes to achieve lower unit costs, higher quality
of end#product and more rapid production.
"BG! B> 1M IC IC?34"S 8
It is concluded that 1M brings maintenance into focus as a necessary and vitally important
part of the business8 maintenance should no longer be regarded as a non#profit#making
activity. ?owntime for maintenance is scheduled as an on#going activity of the
manufacturing process making it imperative to carry out maintenance not solely when there
is a failure in the production flow. he goal is to minimise the frequency and magnitudes of
emergency and unscheduled maintenance interruptions.
he profit#focussed approach to maintenance requires8
` >requent maintenance and breakdown#prevention measures implemented.
` raining to improve the pertinent skills of all personnel
` .igher effectiveness sought in newly#purchased equipment.
5utomated factories are e0pensive the consequences of a breakdown or malfunction are
usually much more costly than in traditional plants. .igh machine#utilisation is critical8
achieving a high productivity depends on keeping the equipment functioning at peak levels,
for as long as is feasible. oday, with competition increasing, successful 1M may be one of
the essential factors that determine whether some organisations, survive.

Integrated automated plants require overseeing by pertinently#skilled, fle0ible and
committed workers. .igh levels of competence are consistent with e0alted involvement,
employee participation, and self#managing teams. 1M prepares the
plant to meet the challenge of a competitive global#economy.
he overall outcome of 1M activities should improve the8
` Bverall plants productivity %i.e. more effective operation and resource utilisation as well as
the elimination of e0cessive inventory stocks-.
'2
` "ate of throughput %by quicker action6reaction to failure symptoms so leading to reduced
downtimes-.
` !nd#product quality %e.g. by insisting on purchasing better designs- and services %e.g.
through better#maintained plant and machines-.
` !ducation and training of employees, so empowering them and raising morale, to keep
pace with the comple0ity of evolving technologies.
he process identifies the non#value#added activities within an organisation and then
systematically creates solutions to eliminate successively the most wasteful ones.
Maintenance affects all aspects of business effectiveness # risk, safety, environmental
sustainability achieved, energy efficiency, product quality and customer service, i.e. not just
plant availability and costs. ?owntime has always affected adversely the capability of
physical assets by reducing output, increasing operating costs and lowering customer service
I<J.
!mployee empowerment is desirable in order to create e0cellent commitments amongst the
concerned personnel8 for this, management, within the overall aims of the organisation, must
involve employees in setting challenging targets and specifying how to achieve them.
5utonomy is the core concept of empowerment, while the management retains control
through information systems, choice of processes and available tools I):J.
In a culture that stresses participation and autonomy, the function of the management should
not be solely to control but also to provide support and encouragement. ?ecisions on
broadly#based issues, such as the implementation of 1M and ",M or the introduction of a
new reward convention for employees, are made only after the management has entered into
a dialogue with those affected. he managers will provide overall direction for the work that
is clearly targeted and engaging. heir tasks will be those of consultants, mentors and
coaches to help the employees avoid unnecessary waste of effort so that they can
%i- increase their task#relevant knowledge and skills,
%ii- formulate creative, unique and appropriate performance strategies
that generate synergistic process gains.
hey should also be responsible for answering requests from employees to ensure that the
resources required for increasing performance are available when needed.
Management processes, including training should be designed from the point#of#view of the
recipient and with a built#in
mechanism for feedback. !mployees must be encouraged to set measurable but attainable
goals. !mployee training should focus on appropriate multi#skills and knowledge.
!mpowerment of employees by devolved authority to make decisions
autonomously %i.e. subsidiarity- regarding ZM, so that each individual D ownsE the
particular process phase, is necessary. he objective throughout is continual improvement.
*(
1"B+G!M 45!M!C
Introducing 1M in a developing country, such as Malaysia, is still considered a major
challenge due to several non#conducive environments in the adoption and implementation
process. Gack of commitment and leadership from top management has always been
discussed as one of the main factors that inhibit the implementation of 1M. Bn the other
hand, resistance from the employee involved in the 1M program is also regarded as another
major reason that e0plains why 1M fails in many local organi/ations. !mployees refused to
endure e0tra maintenance responsibilities without any rewards, recognition or compensation.
Gack of proper and adequate training and education about 1M also contributed another
significant percentage to the pitfalls of 1M implementation in a developing country.
"!4!5",. M!.B?BGBAS
5 structured survey approach has been used as the research strategy in this study where
questionnaires regarding the implementation of 1M were distributed to industrial
manufacturers. he questionnaires was divided into several sections to capture all the
relevant data and information such as
%)- Brgani/ation profile,
%&- 1M background,
%:- !0tent of current 1M activities,
%;- 4uccess of 1M and echnological comple0ity in the organi/ation.
he target respondents of this study are the industrial manufacturers %operation6maintenance
managers- in Malaysia, especially from the north %1enang, 1rai and $ulim industrial areas-
and from the central region %industrial estates of 4hah 5lam, 1uchong and 1etaling Kaya-.
4ample organi/ations selected from the >MM ?irectory of Malaysian Industry and involved
in various manufacturing products from consumer electrical O electronics products, food O
beverage, medical O health care products, precision tooling O machining, rubber and plastic
based products, semiconductors and so on.
.!B"!I,5G >"5M!7B"$
+ased upon the literature review on 1M implementation and its practices, a research
framework of Implementing 1M in a Manufacturing Brgani/ation is developed. he main
purpose of this study is focused on the 1M Bperational 4trategy and its inter#relationship
with other !0tent of 1M Implementation. he research framework is illustrated in >igure )
below.
.S1B.!4I4 ?!@!GB1M!C
hree hypotheses have been generated in this study to test the relationship of the research
framework that has been elaborated earlier. It will test the relationship, especially, between
the Bperational 4trategy and !0tent of 1M Implementation.

In the literature review it has been postulated that organi/ations, which e0tensively carried
out .uman#oriented strategy while implementing 1M, would have a higher !0tent of 1M
within the organi/ation. +asically, when more efforts are devoted to .uman#oriented
strategy, such as prominent commitment and leadership from the top management, total
involvement from all employees will, definitely, result in a higher achievement of 1M. he
*)
more an organi/ation implements the 1rocess#oriented strategy %e0ample, process O
equipment improvement, equipment standardi/ation, re#layout, etc.-9 the maintenance
knowledge becomes higher and the !0tent of 1M implementation will be enhanced.
.owever, the .umanoriented strategy has a greater impact compared to the 1rocess#
oriented strategy towards the !0tent of 1M implementation. In brief, the three hypotheses
of this study are summari/ed as follows8
.)8 !0tent of .uman#oriented strategy will be positively related to !0tent of 1M
implementation.
.&8 !0tent of 1rocess#oriented strategy will be positively related to !0tent of 1M
implementation.
.:8 .uman#oriented strategy has greater impact on !0tent of 1M level then 1rocess#
oriented strategy.
,BC,G34IBC
It can be concluded that the e0tent of both the human and process oriented strategies would
lead to higher 1M implementation in the organisation. .owever, the impact of .uman#
oriented 4trategy is found to be greater then 1rocess#oriented 4trategy in fostering higher
e0tent of 1M implementation as the changes and adoption in the organisation are much
more related to human issues. hus the management has to balance both these strategies in
order to achieve the ma0imal effect of implementation.
*&
TOPC$
). +54I, ICA"!?I!C
&. +54I, 4!14 IC M5IC!C5C,! M5C5A!M!C
:. M5IC!C5C,! 1G5CCICA 5C? ,BC"BG 4S4!M
;. ?B,3M!C5IBC
<. M5IC!C5C,! 1"B?3,I@IS 5"!5 >B" IM1"B@!M!C


.! M5IC!C5C,! 1"B,!?3"!
his will be taken to be the maintenance action and its timing for a particular item %e.g. valve replacement at :#
monthly intervals-.
he basic procedures are shown in table .he maintenance can be carried out to prevent failure %procedure )
to :- or as a result of failure %procedure ;-, opportunity maintenance being use in conjunction with the other procedure
listed. ?esign#out is not strictly maintenance but is an option open to the maintenance manager the main decision is
one of timing since, in most cases, the action cannot be decided until after the maintenance demanding event has
occurred.
5G!"C5I@! M5IC5C5C,! 1"B,!?3"!4
IMICA 5,IBC
). >i0ed time maintenance 5djust or repair or replace at fi0ed periods
&. >i0ed time maintenance Inspect via equal or variable inspection periods then adjust6repair6replace on condition
:.,ontinuous inspection Inspect on continuous basis then adjust6repair6replace6on6condition
;. Bperate to failure replace or repair after failure
<. Bpportunity maintenance inspect item at time based on some other items maintenance6inspection period
IMICA
>IM!? IM! M5IC5C5C,!
Maintenance actions that are carried out at regular intervals, or after a fi0ed cumulative output, fi0ed number of cycle
of operation etc. his includes item replacement, repair and major strip down for inspection %the author regards
condition#based maintenance as inspection carried out without major strip#down-. In most cases, the periodicities,
actions and resources for such work can be anticipated and scheduled well beforehand with ample time tolerance.
.owever , this procedure is only effective where the failure mechanism of the item is clearly time dependent , the item
being e0pected to deteriorate over a period much less than the life of the unit to which it belongs.
Bbviously, the more predictable the time to failure, the more effective is fi0ed time maintenance. 7hether this is
necessarily the best procedure, even then, will depend upon the cost of the alternative effective procedure. If approach
of the failure is detectable, condition based maintenance is effective and in the majority of cases more economic.
,omparing fi0ed#time maintenance to#operate# to failure, a rough guide is that fi0ed#time#maintenance is only
effective where the total cost per maintenance action is substantially less than that of operating to#failure. he
implication is that Pfi0ed time maintenance and adjust or replace is an effective procedure for simple replaceable
items, but is inappropriate for comple0 replaceable items because of their far less predictable time#to#failure and their
high cost. 7ith such item, it is often better to seek a suitable condition monitoring technique.
,BC?IBC +!4!? M5C5C5C,!
*:
5n attractive concept is that the proper time for performing maintenance ought to be determinable by monitoring
condition and performance , provided of course, that a readily monitor able parameter of deterioration can be found .
he probabilistic element in failure prediction is therefore reduced or, indeed, almost eliminated, the life of the item
ma0imi/ed and the effect of failure minimi/ed. Bne of the major benefits of this policy is that the resulting corrective
maintenance can, in most cases, be scheduled in the short term without production loss.
he monitoring parameter can provide information about a single component, or provide
information that can indicate a change in any number of different components %e. g. vibration from a turbo
generator-.the more specific is the information provided, the better from the point of view of maintenance decision
making.
,ondition#monitoring can be applied in three ways8
4imple inspection # qualitative checks based on look, listen and feel %e.g. rope worn6rope note worn-.
,ondition checking # done routinely and measuring some parameter which is not recorded but is only used
for comparison with a control limit. 4uch checking only has value where there is
e0tensive e0perience of identical systems.
rend monitoring # measurement made and plotted in order to detect gradual departure from a norm.
he desirability of the monitoring, the technique used, and its periodicity will depend upon the deterioration
characteristics of the item and the costs involved.
4imple inspection procedure is sufficiently effective to account for *(N of a typical condition# based#programmed.
4uch procedure is usually cheap and carried out as part of a routine. he important points are that the cost should
insignificant, relative to the cost of repair and that the periodicity should be insignificant, relative to the cost of repair
and the periodicity should be sufficiently short to detect minor and often une0pected problems before they develop.
Bne form is Pshort period blanket inspection of on#line plant carried out in order to identify obvious minor defects
before serious damage can arise.
,ondition checking can be used in such items as brake pads which have well documented linear deterioration
characteristics of the type shown in fig. +ecause of the predictability of the time failure the actual inspection need not
begin until well items life. he subsequent periodicity can be adjusted to give the desired level of warning using a
control limit. Bbviously, the deterioration characteristics shown figure :.' are preferable to the more usual
characteristics show in fig :.* in as much as failure developing period , Plead time ,is longer .the greater the
inclination towards shorter inspection period and, in special cases, continuous monitoring %e.g. vibration monitoring
of turbo# generators-.
rend monitoring is most effective where little is known about the deterioration characteristics. 4ince this is mostly
case, it will be appreciated that trend monitoring is of widest application. !0perience is accumulated as monitoring
progresses and, when enough knowledge of deterioration characteristics has been acquired, condition checking can be
substituted for trend monitoring.
In general, monitoring techniques can be used for both condition checking and trend monitoring. it will be appreciated
that condition monitoring routines are predetermined and, in most cases ,can be carried out with little or no unit6plant
unavailability %I.e. they can be categori/ed as no line maintenance -. if the resulting corrective maintenance requires
*;
the plant to stopped this can short term scheduled to minimi/e inconvenience %see fig :.=-
Bperate#to#failure
Co action is taken to detect onset of, or to prevent failure. he corrective work that results occurs with random
incidence and with little or no warning. 7here such maintenance results in plant failure the failure can cause a
complete plant outage, the determination of the Pbestactionis both difficult and e0pensive. his will be discussed
below under Pcorrective maintenance
Bpportunity maintenance
iming is determined by the procedure for some other item in the same unit or plant. ,onsideration of this possibility
is a major in formulating the maintenance plan for the whole plant.
+54I4 4!14 IC M5IC!C5C,! M5C5A!M!C
There are si7 systematic steps in maintenance mana&ement as follow
). ?etermine critical plant units and production
windows.
&.
:. ,lassify the plant into constituent items.
;. ?etermine and rank the effective procedures.
<. !stablish a plan for the identified work.
'. !stablish a schedule for the on#line maintenance, the off#line window maintenance and the shutdown work.
*. !stablish corrective maintenance guidelines.
T5e de,#r!("!o o. "5e,e ,"e(, !, a, .o11ow
). ?etermine critical plant units and production windows 8 his step determines the nature of plant process
continuous or batch type
5nd classify the plant into units and construct a flow diagram. his step ,arry out a simple consequences of failure
analysis and estimate the ,ost of lost production. It determines the production plan, the pattern of plant operation and
the e0pected plant and unit availabilities. %4ee diagram ).)-.
&. ,lassify the plant into constituent items8 his will be a complete classification in the case of critical units, and a
partial classification in the case of non critical units.%see diagram ).&-.
:. ?etermine and rank the effective procedures8 ?etermine the effective procedures for each item and best of these
form a cost and safety viewpoint. In general procedures for simple items will be reasonably certain and will be mostly
on#line maintenance. .owever this will not necessarily be so in the case of comple0 items and the best approach is
often to try to identify a simple method of condition checking.
*<
;. !stablish a plan for the identified work8 his method will depend upon whether the plant is series#continuous, product
flow, batch product flow, batch, or vehicle fleet. he large series#continuous plant presents the most difficult problem
because it has to be considered as a whole for scheduling9 the item in a batch plant or fleet can be considered
individually.
<. !stablish a schedule for the on#line maintenance, the off#line
7indow maintenance and the shutdown work8 In the case of on# line maintenance the work can be scheduled
independently down to item level such work is usually classified by geographical area, trade and carried out short item
routines.
Bff#line work can be carried out in production#windows %small jobs clustered at unit level- or as part of an agreed
shutdown %major jobs clustered at unit level- and can usually only be scheduled by agreement with production.
+ecause of the inevitable changes in the production plant it is important that this should be fle0ible.
In both cases the aim is to smooth the maintenance workload in order to make the best use of in#plant resources.
.owever, if a condition based# maintenance plan is in operation then only the inspection checks can be scheduled
because timing of the subsequent work depends on the results of these checks. .owever, it is important to take into
consideration the appro0imate periodicity of the subsequent corrective work load when planning resources.
'. !stablish corrective maintenance guidelines8 In spite of preventive maintenance there will be some une0pected
failures, e.g. those due to items which fail randomly and without monitor able warning. 4uch failures have to be
planned for in items of spares and manpower. In the case of critical units, careful consideration must also be given
to repair methods, documentation and decision guidelines.
*'

,harge vessel +atch reactor >ilter 7ash vessel ?ryer

Mate rial containment 5ddition, circulation 5gitation emperature
,hemical
5nd transfer of materials control control

Motor ?rive belts Aearbo0 ,oupling 4upport frame 5gitator
paddle
,asing Aears 4hafts +earings 4eals Bil 1acking

%>ig).:, >unctional model of a batch chemical plant-
**
M5IC!C5C,! 1G5CCICA 5C? ,BC"BG 4S4!M
Maintenance planning and control system is an important task in the industries during these days. 4o it become very
important to keeping in mind the concept of Maintenance planning and control system so that we can maintain the
industry efficiently.
here are some important components of maintenance planning and control system8#
Kob planning8 # 1lanning of maintenance job basically deals with two questions 7.5 and .B7 of the job. 7hile
answering these two questions many other supplementing questions need to the answered i.e. Dwhere the job to be doneE,
or Dwhy the job to be doneE etc. 5s such, it is a very important component and here the engineering knowledge must be
applied e0tensively to the maintenance jobs for development of appropriate job plan using most suited techniques, tools
materials etc.
he efficiency and cost of further action, like job scheduling, e0ecution and control etc. depends8
$nowledge about jobs, available techniques and facilities etc.
5nalytical ability.
,onceptual logical ability.
,reativity.
Kudge mental courage etc.
4teps of job planning8 # he main steps to be followed for proper job planning are as below8
%)- $nowledge about equipment, job, available techniques and facilities etc. $nowledge about equipment and
jobs can be obtained from#

a ?rawings.
a Instruction manuals.
a Kob manuals.
a !0perience on similar machines6jobs.
It is not absolute essential that persons doing job planning must have practical e0perience of that machines6job but it is
advisable to associate such e0perienced persons also.
%&- Kob investigation at site8 # 5fter having the some knowledge about the machines and the jobs through step %i- looking
at the actual job at site gives a more clear perception of the total job. his also helps in ascertaining the following8

a 1hysical access and space limitations#this may call for jobs like removing covers guards and stoppers or cutting a
portion of machine housing etc for actual approach .

a 5ssessing if the available lifting and handling facilities are enough to be brought in and in that case, space for
bringing those facilities.

>acilities for disposal of water, oil, gases which may leak or come out during dismantling.
4pace for keeping the dismantled parts and safety enclosure for machine under repair.
%:- ?evelopment of repair plan8 # 1reparation of the step by step procedure which would accomplish with the most
economical use of time, manpower and material. It includes making of sketches line diagrams and net works etc. 7eight
*=
of each items, to be lifted, should be determine beforehand and planning should be done to avoid double and repeated
handling of same items. he total job should be broken into smaller measurable activities at this stage.
%;- 1reparation of list if materials required8 # ?epending on defects list and condition monitoring results a list of spare
components needed to be changed should be made. 5 list should also be made of all rubber items like seals, packing
and rings and other items which are likely to damage during dismantling. 5nother list should be made of all consumable
which would be needed during and after the jobs like cotton waste, nuts, bolts, grinding wheels and lubricating oils etc. 5
separate list should be made for all tools and tackles needed for the job.
Kob Manuals8# Kob manual are almost permanent record about methodology, spares, tools etc. for all maintenance job
which may have to be done in future. >ollowing steps are generally involved in preparing job manuals8
%i- Make a list for all major and medium maintenance job of the plant and codify them for proper identification.
%ii- >or each code job, a separate job manual is to be made which should include the following8
a 4equence wise break up of the job into activities with instructions, as may be needed to carry out those. his also
takes care of fits and tolerance for dismantling and assembling etc.
Gist of tools tackles, spares and consumable needed to carry out each activity.
Gist of special tools and facilities, jigs and fi0tures and handling facility for each activity.
*2
Cecessary preparatory job which must be done before starting the main job i.e., depressuri/ing the hydraulic and
pneumatic system taking level of machine foundations and fi0ing other bench marks and removing operational
items like dies, jaws etc.
Cecessary safety and environmental protection instructions.
ime estimate for job and job activity.
5gencies required doing the job activities with special reference to agencies outside the shop or outside the plant.
%:- !ach job manuals thus prepared, should be cross checked and okayed by maintenance in charge.
%;- ?ifferent job manuals should be bunched and sent to respected6potential users.
%<- Cecessary updating of job manuals, as and when needed in consultation with users of same.

3ses8 # a 7hile actual planning of particular maintenance job, the job manuals provides ready information for further
micro planning.
Materials department may also use job manuals for better materials procurement strategy.
ypes of planning8 # 1lanning mainly classified into two types8#
a 4hort#term plans.
a Gong#term plans.
4hort#term plans8 # 4hortterm planning of maintenance job generally includes small preventives maintenance, small
defect rectification, adjustments and small corrective maintenance which are planned and scheduled on day to day basis.
he persons6group engaged for short term planning, besides planning and scheduling, ensures timely resource availability
and maintenance engineers as well as proper documentation. 4ome of the short term listed below8#
Gubrication plans and schedules.
a 4mall defect rectification.
@ibration monitoring of critical equipments.
hermography and other diagnostic analysis.
he planning and scheduling of such jobs are done, taking into consideration of plans of different departments, without
necessitating the stoppage of running equipments or on schedule off days or on days equipment are not used.
Bccasionally small shut downs for some urgent repair, may also be included in short term planning. It should be ensured
that during one isolation of the equipment, jobs of all associated departments are completed. hese are knows as short#
term plans, not only because of small duration but also because these are not planned much in advance.
Gong#term plans:-Gong term planning includes the planning functions6jobs which are helpful in maintenance original
level of performance in term of output, efficiency and reliability. It also includes the maintenance jobs which lead to
improved availability and capability of equipment, improved maintenance facilities and safety and environmental
protection measured. 1lanning of such job often include better of design, material, techniques and infrastructure etc.
=(
>ollowing are some of the long term maintenance plans commonly used in industries and plants8
Major repair and capital repairs.
5nnual overhauls and statutory overhauls.
"enovation and revamping.
Modernisation.
<#year rolling plans.
4trategic maintenance planning.
,orporate planning.
urn around planning.
%)- Major repair and capital repairs8 # he term DMajor repairE is often confused with the term D,apital repairE.
Major repairs includes job required to restore seriously deteriorated or broken down equipment to a condition of
usability for its desired functions. In edition to maintaining the essential quality of the equipment, these repairs may
include minor modifications. DMajor overhaulsE may be another term to mean the same.
D,apital repairsE normally means major dismantling and nearly rebuilding of equipment which amount to big
jobs involving lot of resources. he value of an asset normally builds up to original value. In capital repairs, job of
major repairs nature, need to be done at that time, are also included.
%&- 5nnual overhaul and statutory overhauls 8# 5nnual overhaul, though may include some of major repair and capital
repair job, differ slightly to the e0tent that annual overhaul are planned yearly D5ction 1lanE and are taken at nearly
predetermined time after the e0piry of about one year from last overhauls. 4uch overhauls take three types of jobs8#
%a- Bverhauling and defect rectification jobs e0iting at that time or postponed for that overhaul.
%b- 5nnual maintenance cleaning, painting and corrosion prevention jobs pf equipment, machines, tanks, reservoirs
and filters etc.
%c- 5nnual operational cleaning and painting job like removal of mill#scales, dusts, debris, guards and dies etc.
%:- "enovation and "evamping8 # "enovation and "evamping are nearly the same type of jobs. hese differ vastly
from D,apital "epairE as renovation6revamping jobs are rarely after the equipment condition has deteriorate to such
an e0tent that any amount of major repairs, capital repairs do not yield desired result and maintenance become
uneconomical. hese jobs include almost total rebuilding of the equipment comple0 using either the similar type of
technology and equipment or improved type of technology and equipment.
%;- Modernisation 8 # Modernisation job for whole plant or a section of the plant are planned when the operation of that
plant become uneconomical. Modernisation job may be necessitated when the e0iting plants, equipments and
technologies become outdate and better alternatives are available. .owever plant engg. ?epartment is more
responsible for planning such jobs and maintenance engineers play supported role to ensure good maintainability and
reliability.
%<- >ive#year "olling 1lans8 # In industries generally a five year rolling plan is made for major overhauls and
replacement of components and assemblies. 4uch plans are essential as procurement of some of the major spares,
components and assemblies may required long lead time and some of the component may become obsolete. !very
year this <#years plan is reviewed and update for ne0t <#years. he period of such plan may vary from three years to
ten years depending upon type of the plant6industry.

%'- 4trategic Maintenance 1lanning8 # 4uch planning jobs mainly include long term planning of service and facilities
of maintenance function like steam supply and fuel supply etc. to take care of anticipating need in future or possibility
of known#availability of same service in future.
=)
hese also include long#term planning for replacement of some other equipment which help in case of maintenance
and better availability of plant and equipment.
@:A ,orporate Maintenance 1lanning 8# his is also a reference type of plan like <#years or )(#years rolling plans, but is
made to suit the corporate planning goals of production and total operation of production and total operation of major
plants. 4uch plans include jobs like major repairs, replacement which may have to be taken at different times. Many of
these jobs require lot of money and hence need approval from corporate office. ?etailed planning and scheduling of these
jobs starts when the time frame of is actually.
P3"###? "#/ CO#TRO3
>or any activity some aspects of materials planning and control and some aspects of capacity planning and control are
necessary. he articles on ,apacity Management and Materials Management provide further reading on these topics.
Get us now consider this in : dimensions and then draw some analogies with previous e0amples in other articles on the
site8

he above cube breaks down into = segments, four for Aarages and four for "e#manufacturing. In addition there are also a
few other important aspects of the environment, which are important. @olume and mi0 have a profound effect on the
control systems needs.

?"R"?E$
21 Materials Plannin&
his is generally a low volume or repair to order environment, where materials are ordered when required and some
common long lead#time items may be forecast and scheduled. 4ome difficulties may be encountered in forecasting due to
the low volume and intermittent demands. ,ontrol systems techniques that are appropriate include8
U"e#order 1ointU with blanket orders and call#offs for the common long lead time items
U"eplacementU for the e0pensive long lead time items %when you use one, replace it-
=&
U& +in 4ystemsU- for the low value items
4afety stocks may be dictated by the need to support 5BA %5ircraft Bn Around- or @B" %@ehicle Bff "oad-
requirements or support for other critical plant or computer systems.
>hy not to use sophistication and MRP2
4ome sophisticated modeling systems have been developed to try to forecast when units are likely to arrive for repair or
need repair, coupled with a second model to determine which parts are likely to be replaced in each unit. his is used to
create a +ill of Material to drive an M"1) provisioning system.
7e would not use a provisioning model in this way e0cept to establish initial stock holding requirements at new
equipment acquisition or product launch. his technique requires two forecasts8
). 1roduct returns
&. ,omponent replacement rates
It is a lot easier to forecast demand based on historical usage at component level by recording issues from stores, %and
probably just as accurate-. he last time we took out an M"1) system which required product forecasts and replaced it
with a simple reorder#point system at component level it reduced stock by &(N, and stock#outs by a factor of )([
$tock $trate&y
.owever there is a trade off between service level verses the cost of holding stock. his balance can be tipped in your
favour in several ways8
5ssess the likely risk of 5BA6@B"6,ritical failure situations arising out of a potential stock#out.
,onduct a 1areto analysis of historical demand by ranking demand in volume times value sequence. he
resulting list can be split into the following categories8
U5U items %the highest volume 6 value, typically &(N of the items or less-
U+U items %the ne0t highest category, typically :(N of the items or less-
U,U items %the lowest volume 6 value, typically <(N of the items-
Then use the analysis as follows:
). !0pensive 5BA6@B"6,ritical failure stock
$eep enough to satisfy immediate demands within lead#time. +ut no more[
"eplenish when used, using a pull mechanism %$anban 6 "eplacement.$eep analysing demand, and resetting
reorder levels.
&. Ine0pensive 5BA6@B"6,ritical failure stock
Co worries. $eep plenty to reduce the reorder frequency and risk of stock#out.
:. !0pensive Con 5BA6@B"6,ritical failure stock
7hy are you stocking this at all\ Br if you insist, keep one aircraft6vehicle6equipment set just in case.
=:
;. Ine0pensive Con 5BA6@B"6,ritical failure stock
Cot too worried about this.
+eware of seasonal demand. >or e0ample more aircraft fly in the summer, so you need to watch out for that. +uild stock
in the spring, and reduce stock %efore the autumn.
Reorder Duantities
7e call the period just before reorder Uthe point of 'ulnera%ilityU. It is particularly relevant in assembly type work where
the number of shortages of raw materials can be dramatically reduced by increasing batch si/es of the U,U items without
any real penalties in inventory stock holding. he mathematics is also very simple. If an assembly contains )(( parts and
each is replenished weekly, the risk of shortage is on average )(( per week. If the U,U items are replenished annually
%typically <(N of the part numbers- the risk reduces to <) per week, i.e. <( part numbers are still vulnerable every week
but <( part numbers are now only vulnerable once every <( weeks %one per week on average-. If you then increase the
batch si/e of the U+U items %typically :(N of the items- to say & weeks, you reduce the risk of shortage further to :' per
week %&( U5U risks Y )< U+U risks Y )U,U risk-. If you then halve the batch si/e of the U5U items to twice per week
replenishment, you have taken out about <(N of the inventory carrying costs while simultaneously reducing the risk of
shortages by about ;<N. In practice there is little e0tra risk simply because these U5U items are usually produced on a
flow type basis. +ecause the cost of material shortage is significantly higher than any other costs in terms of lost output
and dissatisfied customers %who may go elsewhere-, you get the benefits of 1areto from both ends %reduced inventory
costs and reduced shortages-.
In practice we have used this technique many times now and have produced benefits at one end of the spectrum of a ;(N
reduction in stock holding without reducing a very high service level. 5t the other end of the spectrum we have reduced
shortages by a factor of )( whilst simultaneously reducing stockholding by )(N. he last time we did this in an
aerospace company 5BA disruption to production virtually disappeared, and service levels doubled %hey were bad to
start with-. 4tock levels did not increase.
It depends on your current situation as to which benefit you will see.
.our final cautionary notes:
). 7atch out for short shelf life products. Sou will end up throwing them away.
&. 7atch out for bulky items. hey may be cheap but they will still fill your stores.
:. In most repair and overhaul situations it would be very difficult to appro0imate to a normal distribution pattern
from the very uncertain demand. ?emands are statistically UsparseU, so you cannot use statistical approaches
reliably.
5 refinement to this technique is to forecast service intervals and quantities required at those intervals separately. In
principle this is attractive since it seems more likely to schedule the arrival of the parts when required and to allow for a
high probability that the demand at that time will be covered by stock. .owever it is still forecasting based on historical
demand and therefore suffers from that fundamental inaccuracy. +ut it is a sensible simplification of the M"1) approach
above.
;. ?o not ask your plant supplier what spares they recommend you should hold for your critical plant, or if you do
halve what they say because the last time we did this we had slow moving stock around for the life of the plant.
41 Materials Control
=;
he call#offs above may be via $anban systems. Btherwise stores stock recording and control is essential, particularly for
attractive items with a black market value. 4trenuous efforts must be made to keep the shop clean and unused materials
returned to stores routinely. 5 technique very valuable in this environment is U8$FsU, which aims to improve
housekeeping. he last time we did this we filled many skips with rubbish and racking for the rubbish[ 7e reduced the
floor space utiliEed %y a%out one thirdB we started to %e a%le to find thin&s in stores and we stopped orderin& thin&s
we already had. his is particularly important if lot traceability is required.
$hop floor control and trackin& of jobs, features significantly in all but the smallest shops.
!ersion control is important in all safety critical situations, to plan and implement changes and to isolate problems. In
particular suspect batches may require to be recalled 4quirreling
It was once the proud boast %and it made the works maga/ine- that our repair shop could service a :( year old vehicle
from floor stock. I was horrified that we could do this[ 5nd for three reasons8
he stock should have been used or thrown away twenty five years ago
!ven if we had kept the stock, it should have been in the stores
7e did not charge an economic cost for the service if you take into account the cash tied up for :( years.
51 Capacity plannin&
here is a classic dilemma in maintenance work. If the maintenance people are busy the place is not earning money. If
they are not busy they are usually first on the redundancy list. 4cheduling of maintenance work e0ists against a
background of unusual breakdowns, which have to be accommodated in a hurry. he only )((N reliable way of
managing this situation is to have spare capacity either through sub#contracting or through re#deploying maintenance
personnel to other duties when not busy. his is very difficult unless routine scheduled maintenance predominates.
5nother problem is the lack of routine scheduling information %standard methods and times- for non#routine operations. 5
typical problem of this type of work measurement is the establishment of Uloose standardsU, which if used to drive
incentive schemes gives rise to serious problems. 5s an aside8 incentive sche$es are no substitute for good supervision.
.owever Urule of thumbU time estimates and Rou&h Cut Capacity Plannin& is possible. 4kills are the usual resources
that need to be scheduled, not plant. If otal 1roductive Maintenance %see below- is being utili/ed scheduling becomes
simpler because a higher proportion of the work is scheduled rather than breakdown dominated.
61 Capacity Control
his again is a classic dilemma. ?o we do the urgent first or the very urgent\ >requently a job will be shelved to
accommodate a more urgent one. his process can degenerate into very cluttered workshops and high work#in#process
stock holding. "unning a strict good housekeeping regime of operations control can alleviate this. he only satisfactory
way to avoid building unwanted work#in#process is to use a simple form of input-output control. I.e. do not issue another
job until the last is out of the way8 Bne way which we have used to control work in process is to restrict the number of
work or kitting trolleys to one per individual so that they can only be working on one job at a time. he trolley is used as a
$anban to request the ne0t job from stores, when the previous job has been started. 5lso it is common to hold some sub#
assemblies in work#in#process. 3nless these require significant lead#time to assemble it is hard to justify holding sub#
assemblies and this situation often leads to cannibali/ing one job to make a more urgent job. Bur advice is do not do it
unless you really have to, and draw a U,ommonality reeU to assess the need
he use of loading boards is common in this environment. More recently electronic loading boards with pick and place
facilities are being used.
4kill management may be very important to maintain % 4carce 4kills Management-
=<
81 Other mportant aspects
Tools mana&ement is essential with U$hadow Boardsused to ensure tools can be located when needed and in safety
critical situations such as aircraft assembly it ensures that they are not lost.
he use of housekeeping techniques such as U8$FsU is appropriate. /ia&nostic skills and possibly tools are required. hese
may be required to support remote dia&nostics. ,onsiderable effort may be required to establish this infrastructure.

Re-manufacturin&
21 Materials Plannin&
his breaks down into : parts8
a- Managing the unsalvaged units
4ufficient stock must be maintained to support underlying demand for reconditioned units.
b- Managing the stripped component stock to keep balanced sets of parts for rebuild.
3sing new items instead of salvaged items is costly. 4o in order to maintain components it may be necessary to strip
further units. Sields must be used as an input to calculate material requirements. 3ltimately imbalances are bound to
occur. In this case an occasional purge may be required to restore the balance, by either throwing away surpluses or
buying new components depending on the economics of doing so.
c- Managing the rebuild
+ecause there is a greater volume, medium to large batch rules apply with many similarities to original production 6
assembly operations. >orecasting is easier and there is more repetition. M"1) systems may be appropriate where demand
can be forecast with some certainty. 7e have encountered situations where a negative bill of material was constructed to
accommodate yields e0pected from salvaged units which were then offset against the requirements for remanufacture.
his method was later abandoned in favour of change of manufacturing strategy where salvaged units were stripped as
soon as possible to determine availability of good components.
Aenerally "e#order 1oint techniques are most appropriate for forecasting demand, with blanket orders6schedules for
repetitious component requirements.
41 Materials Control
,all offs are more likely to be via $anban control because of increased repetition. It is vital to monitor yields in this
situation to ensure that the correct numbers of unsalvaged stocks are sufficient to satisfy demand. "e#manufacturing
creates a special problem for lot traceability. If a part has been recycled and it fails, what is the cause of the failure\ Is it
the original manufacture or the recycling process\
51 Capacity Plannin&
+ecause more time standards on work content are available %however informally- estimating jobs is easier. +ecause
processes are more predictable "outes %"outings- can be established to use in shop loading. +ecause there is repetition,
='
demand is also smoother. he combined effect of these factors makes capacity planning easier. he use of U3e'el
$chedulin&U is recommended.
61 Capacity Control
+ecause demand is smoother and more repetition is present, skills management is less important and in fact more
deskilling or automation may be possible. 4witching effort to stripping rather than rebuilding can accommodate troughs
and conversely reducing stripping to satisfy immediate demands can accommodate peaks.
81 Other important aspects
4ometimes the organi/ation may be slightly schi/ophrenic, flipping from job shop to volume producer. 5t this point it is
worth considering some method of segmentation along resource utili/ation lines.
Effect of 'olume and mi7
@olume increases are much easier to manage than mi0 increases. 7hen volume increases, segmentation of the product is
possible and automation of the ring#fenced product implemented. $anban systems are most appropriate in this situation.
>orecasting of demand is also easier.
5s mi0 increases the overall business comple0ity increases. ,onsiderable thought needs to be given to the proliferation of
variety

Measures of Performance
Zuality is a given these days, however faults measured in 1arts per million is less applicable to this situation because
volumes are generally lower. It is more common to measure the utili/ation of the equipment that is the result of the
maintenance process rather than the process itself. .owever a useful technique is U.R"C"$U ,orrective 5ction 4ystems
or Bperations Management for ,ontinuous Improvement- which aims to follow up all faults to prevent a recurrence.
Bften maintenance has a primary goal of meeting demand, which can often be measured directly in up#time, %of
computers-, down time %of critical plant-, on the ground time %of aircraft-, or off the road time of vehicles-. ,ontributory
measures to this include response time, and mean time between failures. his may need categori/ation by critical plant or
critical components.
he cost of maintenance can be significant so the productivity6costs are important measures. .owever productivity
presupposes a standard output such as vehicles, repairs, etc. 7hich as we have said before may be difficult to establish
because of the variable work content involved. his often causes up#time etc. %above- to be used as a substitute. Bne key
feature of productivity is cash utilisation, which can be significantly influenced by good materials and capacity
management above.
>urther information on performance measurement may be found in U>ocused Improvement 4ystemsU.
Replacement Theory
It is a fact that the cost of maintenance can become prohibitive as plant, vehicles, aircraft or software ages. "eplacement
theory dictates that this is monitored and that there is a planned event to replace the item before it actually dies but also
before the cost of maintenance becomes uneconomic. It is not the intention to e0plore the mathematics of this here but
=*
simply to point out the fact that it can be cheaper to replace than maintain or continue to maintain, so you should not
automatically choose the repair option, and you should keep records of repair costs.


D?B,3M!C5IBCE

?ocumentation is necessary for the
operation of a system such as that of fig. <.)'
is obtained in fig.'.). 4uch documentation
system can be manual or computeri/ed. It can
be seen that the preventive maintenance
system feeds information into the work order
system which in turn feeds into the
maintenance control systems. 5 key document
is the work order because it is this that both
initiates work and conveys maintenance
control information back to the planning
office.

==
1!"@!CI@! M5IC!C5C,! ?B,3M!C5IBC8
Most preventive maintenance documentation systems are based on similar principles but differ because of the nature of
the process and si/e of the plant. he principles involved are the best discussed with reference to the traditional
manual .his is based on the plant unit and is suitable for small machine shops or transport fleets where the unit is clearly
identifiable, can be scheduled separately and the plan is mainly inspection based. he system is made up of three main
parts, a plan for each unit, specification for each job %or routine- and a schedule for the plant. he maintenance plan is a
list of the identified maintenance procedures, for a unit of plant, classified by trade and frequency. Kob specification can
be written for8
5n individual procedure# if the procedure contains a large work contents or some particular technical difficulty.
5 job #a set of off#line procedures on one unit and to
be carried out by section.
5 routine # a set of on#line procedures %usually simple inspection or lubrication- in one area and involving
one trade and carried out on one occasion.
he Maintenance schedule is arranged with the aid of a bar chart and with the aim of achieving a balanced
workload. Kob of short term period city%less than a month- is not included and is scheduled separately usually by first line
supervision. he great advantage of the bar chart is that the preventive load for a plant can be seen and smoothed to
required profile.
In most of the traditional preventive documentation systems the bar chart is used mainly for scheduling job into
some form of card inde0, some time called the Pjob tickler file. he inde0 made up of <& slots, can then be used directly
for scheduling and control of preventive work i.e. each week it feed a weekly load of job specifications, plus a summary,
in to the work planning and system. !ach specification is accompanied by a 7ork order on its way to the shop floor. he
inde0 can be updated and rescheduled as necessary on the return of the job specification cards. "esulting corrective work
is noted on the completed work order and stays in the work planning system.
In the case of large process plants, e.g. the batch chemical plant or paper machine, scheduling of preventive work is much
more comple0 and not always inspection#based. here is a need to integrate the scheduling of maintenance work on
many units of plant and, if a manual system is being used, a bar chart must be used for the initial schedule and to control
the completion of work. he work load is read off the bar chart and the specifications are then selected from their file and
sent, as before, to the shop floor.
5 simplification of the traditional system to use a work manual containing coded job specifications which is
made available to the maintenance trade force. he work order from planning office will contain a brief job description
and a job specification code.
he main variation on the foregoing traditional ideas is the e0tension of the job tickler file into a
maintenance job catalogue. he latter includes all preventive job %frequency job- and as wide a range of corrective jobs
%non frequency jobs- as possible. !ach job, and routine, in the catalogue is listed under the relevant plant inventory
number and the job specification includes job method standard time, frequency, trade%s-, spares, tools and indication of
whether it is on#line or off#line. If it is offline that has to be shut down in order to complete the job as indicated. 4uch
information, stored in a computer file, can form basis of a preventive maintenance scheduling program which can also
take in to account resource constraints, the possibility of multi#unit scheduling, opportunity maintenance and deferred
work. his is more detailed and fle0ible approach than that of the traditional systems and is appropriate for large comple0
process where a computer is already being used for data processing.

/OCUME#T"TO# .OR >OR* P3"###? "#/ CO#TRO3:
he main documentation and planning aids used are as follows are as follows8
7B"$ B"?!"8 P5 written instruction detailing work to be carried out
he information that might carry is summari/ed. 7hen used to its full e0tent it can act as a work request, a planning
document, a work allocation document, a history record %If filled- and as a notification of modification work completed.
=2
7B"$ "!Z3!48 P5 document requesting work to be carried out It usually carried such information as person
requesting, plant number, plant description, work description, defect, priority, date requested.
KB+ ,55GBA3!8 5 file of job specifications %preventive and corrective- as previously described.

1G5CCICA +B5"?8 >or planning preventive work a bar chart as already
described. >or planning corrective work a work order loading board covering a hori/on of up to )& weeks, in units of one
week and having pockets to allow the work order to be scheduled in to the appropriate week.
5GGB,5IBC +B5"?8 5 short term planning board showing men available on each day of one week which allows
jobs to be allocated to man. his can be supplemented by the allocation board.
2(
7B"$ 1G5CCICA8 "equests for emergency work made verbally to area supervision that raises work orders.
"equests for deferred corrective work and modifications are made to the planning office on work request
forms. 5 work order is raised directly or by reference %if held- to the job catalogue. he priority of such work is
described at weekly plant meeting and the loaded in to the corrective maintenance planning board.
1reventive work is planned and scheduled as e0plained in the previous section. he preventive maintenance system
feeds a weekly load of work In to the work planning system to be considered for the weekly program# me alongside the
corrective and modification work. 7ork order is raised %by reference to the job catalogue- and work not to be carried out
is re# scheduled using the planning board.
7ork orders are raised in triplicate, one copy remaining in the planning office, one with the supervisor and sent as the
order to the tradesman. 5s the work order is returned through the system the copies can be filled or destroyed. 5n
important point is that for effective control the e0ecution of all work should be covered by a work order and copy of all
completed orders should return to the planning office.
,BC"BG8
he main information necessary for control comes from the completed work order and stores requisition
forms. he main information necessary to complete the work order %job completed, hours taken, action taken etc- comes
from the tradesman and is checked and augmented by the supervisor.
7ork control is completed by the daily updating of the allocation
board and weekly up dating of the planning boards are classified by trades and analy/ed to establish overtime hours and
proportion of the time spent on planned and unplanned work. If a work measurement scheme is in operation the work
analysis can e0tend in to performance calculation for the consequent report.
he first level of plant condition control operates via. Information passed from the tradesman to the supervisor either
verbally or through the work order. he supervisor is responsible for seeing that the cause and consequences section of
the work order is completed by the tradesman and, where this is not the case, for establishing the reason. he second level
of condition control operates through the planning office and depends partly on an effective history record. his in turn
depends upon the information on causes, cost and work conveyed on the work order on the transformation of this
information at the right level to the history record.
he information should also include item affected, components replaced, possible causes, downtime and total
hours worked.
If the history record is to perform both its functions it must be easily accessed and interrogated. In addition, it
should be designed to provide automatic indication of the main problem area.
,BMM!C48
2)
he documentation system that has been outlined does not have to be used in its totality. 5ny part, or parts,
can be used as needed. >or e0ample, many companies use only the preventive maintenance system plus a limited plant
inventory and history record. Bthers use only the work order system and that mainly as a mean of conveying work control
information for incentive schemes.
4BM! M5CC35GS B1!"5!? ?B,3M!C5IBC 4S4!M4

5 ,BM1G!! 4S4!M
5 system in use in many plants in the 3$ is that devised by the 1roduction !ngineer "esearch 5ssociation
%1!"5- and described by ,arder
1"!@!CI@! M5IC!C5C,! 4S4!M
5n inspection#based plan consists of a basic service at regular intervals with additional services at various
multiples of these intervals. >or e0ample, the plant for "hodes press is made up of three#monthly and yearly inspections.
!ach job %or routine- for each unit is entered onto a job specification card and separated, where necessary into
mechanical, electrical and lubrication. he work is than scheduled, using a bar chart which allows the weekly work load
in term of inspections, etc.
7B"$ B"?!" 4S4!M
7ork orders due to production defects are raised in triplicate by the production supervisor who complete the
top part of the order and thus request maintenance work. In the case of emergency the top copy passes direct to the
maintenance supervisor %generally following a verbal request- and the second progress copy is sent to the planning office.
he bottom copy is retained until the job is completed, and then destroyed. >or all other work both top and progress
copies are sent to the planning officer.
>or all the listed jobs the planning office carries out necessary planning checks, on availabilities of spares, special tools,
plant etc.
,BC"BG
7ork control is achieved through the return of the work order and inspection reports and updating of the
allocation board and planning office schedules the maintenance supervisor checks and signs the work orders and
inspection reports %entering the maintenance cost codes- before returning them to the planning office. he job
specifications are returned to their file for future issue.
?B,3M!CIBC 4S4!M +54!? BC KB+ ,55GBA3!
5 unique electro#mechanical method of card storage and selection has been developed by $alama/oo. his coupled
with photocopying, allows a maintenance documentation system to be developed around a catalogue
of these jobs, the majority of which can be covered by individual job specifications. he following description will
concentrate on the features since the other part of the system are similar to those already described.
1G5C IC@!CB"S 5C? IC>B"M5IBC +54!
!ach unit of plant is numbered, using a method similar to that of the 1!"5 system. 1lant Inventory "ecord ,ards
and history record cards are
held in visible#edge files.
1!"@!CI@! M5IC!C5C,! 4S4!M
his also divides the preventive work into on#line routines carried out without special planning and off#line jobs that
do need such planning.
2&
he specification for each off#line job %there might be a number of hese for each unit- is entered on a blank
punched edge card. Included on he card is a list of spares and references to manual and drawing required.
Bn the reverse side of the card is the units description, identification number, location details, etc. and job information
such as frequency, priority and trades and time required. !ach job is scheduled into an appropriate week %with the help of
a twelve#month bar chart- and the card is punched at that week number. Bther selection information is then punched on
the card edges and might include identification number, trade, job type, priority, etc.
he on#line work is classified into area, trade and periodicity. >or each area, a card is made out for every routine,
with periodicity, scheduled week or month, and other details punched on the appropriate edge inde0.
$OME COMPUTER$E/ /OCUME#T"TO# $=$TEM:
,omputer technology has developed e0tremely rapidly over the last ten years and a wide variety of computeri/ed
documentation systems have become available. !arly applications in the field of maintenance where based on e0pensive
and powerful mainframe machines. he development of on#line maintenance systems has been rendered possible by the
introduction of improved data#handling techniques for storing and receiving data. 4uch techniques allowed time sharing,
i.e. on line use of computer by a number of users. In addition the advent of less e0pensive but relatively powerful
machines has meant that computer can be dedicated solely to the maintenance function.
Maintenance system currently in operation falls into the following categories.
%)- hose which use a main#frame, joint with other departments or sites, on a time sharing basis. 4uch systems are
restricted to large organi/ations that can justify the procession of a main frame computer. he maintenance system is
multi#user i.e. several terminals %@?3s- are connected to the computer, but often has low priority of usage and although
the computer is on#line the response time might be slow.
%&- hose which use a dedicated mini#computer backed up by a time shared main#frame computer %distributed
processing-. he maintenance system is multi#user and, to facilitate immediate access, the main functions are on the mini.
4uch systems are e0pensive but permit adoption of the full software package required by a large plant.
%:-hose which use a dedicated mini#computer only. hose systems are
mostly multi#user and can provide on#line processing of the totally of documentation required by medium si/e and small
plant. 4uch systems are less e0pensive than those of %&- above and the majority of computeri/ed maintenance packages in
current use fall into this category.
%;-hose which use a micro#computer. hese are relatively cheaper. .owever, they are only single user, small core
storage, and their main storage is on floppy disks. he processing capacity of a computer is indicated by the si/e of its
core storage. ypically a micro has :& $bytes core#storage, a main#frame =((( $bytes %)((( $bytes b )mbytes b&((
pages 5;-. he main storage of a computer is held on a disk, usually on hard disk ,onnected permanently to the
computer. 5 floppy disk can hold only <(( $bytes of storage, which is much less than can be held on a hard disk. >loppy
disk are stored and loaded into a disk drive as required. Micro#computer is therefore slow in operation and only allows
full documentation in the case of a small plant. If however there is limited to one aspect of documentation, e.g.
compilation of history record, this can be tackled on a considerable scale.

Micro#computers of increased power are beginning to appear on the market. hese allow hard#disk storage and may
be connected to a small number of terminals. 4uch machines are cheaper than those of %:- and will compete in the same
market. 5nother development is the network connection of a number of micro#computers %distributed processing- to form
a multi#user system.
MAINTENANCE PRODUCTIVITY AREAS FOR IMPROVEMENT

7orkshop8 he workshops are the essential parts of the maintenance organi/ation9 their structures as well as the
equipment located there in largely depend upon the type of machines to be maintained. .owever, the general layout of the
workshops should be more or less of similar type. he basic characteristics of a good workshop are the following8
It must have all the basic facilities to enable effective utili/ation of equipment used in plants.
2:
It must have all the facilities for carrying out minor modifications to parts of the equipment.
It must have a research and the development wing for devising new methods of test and repair.
It must have provisions to ensure quality of raw materials to be used for maintenance work.
It must have the requisite facilities for training the maintenance personnel working in the field.
It must maintain a proper record system for the utili/ation of manpower and equipment at its disposal.
It must have sufficient place for future e0pansion to accommodate modern facilities.
4tore8 4tores form an important part of the maintenance function. >or completion of maintenance work on time, the
supply of the spare parts must be maintained regularly through the stores organi/ation. +efore setting up a store,
classification of the equipment must be done to identify each machine and its particulars and the particulars of its spare
parts. !quipment history cards also help in planning the stores. he working conditions of equipment may also affect the
requirements of the spare parts. >or efficient working, it is advisable to store the items category wise, e.g. mechanical,
electrical, hydraulics, and so forth the duties of stores in charge are very crucial since success of maintenance
organi/ation largely depends on ready availability of spare parts.
Gubrication8 Gubricants are used in almost all#mechanical systems and equipment and they play a very important role in
maintenance engineering. he proper use of Gubricants contributes towards increased life of equipment and plant. o
achieve a sound quality of maintenance, therefore, the maintenance management needs to take care of the following8
o ensure that all the components or parts are provided with proper type and quality of
lubricants.
o select the correct type of lubricants as well as the lubrication systems.
1eriodic monitoring of the quality of lubricants in use and their replacement with in the
specified time period.
1roper storage and handling of lubricants.
4pares control8 >or the success of the maintenance function, the following important
factors need to be looked into
1rovision of accurate quality of spare parts.
"eduction in the non#moving lot of spare parts.
Maintaining the optimum level of spare parts inventory.
he following are a few steps to minimi/e the range and scale of spares.
!fficient indenting of spares.
,ontrol over consumption.
"econditioning6overhauling of used spares.
3se of management techniques.
3se of management techniques.
!ffective involvement of maintenance6operational personnel.
2;
COMPUTER #TE?R"TE/ M"#TE#"#CE $=$TEM
5n intelligent computer integrated maintenance system and method includes an electronically stored parts manual which
contains a hierarchical listing of all parts in production machines, and a maintenance operations computer controller
which includes a maintenance schedule management subsystem, an engineering change control subsystem, a parts manual
management subsystem and a spares inventory management subsystem. he maintenance schedule management
subsystem obtains a schedule of actual and planned production, and groups maintenance activities in order to minimi/e
lost production time. he engineering change control subsystem integrates engineering change activities with maintenance
activities to ma0imi/e production time. he automated parts manual is also updated to account for engineering changes.
he spare parts inventory management subsystem orders spare parts based on predicted maintenance rather than on
prescribed inventory levels. 1roduction efficiency is thereby ma0imi/ed, as is the use of available maintenance
manpower. !ngineering changes are easily accommodated and spare parts inventory is kept to a minimum.
$OME C3"M$
). 5 computer integrated maintenance system for use with a computer integrated manufacturing system, the computer
integrated manufacturing system including a computer controller for controlling a plurality of production comple0es each
of which includes a plurality of production machines, the manufacturing system computer controller including an
electronically stored master schedule file having therein a schedule of actual production and planned production for the
plurality of comple0es, the manufacturing system computer controller controlling the plurality of production machines
based upon the planned production in the master schedule file9 said computer integrated maintenance system comprising8
an electronically stored parts manual, containing a hierarchical listing of parts in the plurality of production machines in
the plurality of production comple0es and maintenance operations computer controlling means, communicatively
connected to said electronically stored parts manual and adapted to be communicatively connected to the master schedule
file, comprising8 first means for obtaining a schedule of actual production and planned production for the plurality of
comple0es from the master schedule file9 second means for identifying parts in the hierarchical listing to be maintained
during a predetermined time period, and a corresponding maintenance time during the predetermined time period for each
identified part, based upon the obtained schedule third means for reassigning the corresponding maintenance times for the
identified parts, based upon the hierarchical listing of parts in the electronically stored parts manual, to reduce lost
production time for each of the plurality of comple0es9

fourth means for generating a revised schedule of planned production based upon the reassigned maintenance times for
the identified parts9 and fifth means for communicating the revised schedule of planned production to the master schedule
file9 whereby the plurality of comple0es are controlled based upon the revised schedule of planned production to allow for
maintenance activities while ma0imi/ing production.
&. he computer integrated maintenance system of claim ) wherein said third means comprises9 means for determining
when a comple0 is inactive, based upon the obtained schedule9 and, means for reassigning the corresponding maintenance
times for at least some of the identified parts to the time when the comple0 including least some of the identified parts is
inactive.
:. he computer integrated maintenance system of claim ) wherein said third means comprises means for grouping at
least some of the corresponding maintenance times for identified parts in a comple0, to reduce lost production time for
that comple0.
;. he computer integrated maintenance system of claim : wherein said third means further comprises means for
identifying a critical part to be maintained in a comple0 and a corresponding critical maintenance time, and means for
reassigning at least some of the corresponding maintenance times for other parts in the comple0 to the critical
maintenance time.
<. he computer integrated maintenance system of claim ) wherein said third means further comprises means for
determining manpower needed to perform maintenance according to the reassigned maintenance times, and means for
further reassigning the reassigned maintenance times to permit maintenance to be performed with available manpower.
'. he computer integrated maintenance system of claim ) wherein said electronically stored parts manual further
includes an end of life indicator for selected ones of the production machines, the end of life indicator indicating that the
associated production machine is scheduled to be replaced or modified9 and wherein said third means comprises means for
2<
eliminating the corresponding maintenance for parts in machines having an associated end of life indicator, to thereby
reduce lost production time.
*. he computer integrated maintenance system of claim ) wherein said electronically stored parts manual further
contains means for identifying the type of maintenance for a part to be one of time dependent maintenance or usage
dependent maintenance9 and wherein said second means comprises means for identifying parts to be maintained and a
corresponding maintenance time for identified parts having usage dependent maintenance based upon the obtained
schedule.
=. he computer integrated maintenance system of claim ) wherein said second means further comprises means for
accepting a user selection of said predetermined time period.
2. he computer integrated maintenance system of claim ) wherein said electronically stored parts manual further
contains an image file, including a corresponding image for parts in the hierarchical listing.
)(. he computer integrated maintenance system of claim ) wherein said hierarchical listing comprises a complete bill of
materials for each comple0.
.E3/ O. TGE #!E#TO#
his invention relates to equipment maintenance and more particularly to computer integrated maintenance systems and
methods.
B"C*?ROU#/ O. TGE #!E#TO#
,omputer integrated manufacturing systems are widely used in state of the art manufacturing operations for controlling
the operation of many manufacturing or production machines in one or more manufacturing plants. he machines may be
organi/ed into production lines each of which may produce a particular product. he machines in a production line may
be functionally interconnected so that if one machine is unavailable due to a failure or due to maintenance activity, the
entire production line may be unavailable for production, or the production capacity of the line may be limited. ,omputer
integrated manufacturing systems may be used to control the production machines and the flow of materials from one
machine to another during the course of producing a product. ,omputer integrated manufacturing systems may also be
used to schedule the purchasing of raw materials necessary for producing a product, and for developing a master schedule
for all the machines in order to produce the desired amount of product at each production line at the desired time.
In order to increase the production efficiency and manufacturing fle0ibility of large manufacturing operations, computer
integrated manufacturing systems are now being widely installed and used. "epresentative computer integrated
manufacturing systems are described in 3.4. 1at. Cos. ;,:;',;;' to !rbstein et al. entitled UManagement and 5nalysis
4ystem for 7eb Machines and the GikeU9 ;,;*&,*=: to Kohn stone et al. entitled U>le0ible Manufacturing 4ystemU9
;,;<*,**& to .aynes et al. entitled UManagement ,ontrol 4ystem for >orming AlasswareU9 and ;,=(:,':; to Bhno et al.
entitled U1roduction 1rocess ,ontrol 4ystem in Cewspaper 1rintingU.
,omputer integrated manufacturing system which includes multiple levels of computer control to organi/e and
disseminate the information for controlling shop floor level systems is described in 3.4. 1at. Co. ;,=&*,;&: to +easley et
al. entitled U,omputer Integrated Manufacturing 4ystemU, assigned to the assignee of the present invention, the disclosure
of which is hereby e0pressly incorporated herein by reference. In +easley et al., manufacturing scheduling data and data
relating to process, product and material specifications as well as bills of material are generated in an upper level
computer system and refined and downloaded as needed to lower level computers controlling the shop floor process. he
upper level computers are capable of communication with the computers on the lower levels, and computers on the same
level are capable of communication with each other as needed to pass information back and forth.
he art has heretofore suggested adding a maintenance module to a computer integrated manufacturing system in order to
integrate maintenance of the production machines into the computer integrated manufacturing system. >or e0ample, the
.aynes et al. V**& patent noted above discloses a glassware production control system which also provides maintenance
information. he Bhno et al. V':; patent noted above also describes a production process control computer which includes
a materials and maintenance control subsystem. he materials and maintenance control subsystem controls the timing of
2'
parts replacement. he timing of parts replacement is calculated in advance from the cumulative total of the predicted life
of consumable parts and operation time and displayed or printed so as to enable order placement for parts. he
maintenance system includes a parts list file containing a list of all consumable parts in the system. he parts list file is
updated by collecting information on the operation of the machine so that residual service lives of consumable parts may
be calculated. 7hen parts replacement is needed, the quantity of parts used for replacement is deducted from the stock
volume in the parts inventory file. 7hen the stock volume of parts in the parts inventory file becomes smaller than at the
time of parts ordering, an order form slip is printed. In other words, a Upoint of orderingU system is provided. 5 running
total of elapsed time is computed and compared with the durable life of parts so that the time and date of actual
replacement can be calculated and a schedule of maintenance may thereby be derived.
he art has recogni/ed the potential advantage of providing a computer integrated maintenance system for a computer
integrated manufacturing system. Indeed, for a sophisticated computer integrated manufacturing system, which controls
many production machines in many production lines in one or more plants, it is almost essential that maintenance be
controlled and scheduled by computer. 3nfortunately, heretofore known computer integrated maintenance systems did not
intelligently integrate maintenance into manufacturing. >or e0ample, in presently available computer integrated
maintenance systems, the computer may schedule a low priority maintenance operation such as an oil change for one
machine in a production line even though a major maintenance operation for the production line may be taking place a
week later. 4imilarly, a Upoint of orderingU system for spare parts may order new parts when the number in inventory falls
below the number stored in the system, even though in reality the machine is scheduled to be replaced in the near future.
4imilarly, a computer integrated maintenance system may prescribe a number of maintenance operations to be performed
at one time even though insufficient manpower e0ists for performing all of that maintenance at that time.
5ccordingly, there is a need for an UintelligentU computer integrated maintenance system which does more than merely
schedule maintenance by adding total accumulated hours and scheduling maintenance when the hours reach a
predetermined number. 5n intelligent maintenance system must also do more than merely function as a point of order
system to order maintenance parts when inventory falls below a predetermined number.
he need for an intelligent computer integrated maintenance system has become more pressing as the comple0ity of
computer integrated manufacturing systems has increased. 5s the number of machines being controlled and the number of
simultaneous manufacturing lines being controlled increases, it becomes difficult for a human to understand the overall
work flow in sufficient detail to intelligently modify maintenance instructions generated by a computer integrated
maintenance system. 4imilarly, it is difficult for humans to assimilate all of the maintenance data and intelligently modify
spare parts ordering instructions generated by a point of ordering system.
$UMM"R= O. TGE #!E#TO#
5n intelligent computer integrated maintenance system is provided for use with a computer integrated manufacturing
system, where the computer integrated manufacturing system includes a computer controller for controlling many
production lines, each of which includes many production machines for producing a particular product. he
manufacturing system computer controller contains an electronically stored master schedule file which includes a
schedule of actual production and planned production for the production lines so that the manufacturing system computer
controller controls the production machines based upon the planned production in the master schedule file.
5ccording to the invention, the computer integrated maintenance system includes an electronically stored parts manual
which contains a hierarchical listing of parts in the plurality of production machines in the plurality of production lines.
he electronically stored parts manual does not merely contain a listing of consumable or maintenance parts. 1referably it
contains a complete bill of materials for each machine in each line. he bill of materials is contained in a hierarchical
listing, which breaks each machine into assemblies and breaks each assembly into its subassemblies, down to the level of
individual parts. 1referably, the electronically stored parts manual includes corresponding image files which illustrate the
hierarchical listing of parts at each level.
2*
he intelligent computer integrated maintenance system also includes a maintenance operations computer controller
which is connected to the electronically stored parts manual and is adapted to be connected to the master schedule file.
5ccording to the invention, the maintenance operations computer controller includes four subsystems8 %)- a maintenance
schedule management subsystem9 %&- an engineering change control subsystem9 %:- a parts manual management
subsystem9 and %;- a spares inventory management subsystem.
he maintenance schedule management subsystem generates a master maintenance schedule. he maintenance schedule
management subsystem obtains a schedule of actual production and planned production for all of the production lines
from the master schedule file. It also interfaces with the parts manual management subsystem to identify parts in the
hierarchical listing to be maintained during a predetermined time period, and also identifies a corresponding maintenance
time during the predetermined time period for each identified part based upon the obtained schedule of actual production
and planned production.
.owever, rather than generating maintenance orders based solely upon the predetermined time period calculated for each
identified part, the maintenance schedule management subsystem of the present invention reassigns the corresponding
maintenance times for the identified parts based upon the hierarchical listing of parts in the electronically stored parts
manual, so that lost production time for each production line is reduced. 5 revised schedule of planned production, based
on the reassigned maintenance times, is then generated and communicated back to the master schedule file in the
computer integrated manufacturing system. 5ccordingly, the plurality of production lines is controlled based upon the
revised schedule of planned production to allow for maintenance activities while ma0imi/ing production.
5ccording to the present invention, the maintenance operations computer does not merely schedule maintenance time
based upon the schedule of actual production and planned production. "ather, the maintenance times identified during a
predetermined time period are rearranged based upon the hierarchical listing of parts in the electronically controlled stored
parts manual to reduce lost production time for each production line. >or e0ample, the production schedule for each of the
production line is analy/ed to determine whether the line is scheduled to be offline during a time interval which is
sufficiently close to the calculated maintenance time to allow maintenance to be postponed or moved forward to the
machine offline time.
he present invention reali/es that production and maintenance both compete for the use of machines, and accordingly
schedules non#critical maintenance tasks for machine down times so that production time is ma0imi/ed. 4imilarly, when a
number of maintenance tasks at a production line are scheduled for a short time interval, the maintenance tasks are
grouped together so that they may all be performed simultaneously. >or e0ample, a most critical maintenance task may be
identified and all other maintenance tasks for the line may be scheduled to be performed at the same time as the critical
maintenance tasks. ?own time is thereby minimi/ed.
5ccording to another aspect of the invention, after a revised maintenance schedule is calculated, the manpower
requirement for performing the maintenance is calculated. If the manpower requirement e0ceeds the available manpower,
the maintenance tasks are rescheduled in a hierarchy of importance6criticality, so that a group of tasks may be performed
with the available manpower.
he intelligent computer integrated maintenance system also intelligently schedules maintenance at the end of the
machine life. In particular, an indication is provided to the computer integrated maintenance system when a machine is
reaching the end of its useful life, either because the machine is worn out or because the machine is scheduled to be
replaced or modified in an upgrade. he intelligent computer integrated maintenance system postpones selected
maintenance activity on machines which are scheduled to be taken out of service in the near future.
he intelligent computer integrated maintenance system of the present invention also allows iterative maintenance
operations planning to be performed. >or e0ample, strategic planning of maintenance operations for a multi#year period
2=
may be performed in order to determine manpower requirements, spare parts requirements, and actual production
capabilities which include maintenance time. Maintenance operations planning may also be performed for intermediate
range periods such as a yearly period in order to determine parts ordering requirements, manpower availability and the
like. hen, maintenance operations planning may be performed for a short range period such as daily, in order to generate
daily maintenance schedules. 5ccordingly, maintenance operations planning may be performed in long#range,
intermediate range and short#term iterations.
5s described above, the intelligent computer integrated maintenance system of the present invention also includes a parts
manual management subsystem which controls a parts manual file. he parts manual file contains a complete bill of
materials for each production machine. he electronically stored parts manual file does not merely include consumables
or maintenance parts. "ather, it includes all parts in the machine in a hierarchical listing, commonly using <#' levels of
parts, so that a complete subsystem description of the machine is available. 1referably, an electronically stored image of
each level is also stored with the listing of parts so that maintenance parts can be identified and repairs are simplified.
5ccording to the invention, all parts in the hierarchical listing are categori/ed as either UconsumableU, UreplaceableU,
UgenericU or Unon#stockedU. ,onsumable parts are those for which spare parts planning is based on the number of hours
used. >or replaceable parts, the mean#time to failure rate versus the actual run time determines the maintenance schedule.
>or generic parts such as screws, bulk inventory is maintained and a point of ordering system is used. >inally non#stocked
parts, which are typically not maintenance parts, are typically not stocked and are not ordered until actually needed.
he electronically stored parts manual file may include more than one part number for each part in the system. In
particular, each part may include a Ugeneric parts identifierU or Uinternational part codeU to indicate that a generic, often
less e0pensive industry standard part may be used instead of the manufacturerVs specified part number. 5lso, a Usubstitute
part numberU may be used to indicate that more than one part may be used in the particular maintenance operation. 5lso a
Uchanged part numberU may be used to indicate that as of a certain date, or other change criteria a revised part number
should be used as part of an Uengineering change controlU procedure described below. he electronically stored parts
manual may be downloaded to local computers associated with each production machine so that a hierarchical description
of each associated production machine may be found in its associated computer. he electronically stored parts manual
may also be included in a personal computer, on ,?#"BM or other storage means. he electronically stored parts manual
may be included in the same computer as the intelligent computer integrated maintenance system or in a separate
computer therefore.
he spare parts inventory management subsystem of the intelligent computer integrated maintenance system allows
ordering of spare parts based on predicted maintenance, rather than on the prescribed inventory levels. 4pare parts
budgeting are also accommodated. 5ccording to the invention, generic parts are ordered using a conventional order point
system when the inventory quantities fall below a predetermined order point. >or replaceable parts, however, the parts
requirements are calculated based on time phased manufacturing requirements and mean#times to failure. he automated
parts manual file is used to e0tend the production plan to parts replacement. 5 requirement is generated to replace a part
in the week that it will e0ceed its mean#time to failure, and order forms for the parts are generated, or the parts may be
ordered electronically.
he engineering change control management subsystem interfaces with an engineering change control file in the computer
integrated manufacturing system in order to intelligently accommodate engineering changes. he engineering change
control file indicates engineering changes to be made in the production machines in order to upgrade the machines or
reconfigure the production machines to produce new products. his schedule of engineering changes is integrated into the
maintenance schedule management subsystem, the parts manual management subsystem and the spares inventory
management subsystem. >or e0ample, at the end of a machineVs useful life, scheduled maintenance is postponed or
eliminated. 4imilarly, maintenance parts are not ordered for these machines even though inventory falls below a
predetermined level, to allow for depletion of inventory when the machine is taken off line. 5ccording to the invention,
engineering changes may be phased into maintenance operation by controlling the phase#in by a specified date, by a
specified spare parts inventory level or by assigning engineering changes to be made by a specific maintenance request.
22
he computer integrated maintenance system and method of the present invention allows maintenance operations to be
integrated into production in an intelligent manner. 7hen used, production efficiency is ma0imi/ed as is the use of
available maintenance manpower. !ngineering changes and machine upgrades are easily accommodated and spare parts
inventory is kept at a minimum with minimum waste of spare parts.
he computer integrated maintenance system and method of the present invention need not be used in a production line
environment as described above. Indeed, the computer integrated maintenance system and method of the present invention
need not be used in connection with a computer integrated manufacturing system, or in connection with manufacturing at
all. he computer integrated manufacturing system and method of the present invention may be used in connection with
any collection of machines or apparatus which are used to perform a primary or main function and also require
maintenance. 4uch a collection of machines will be referred to herein as a Ucomple0U.
5 Ucomple0U, according to the present invention, may include a production line as described above. 5 comple0 may also
include a plurality of independent machines which are not structurally or functionally interconnected in a production line.
>or e0ample, the present invention may be used to control maintenance in a machine shop having many independent
machine tools.
5 Ucomple0U, according to the present invention, may also include machines which are not related to production or
manufacturing at all. >or e0ample, an airplane or automobile fleet operated by an airline, car rental agency, and
corporation or government agency is a comple0, according to the present invention, because the airplanes or automobiles
have a primary function but also have maintenance requirements. 4imilarly, a building may include a bank of elevators
which also have maintenance requirements. he present invention may be used to intelligently control airplane,
automobile or elevator maintenance, consistent with the primary function.
The .uture of CMM$
?uring the past two decades advances in ,MM4 technology have changed forever the face of maintenance management
and how we, as an industry, conduct our business. 7e now have the ability to automate many of our standard maintenance
processes, analyses in detail various parts of our businesses, and the performance of our equipment. 7e are able to plan
shutdowns, technical change projects and operational maintenance procedures down to a very fine level of detail. 5s
maintenance management generally makes up around ;( # <( N of operational budgets, the savings made possible from
increased efficiency and reduction of waste are staggering.
.owever one of the sad realities of this e0traordinary rate of change is that the business processes have not adequately
kept pace with the advances in technology. hus we unfortunately have the situation whereby the capabilities of many
,MM4 systems far e0ceed the capabilities of maintenance organi/ations to fully utili/e them. Most companies with
,MM4, either as M"B stand alone or sub modules of !5M and !"1 systems, are not reali/ing the full benefits of their
investments.
4o with this in mind, what is the future of ,MM4 systems\ .ow far down the road to the optimal state of maintenance
management can they take us\ 5nd furthermore, how far do we want them to take us\ Many of the technological
requirements of the future maintenance departments e0ist today. +ut, as with the standard functionality of ,MM4, the
level of acceptance is not yet there to make this economically viable.
he future of ,MM4 lies within three key areas of development8
). 5daptability to maintenance Management 1rocesses and Increased >unctionality
&. 4oftware Bperating and ?elivery 1latforms
:. Interoperability with standard office software and process systems
)((
7hile there are definitely other areas that will also advance markedly, it is within these three areas that there will be the
greatest gains to an organi/ations bottom line. 5nd with these will come the possibilities of further services not yet
accepted in the worlds of maintenance.
"dapta%ility to Maintenance Mana&ement Processes
Maintenance Management 1rocesses
7hen we buy a ,MM4, or purchase the modules of !nterprise level management systems, what we are really buying is a
philosophy on how to e0ecute our maintenance management. hese have started to converge greatly over the past five
years and the thin line between !"1 and !5M systems is beginning to disappear as far as the functionality of
maintenance modules are concerned. he current systems in these spheres, although e0tremely advanced, generally lack
functionality covered by the other in areas of maintenance and or operational planning.
4oon all systems, from a maintenance viewpoint, will be basically !nterprise Management 4ystems and be generic
enough for effective application within either the capital intensive industries of mining, oil and gas, defense and utilities
as well as into the standard !"1 spheres such as manufacturing and process line planning and control.
5ll will be based on standard maintenance procedures and business processes and will have the screens and fields
necessary to support these. >or e0ample, the generic process of operational maintenance can be reduced to four steps.
>le0ibility will need to be included to ensure that any one of the four paths to e0ecution can be taken, with each step
having its pre#determined series of functional and performance reporting structures built into the programs.
21nitiate
@ia work request systems or other work vetting mechanisms, or directly into the work order streams. his can also be
managed automatically as results from condition monitoring tasks or as tasks pre#programmed to coincide with machine
hours or other operational statistics.
41Plan
>or work orders that meet or e0ceed the corporate guidelines on what work orders should be planned.
51$chedule
>or all work orders meeting the corporate criteria for scheduling.
)()
61E7ecute
>or all work orders. 7ith the capability of accepting data for later use in "oot cause analysis and maintenance strategy
overviews, as well as general maintenance performance data.
5lthough the general work flows always remain the same the specifics of each installation will sometimes vary
dramatically depending on their particular approach and philosophy to maintenance delivery. 5s such the ,MM4 of the
future will need to have the ability to add or remove fields and screens as required. !ven to the point of being able to
create user specific fields.
Bne of the issues generally surrounding ,MM4 system implementation is the reports available. here can be any number
of reports required for measuring maintenance effectiveness and performance. .owever general maintenance reporting,
and analysis, is pretty much standard. .owever the client will need to be able to quickly and easily, create their own
reports in the format that they choose to do so. his functionality is generally lacking today, and with the advances in
software technology it shouldnVt be.
ncreased .unctionality
he future ,MM4 will be judged a lot harsher than those of today. 5s a minimum the following Modules or areas of
functionality will be demanded8
7ork requesting 6 7ork Brder Management
1lanning indicators and capabilities
5utomatic scheduling as per forecast man hour capacity levels.
5utomatic scheduling as per materials availability levels.
he ability to schedule work on the basis of equipment operation or condition.
,ontrol over inventory levels and materials planning to a distance of : to < years.
!quipment condition monitoring and alarm generating capabilities.
5sset register creation and the inclusion of equipment6 ,omponent tracing capabilities
1roject Management ,apabilities
4hutdown 1lanning ,apabilities
>rom this baseline the functionality demands will be centered around automating the general maintenance processes. >or
e0ample automatic weekly scheduling. >irstly inclusion of the preventative and predictive maintenance tasks that are
required, then auto inclusion of the corrective maintenance actions in order of priority. asks will be measured against the
known human resource levels available to be scheduled, as opposed to all resources available, and then in accordance with
materials availability. 5ny re#scheduling will be done on the same prioriti/ed basis.
>urther functionality developments will centre around auto creation of work orders for pre#set equipment conditions, auto
generation on various operational statistics and so forth.
5nother drawback of many of todayVs ,MM4 is that, while they cater well for the requirements of managing maintenance
in general, they rarely possess the functionality required to optimi/e maintenance performance. >or this reason there is a
wide range of peripheral or additional software for the optimi/ing of such tasks.
Many of these can be modified to interface with ,MM4 systems, however they need to be integrated in such a way that
historical data within the ,MM4 can become part of an automated decision making process. hese fall into three key
areas, all of which are vital to the progression of maintenance management as well as the downward spiral of maintenance
costs.
",M or other form of !quipment 4trategy Bptimi/ing Module
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"oot ,ause 5nalysis Modules
Inventory Bptimi/ation or ,riticality 5nalysis Module
5nd in the case of maintenance service providers, built in ,ustomer relations Managers.
$oftware Operatin& and /eli'ery Platforms
5lthough the prospect of increased automation of maintenance processes is e0tremely interesting, the area which holds
my attention is this one. he platforms of the future will be aimed at reducing hardware requirements, reducing data entry
requirements and creating applications that are more suited to working in the terrain that they are designed to manage.
Bf course the principle ,MM4 delivery platform of the future will be the internet. his technology is still in its infancy
but already shows great promise. 5lready there are a couple of e0clusively internet systems providing ,MM4 services.
!ven some of the larger systems have created internet style versions, although few are true 541Vs requiring only the
internet browser to run them.
he ne0t step is to truly integrate these with the wireless devices that are beginning to flood the marketplace. I refer here
to palmtop computers, digital video recorders or even internet enabled mobile phones. >or e0ample picture the following
scenario.
Koe Mechanic arrives at work for the day, on downloading his daily schedule to his palm top, re#scheduled as required by
plant operating conditions. .e has all of the information required to do the work in his palm. Materials, procedures, safety
information, special tools required and estimates of durations and total man hours required. .e even has the option of
viewing the training video clip to revise any areas he feels are lacking.
7hile working through his first task of the day he finds a problem that wasnVt planned for. 5 quick flick through his palm
top raises the warehouse requisition and the material required and if available, which it will be as the inventory has been
optimi/ed by the built in inventory optimi/er, it is delivered to him within )< minutes of it occurring to him.
Bn completion of his task he then punches in, or scans, any relevant failure codes and completion commentary, inclusive
of any tips to do the task easier and then closes or reschedules the work order as required. his data, after any required
revisions, is immediately updated on the work order template for that task if it e0ists.
Bf course while working on the job at hand, a higher priority task can be sent to his palmtop workstation, or he even has
the option to create further work requests or work orders if he so requires. 5ll without leaving the job site and without the
need for any paperwork at all.
.ow many times have you seen failure of ,MM4 due to poor computer literacy skills of supervisors or other key users\
In my time working with ,MM4 systems I have yet to see this level drop. 1eople, despite the advances in technology, are
often not inclined to learn basic computation skills, for whatever reason. 5nd in any case, they e0ist to do what they do
best, fi0 and maintain equipment in an efficient and safe manner. 7hy draw them needlessly away from their comfort
/ones\
>urther advances will eventually arise in the areas of barcode usage. 5lthough it is now widely used there are always
e0iting new developments in this area that will grow in their acceptance as time passes. 5n e0ample here would be the use
of bar#coding devices for work order creation and completion. 5n operator, on noticing a fault, will be able to scan his
series of barcodes relating to the equipment that he is operating. his will then create the work order required with a
standard description and the relevant work order description for that task.
nteropera%ility with standard office software and process systems
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oday this functionality does e0ist however it is rarely direct to the database system, nor is it in a real time format. In
order to capture all of the data required by operational and conditional decision making modules, it is necessary to have
some form of interface with plant or equipment operating systems. >or e0ample inputs from engine monitoring devices, or
inputs from plant and production monitoring ?,4 systems.
5s mentioned many of the solutions on the market place today are able to accommodate this form of data interfacing,
however they do it in a batch manner. his takes away the ability to monitor operations information that may change
rapidly and require rapid reaction to that change.
he ,MM4 of the future will need to take this into account and provide for the measurement of process variables in a real
time fashion. Many ,MM4 systems may even grow to encompass the functionality of todayVs process management
technologies as well as the increased functionality required for managing &)st century maintenance.
here will also be increases in the uses of wireless technologies. >or e0ample on line interfacing with engine monitoring
systems on haulage equipment. hus even further augmenting the condition monitoring abilities of the software and its
abilities to avoid potential costly failures.
5lso there needs to be further advances in the use of standard office software. 5n e0ample here would be the widespread
usage of Aant ,hart applications. he ability to transfer data from the ,MM4 to the application and then update the
,MM4 with any changes.
The $er'ices of the .uture
7ith these advances in place the services available in the future are mind#boggling. Bne that has impressed itself greatly
on me is the possibility of outsourcing the maintenance management function in its entirety. +ut in a manner far removed
from the basic outsourcing contracts and arrangements in place today.
+y the use of web based ,MM4 a company could easily provide the functions of maintenance planning and scheduling as
well as root cause analysis and strategy optimi/ation in an outsourced manner. his could easily reduce operating costs as
one company could provide these services for any number of sites. 5s well, in this manner, they could also develop
standard work order templates and other maintenance management items that could easily be transferred from one
operation to another. hus reducing the costs of maintenance optimi/ation and system development to each individual
site.
Maintenance call centers could receive work requests or work orders, with their corresponding agreed priorities, via cell
phones telephone, email or via the clients own access to the web based maintenance management system. hey could then
coordinate their work force to best manage the work over all of the sites that they had under their control. In a world
where profits are now very dependent on the ability of corporations to control their operating costs, this could prove
e0tremely beneficial to entire industrial parks. Br even entire industry sectors.
Conclusion
5s can be seen the future of this important tool in the fight to continually reduce costs is both interesting and e0iting.
5lthough many of these developments may take a few years to become reality, the vast majority of the technologies
mentioned here are available today. 5nd with time they will become even more effective and less cost prohibitive in the
purchase stages. 5s always, what is required more than anything else is end user acceptance and understanding of the
benefits of such technologies. Bnce this is achieved then the business of maintenance can achieve a quantum leap in its
state of efficiency
.ORM"T O. REPORT#? $=$TEM
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M"#T"B3T= PRO?R"M$
he approach to a reliability and maintainability program is dependent upon many factors that include the customerVs
requirements, the business strategy of the company, and the si/e of the project etc. he effective implementation of an
"OM !ngineering 1rogram must take into consideration these and other factors. ?etailed in Mil#4td#*=< and Mil#4td#;*(
are various tasks associated to the reliability and maintainability engineering program. ,areful task selection must be
made for each particular program, to ensure that the reliability and maintainability requirements and objects are achieved.
.ow do you determine the reliability of a system, taking into consideration the mission operation profiles\ .ow do you
optimi/e the reliability %and availability- of a system with respect to the life cycle cost\ 7here should you focus your
engineering efforts to minimi/e program cost\ hese are just a few of many questions that need to be asked and answered
prior to implementing a reliability and6 or maintainability program.
Relia%ility and Maintaina%ility Pro&ram Re0uirements
1rogram requirements can be derived from the customer or the companyVs business strategy. .or e7ample:
Customers re0uirements: he customer may request specific "OM engineering tasks to be implemented. his may
include the development of reliability and maintainability models, or reliability and maintainability testing, to collected
field data. 5vailability analysis could also be a requirement.
>rom the view point of a customer, "OM performance characteristics may be critical in terms of the impact upon a
system availability, safety and cost. In one scenario the end user of a military product requires a certain amount of
confidence that a product will perform its operational function when required to do so and for a set duration. In another
scenario a commercial enterprise who releases a product to market with an inadaquate reliability, whether it is a television
or an automobile, would be severely penali/ed with warranty costs. It is also true that any e0pected unreliability issues can
be off#set by augmenting the warranty charge in a product. his only serves to dull the competitive edge of the
manufactures product. his is also true for the maintainability characteristics of a product. Inadequacies here could result
in e0cessive downtime, affecting the overall availability and6 or repairs cost to a consumer, impacting directly the product
and the companyVs reputation.
Company $trate&y: he main concern to a company could be to adopt a strategy to develop a reliable and maintainable
product. 5 key business objective must be to provide a product, which is highly reliable and maintainable, as these two
characteristics have a direct impact on a productVs operational and maintenance cost to the end user. his is commonly
referred to Gife ,ycle ,ost of Bwnership, and can be of great importance to the company, in the event it invests in a
single product or multiple products for more than one customer. his may include relatively simple standalone products
such as a television, to more comple0 electronic and mechanical systems, such as a ground based early warning radar
system.
It should also be realised that these days, many government and commercial organisations, when requesting bids are
asking for G,, data elements to be provided with a proposal submission. he G,, data elements consist of key costs
drivers, such as the reliability and maintainability performance characteristics. It is quite obvious from this, that these
organisations are not just placing the selection criteria emphasis on functional performance, but also on "OM and G,,
attributes and characteristics. If reliability and maintainability are not considered and integrated into in the product design,
it is highly unlikely that the product will stand out from the competition.
Relia%ility and Maintaina%ility Pro&ram Plan
>or more comple0 "OM programs, the need to develop a "OM program plan presents itself as a must. he
"OM program plan will identify as a minimum the following
Pro&ram re0uirements: 4pecify what the program "OM requirements are, in terms of quantitative and qualitative
objectives and also the required "OM engineering activities9
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Pro&ram scope and o%+ecti'es: ?efine the limitation of the program in terms of scope, detailing the main objectives9
Pro&ram Mana&ement: ?etail the general program management effort, in terms of 7ork +reakdown 4tructure %7+4-
and program schedule, showing relationships through organi/ation charts to other key program players and with the
customer etc.9
Pro&ram Tasks: ?etail the actual "OM program tasks that will be implemented, making reference to the specific
requirements and specifications9
nterface with desi&n en&ineerin& and other &roups: Identify the interface particularly where critical inputs are
required. hese inputs could be in the form of program milestones and engineering support data9
nterface with the customer or end user: his interface can be captured by working group reviews, telephone hot lines
and status reports9
nterface with $u%contractors: ?epending on the involvement and level of effort required from a subcontractor, key
information required may be the 1oint#of#,ontact, their deliverables and the schedule tied to their deliverables9 and
/eli'ery schedules: Gist the deliverables that are required this maybe the results or reliability and maintainability
analyses and testing results.
>hat is Operational Relia%ilityH
his field is too wide and its definition could be really hateful or too general, so I will try to embark the readers in
the Bperational "eliability %B"- ship using thinking e0ercises8
). hink in low reliability and make a list of facts associated with it %take & minutes-.
&. "ead the list created above and for : minutes try to find somebody in the company not involved with these
problems.
:. ?uring a minute make a list of people that could be beneficiaries of an Bperational "eliability Improvement plan.
;. 5re you still thinking that UORU is maintenance stuff\
7ell during several workshops held, we have found the following answers8
Zuestion )8
.acts associated with low relia%ility1
>ailures
Gosses
!mergency maintenance
Aeneral dissatisfaction
!mergency spare parts
5ccidents
Management dissatisfaction
1roduction e0tra time
Missing sell orders
Gow production
.igh job6people rotation
Gow productivity
Gow performance
Gow efficiency
7ork associated diseases
1eople 4tress
!nvironmental problems
Gegal liability
,lients penalties
+igger energy consumption
3nion problems
Butsourcing
+ad Maintenance
+ad Bperation
Gack of training
Aeneral mistrust
!tc.

he whole above adjective set is indicative of Improvement ,hances with a really high value.
>ho is in'ol'ed in the a%o'e listH
!verybody from management down, covering the whole organi/ation level.
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>ho could %e %eneficiary of an Operational Relia%ility mpro'ement planH
!verybody will be beneficiary of such kind of plan.
"re you still thinkin& that OR is maintenance stuffH
5bsolutely no I am not[.
+y now, we are clear about what B" means and who is involved in it. he companies insisting to confine B" to
maintenance department are neglecting many aspects that could improve their productivity. Bn the other side those who
are accepting B" like a collective issue and trying to improve continuously have a row of competitive advantages over the
first ones. In our e0perience like world#wide consultants we have seen that companies looking B" like a collective topic
are getting better results in their improvement plans than companies that do not, so the greater faulty attempts reside in the
second group.
Gets see B" in deep. he ne0t figure will illustrate the main idea8
5s we can see B" has four big feeders, we need to act over them if we want to have a Gong erm ,ontinuos
Improvement 1lan. his process called Bperational "eliability Improvement %B"I- generates changes in the organi/ation
culture turning it into a different organi/ation with a wide productivity sense, with a clear business vision and fact driven.
!very isolated improvement attempt in one of the four B"s feeders may bring benefits, in fact it will. +ut without taking
into account the other big factors, it is possible that these benefits could be limited and6or diluted in the organi/ation and
becoming only projects rather than transformations. hese are the typical cases of isolated implementation projects of
"eliability ,entered Maintenance %",M- that is focused in equipment6systems reliability, otal Zuality Management
%ZM- focussed and powerful in process6quality reliability, etc.
?ifferent cases are driven in the Kapanese ,ulture, where their aggressive plans of continuous improvements are using a
tool mi0ture. his allows them to go in the perfect rhythm and generate an industrial revolution in quality. +ut their ZM
is used with otal 1roductive Maintenance %1M- and visionary plans of human reliability improvements, covering this
way the four factors of B".
In the western world the stories are different. In general we have very well defined boundaries %fenced and mined-
between8 production, maintenance, human resources, engineering, etc. his isolates the continuous improvement projects,
and they are always bumping with UneighborhoodU collaboration needs. .ere we may find the limits %sometimes lethal- of
such kind of projects. .ave you ever faced one of these situations\ .ow many times have you heard from maintenance- #f
production %or"ed it %ould be %onderful, 1roduction8 That is not $y .ob and vice#versa, that sounds great but here+ it is
not possible.
7ell, some companies are daring to do it %fortunately the number is growing- and all that looked as a fantasy world is
becoming real in some companies. 7here there is a festive teamwork environment involving from maintenance to
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engineering, from delivering to purchasing departments. 7here the problems are seen like improvement opportunities and
they have been solved upon business impact rather than personal rank. 7here training is supplied upon business needs
rather than individual wishes. 7here everyone accepts his or her responsibility over productivity and the /guilty/ concept
is released over a stronger one8
>hat is Operational Relia%ility mpro'ementH
5ccordingly, we have seen an Bperational "eliability Improvement %B"I- process. his means a structured way to
improvement on every aspect involved in the B". 7hat could be reached with it\ 7e could talk a lot here, but we can
summari/e all in only two words8 mpro'ed Producti'ity.
U+enchmarkingU, U@ision6Mission statementsU, maintenance strategies reviews and Ubusiness reengineering processU are
activities really popular in these years. .uge money amounts are invested and the results many times are disappointing or
nothing. 4o, what is making B"I different\
B"I is a fle0ible tool tailored for companies looking for business e0cellence and their optimal asset management. It is a
continuous improvement process based in facts, reached by a total harmony in the tools and techniques based in risk. he
companies integrating tools, techniques and organi/ational development have been pri/ed with several millions of dollars
yearly in benefit.
5n Bperational "eliability process is a mi0ture of technical solutions, structured thinking, employee motivation and
organi/ational development. 7ith everything tied with proven first hand e0periences and hard data.
Operational Relia%ility mpro'ements
Bperational reliability is based on common sense approach towards business e0cellence. his is not a magical recipe, but
this introduces a systematic approach to eliminate the failure causes and bad reliability actors affecting the critical process
and the overall company profitability.
he workforce is who solves the problems and provides the input assuring success. +ut without commitment and
management involvement even the biggest effort will not win. he Bperational "eliability creates a new managers role8
creating the environment to get the results.
"esults may be fabulous. Cot only in improved productivity and profitability terms but also in terms of motivation,
attitudes, safety and long term understanding.
Get us see some opinions8
COperational Relia%ility is not an initiati'e - itIs +ust a %etter way of runnin& the %usiness1 t chan&es the way the
workforce thinks and acts and pro'ides the relia%ility tools to help them1C

C>hen we started with Operational Relia%ility people thou&ht they knew it all1 /oin& Root Cause "nalysis they
realiEed they had much to learn and they ha'e %een learnin&1C

M"#T"#"B3T= CRTER":
his memorandum is the first deliverable. Its objectives are to define the concept of maintainability, to describe the
factors influencing it and to define criteria by which maintainability can be quantitatively evaluated.
&. # Maintainability
Maintenance is the activity of modifying a software product after initial delivery. Maintainability is the ease with which a
software product can be modified. Maintainability is a requirement of the ,!I and 47,I specifications. Its importance
stems from the fact that M?4> will have to evolve and adapt to a changing environment over the ne0t :( years. 3sing
sound software engineering principles, the cost of maintenance can be minimi/ed.
>ollowing IG4=(J, we divide maintenance in three categories8 # corrective maintenance8 the correction of faults when the
system does not behave according to its specification9 # adaptive maintenance8 the adaptation of the system to changes in
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the operational environment while keeping the same functionality9
# perfective maintenance8 the e0tension of a systemVs functionality and improvement in the services provided.
:. # >actors
Maintainability is a component of a more general concept, software quality, which is described in terms of a hierachy %see
figure ) I!M=*J- of factors, criteria and metrics. 5 factor is a top#level e0pression of software status for management
reporting. !ach factor is described by a set of criteria. !ach criterion is measured by a set of metrics. 5 criterion may
describe more than one factor and some criteria may be measured by the same metre
.ault dia&nosis
"apid diagnosis of faults and problems in equipment is a vitally important contributor to throughput and efficiency in
production environments.
ypically, a few key individuals will be the definitive sources of knowhow for diagnosing faults. his represents a
bottleneck in the fault diagnosis process. 7hat happens if a fault arises and the key people arenVt around\ UIf only we
knew what 0 would do c.U is the plea in countless situations where things go wrong and 0 canVt be located or has just
gone on two weeks well#earned vacation.
I InnovationVs approach to improving fault diagnosis efficiency is to capture and reuse knowhow that e0ists in the heads
of the key individuals who really
how a piece of comple0 equipment works. 7e make this knowhow accessible to, and usable by, the equipment operators.
4imilar approaches have been taken before in the form of e0pert systems. he take up of e0pert systems has not been
great as theyVve simply provided rigid structures to guide diagnostic analysis. !0pert systems havenVt provided the
supportive environment needed by skilled operators in order to e0ercise their own problem solving capabilities.
Bur approach provides a rich environment of conte0t#specific supporting information closely integrated with decision
support tools based on descriptions of known fault scenarios.
*aoru shikawa
he .ish%one dia&ram is one of the many management tools created by ?r. *aoru shikawa1 Ishikawa#san was thirty
years old when the Ulittle boyU and Ufat manU bombs dropped on two of KapanVs cities. 7orking in the $awasaki
shipyards, ?r Ishikawa was also witness to KapanVs long road towards recovery and rebuilding which required a lot of
hard work coupled with innovation and creativity.
his was when Kapan turned to advanced countries such as the 3nited 4tates for ideas and techniques for application in
their own conte0t. Zuickly discarding their pre#war biases and prejudices, Kapanese businesses embraced all management
concepts developed by the 5mericans # for there was just no other way to lower their costs and boost their efficiency.
>rom an importer of knowledge and ideas, Kapan became an e0porter of the same when ?r. $aoru IshikawaVs inventions
and contributions in the management field began to be adopted by management and businesses throughout the world.
Cause - Effect /ia&ram
4imply adopting and blindly implementing 5merican management concepts were not enough. hey had to be
suitably molded and seamlessly blended with the traditional 4ogo shosha and $eiretsu business styles, one of whose
unique features is collaborative effort e0pended through small groups of people. his e0ercise took a lot of churn and
simmer. But of this process have emerged several of the groundbreaking ideas and concepts of Kapanese management9 and
they have taken up a special place in the world of management science today. Bne such tool in the realm of root cause
analysis is ?r. IshikawaVs >ishbone diagram, also known as the
Cause and Effect /ia&ram %?iagrama de ,ausa y !fecto - , as well as the eponymous shikawa /ia&ram %?iagrama de
Ishikawa-.
5s with any brilliant idea, the basic foundation of the >ishbone is e0tremely simple and practical. 3sed and understood
even by non#specialists, the ,ause and !ffect diagram is used as a team %rainstormin& tool to provoke, tease and evoke
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more and more ideas and issues %causes- to be captured that can go into any particular conclusion %effect- being reached.
7hen finished, after a few iterations of analyses, the diagram identifies and e0plains in a graphical format all the possible
causes of a particular effect. 5ll the possible causes are depicted at various levels of detail in connected branches. he
level of detail increases as the branch goes outward, which means that an outer branch is a cause of the inner branch that it
is attached to. his means that the outermost branches indicate the root causes of the problem.
Creatin& .ish%one /ia&rams
7hile drawing the chart, care is taken to have the inner branches meet a hori/ontal straight line, called the UspineU of the
chart. he statement of the problem # or the effect # is to the right of the spine inside a bo0, which makes it look like the
head of a fish. 7hen finished, the entire map resembles a fishbone.
he mandate for the collaborating team, when they sit down across the table to draw the Ishikawa diagram, is to focus on
why the problem occurs. here is no effort to look at the history or symptoms of the problem, or anything else that might
digress from the intent of the session. 7hen the team comprises members from different departments or functions, each of
them provides their own specialist view about why the problem %the Ufish#headU- occurs. It might be discovered through
this brainstorming session that there are causes common across two or more departments or functions. 1erhaps that some
causes permeate the entire organi/ation. hus, in one single snapshot, the top management gets to see e0actly why the
problem is likely to be occurring.

E0a$ple Fishbone (clic" to enlarge)

3sually, this is how a typical Ishikawa ?iagram drawing#and#analyses scene pans out8
>irst, a large writing area is put up in the center where everybody can see it. his writing area could be a flipchart or a
whiteboard.
he problem that needs to be addressed is defined. 5ll team members have to be very clear about what e0actly the
problem is. he problem statement is described clearly and succinctly in the fish head portion.
o set the ball rolling and to ensure logical control over the brainstorming process, the following fundamental blocks
are listed to begin with8 manpower, machines, methods, materials and environment # in case of a problem related to
manufacturing9 and equipment, policies, procedures and people # in case the problem facing the team relates to
administration and service. Bf course, when listing them, it should be clarified that these blocks are suggestive and not
e0haustive. hese blocks along with any other identified are major branches connecting to the spine.
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!ach member of the team then gets a chance to come up with what they think is the cause of the problem. 1er turn,
only one cause may be contributed by every member, else they simply UpassU if they canVt think of any cause in any
particular round.
!ach cause thus identified is then UhungU on the branch of the category that it belongs to. >or e0ample, if UMoisture
,ontentU is a major cause, then U?ryerVs "1MU is a cause that is hung on to moisture content.
In case the cause happens to be the cause of another cause which is already present, then it must be hung on the
branch of the latter. >or instance, UMaterialsU is a major branch that goes to the spine of the problem of U"ecurrent pipe
leakageU. U?efective measurement toolsU is a branch that connects to materials. UGack of suppliersU or U4ubstandard
supply of toolsU is a cause that hangs on to defective measurement tools.
It is also possible that one cause may be placed on several branches.
.


P"RETO PR#CP3E $G*">" /"?R"M
1areto 1rinciple
4catter 1lots
,ontrol ,harts
>low ,harts
,ause and !ffect , >ishbone, Ishikawa ?iagram
.istogram or +ar Araph
,heck Gists
,heck 4heets
Pareto Principle
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he 1areto principle suggests that most effects come from relatively few causes. In quantitative terms8 =(N of the
problems come from &(N of the causes %machines, raw materials, operators etc.-9 =(N of the wealth is owned by &(N of
the people etc. herefore effort aimed at the right &(N can solve =(N of the problems. ?ouble %back to back- 1areto
charts can be used to compare Vbefore and afterV situations. Aeneral use, to decide where to apply initial effort for
ma0imum effect.
$catter Plots
5 scatter plot is effectively a line graph with no line # i.e. the point intersections between the two data sets are plotted but
no attempt is made to physically draw a line. he S a0is is conventionally used for the characteristic whose behaviour we
would like to predict. 3se, to define the area of relationship between two variables.
7arning8 here may appear to be a relationship on the plot when in reality there is none, or both variables actually relate
independently to a third variable.
)):
Control Charts
,ontrol charts are a method of 4tatistical 1rocess ,ontrol, 41,. %,ontrol system for production processes-. hey enable
the control of distribution of variation rather than attempting to control each individual variation. 3pper and lower control
and tolerance limits are calculated for a process and sampled measures are regularly plotted about a central line between
the two sets of limits. he plotted line corresponds to the stability6trend of the process. 5ction can be taken based on trend
rather than on individual variation. his prevents over#correction6compensation for random variation, which would lead to
many rejects.
.low Charts
));
1ictures, symbols or te0t coupled with lines, arrows on lines show direction of flow. !nables modelling of processes9
problems6opportunities and decision points etc. ?evelops a common understanding of a process by those involved. Co
particular standardisation of symbology, so communication to a different audience may require considerable time and
e0planation.
Cause and Effect B .ish%oneB shikawa /ia&ram
he cause#and#effect diagram is a method for analysing process dispersion. he diagramVs purpose is to relate causes and
effects. hree basic types8 ?ispersion analysis, 1rocess classification and cause enumeration. !ffect b problem to be
resolved, opportunity to be grasped, result to be achieved. !0cellent for capturing team brainstorming output and for
filling in from the Vwide pictureV. .elps organise and relate factors, providing a sequential view. ?eals with time direction
but not quantity. ,an become very comple0. ,an be difficult to identify or demonstrate interrelationships.
Gisto&ram or Bar ?raph
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5 .istogram is a graphic summary of variation in a set of data. It enables us to see patterns that are difficult to see in a
simple table of numbers. ,an be analysed to draw conclusions about the data set.
5 histogram is a graph in which the continuous variable is clustered into categories and the value of each cluster is plotted
to give a series of bars as above. he above e0ample reveals the skewed distribution of a set of product measurements that
remain nevertheless within specified limits. 7ithout using some form of graphic this kind of problem can be difficult to
analyse, recognise or identify.
Check $heets
5 ,heck 4heet is a data recording form that has been designed to readily interpret results from the form itself. It needs to
be designed for the specific data it is to gather. 3sed for the collection of quantitative or qualitative repetitive data.
5daptable to different data gathering situations. Minimal interpretation of results required. !asy and quick to use. Co
control for various forms of bias # e0clusion, interaction, perception, operational, non#response, estimation.
RELIABILITY
"eliability !ngg. Is the technology concerned with predictions, controls, continuous improvements in material O
technology O thus continuous reduction of equipment failure rates. "eliability is different from quality as reliability
places more emphasis on the activities of design, manufacturing O operation in the field. "eliability is generally, in
industries, reliability does not necessarily mean failure free operations. Bf course, failure free operation is important for
one shot devices %missies, unmanned space#craft- and non#reliable systems like aircraft, high ha/ards equipments or life
saving components etc.
he concern about reliability can be felt from the comments of an astronaut
Dhe most nerve#wrecking part of any space flight is the fact that your life depends upon thousands of critical parts each
produced probably by the lowest bidderE.
In statics or factor analysis the term reliability means8L
he amount of credence placed in a result.
he precision of a measurement as measured by the variance of repeated measurements of the same objects.
D!ngineering reliability is the probability that a product, device or equipment will give failure free performance of its
intended functions for the required duration of time.
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?!4IAC 541!,4 >B" "!GI5+IGIS IM1"B@!M!C4 >B" IC?34"I5G !Z3I1M!C4 5"!8
)H Massive Bver#?esign when 7eight8
4pace and ,ost Gimits 1ermit 8
3sing <((tones structural or castings in place of )((tones and so as.
&H 4implicity and 4tandardi/ation8

Gess no. of parts increase reliability of equipment or system9 using proven, standard components of a supplier instead of
asking them for special or ailor#made components. his may call for some amount of over design or redesign but may
prove to be over all cheaper.
:H ?erating of !quipments8
5 <(ton !lectric 5rc >urnace in 5lloy 4teel 1lant, ?urgapur was derated and supplied as ;( ton >urnace9 for reliability
electric motors are often derated.
;H .uman !ngineering and Maintability ,onsiderations8
Making the design in such a way that using incorrectly or fitting incorrectly parts are very difficultIdentifying
critical components6parts having less reliability and taking necessary actions is also one of the main tasks of
reliability improvement. =(#&( concept can be applied here also i.e.. &(Nof parts amount for =(N of
failures6problems
UBperational "eliability basically not an initiative # but its just a better way of running the business. It changes the way of
the workforce, thinks, and acts and provides the reliability tools to help them.U
!,.CIZ3! >B" IM1"B@!M!C B1!"5IBC "!GI5+IGS8
"eliability improvement is a continuous engg. 1rocess. It involves enormous amount of data collection %from operating
equipments and service equipments etc.- . 5s the failures are of theree tyopes, early faikure, chance failure and wear#out
failures, their analysis is done in right perspective.
he following processe are essential in reliability study programme8
%i- he reliability programme starts in nthe conceptual phase of the product or equipement and continous
throught the design, development, production, testing, field evaluation and service stages etc.
%ii- 5dequate management and orgasnisational support should be there. Involvement of all department units,
that affect reliability, is essential.
%iii- 1roper failure reporting system fron all concerned agencies has to built up. Cecessary signal measuring
devices should be installed and their feedback maonitored
%iv- 1roper action plans, specifying responsibilities, procedures, schedules and budgets %if necessary- to be
issued and follow up.
%v- he e0ecution of programme is both technical abd report deviations for taking corrective actions.
"eliability is a probability that a product, device or equipment will give failure free performance of its intended functions
for the required duration of time.
))*
"eliability improvement is a continuous engineering process. It involves enormous amount of data collection and their
analysis especially with respect to failure modes and stresses etc.s the failure of three types early failure, chance failure
and wear out failures, their analysis is done in right perspective.
IM1"B@!M!C B> ,BM1BC!C8
7e can use superior components and parts with low failure rates. .owever we
would immediately release that components of high reliability will require more time and money for development. hey
may also be larger in si/e and weight. Aenerally objective is not merely to produce a system with highest reliability, but to
evolve a system which reflects an optimum total cost. he major items contributing to total cost are research and
development production spares and maintenance. 4imilarly the production facilitates sufficiently sophisticated to enable
manufacture of precision components with the result that production cost also would increase with requirement of greater
reliability on other hand the cost of maintenance and spares would reduce with an increase in reliability factor. he
objective in the majority of design will be to attain this optimum cost. .owever the reliability will assume greater
significance when the goal is not so much the cost but rather the requirement a set mission or for the unit or equipment.
"eliability Improvement through "edundancy-
In a system where there are many subsystems and elements, reliability of each element has to be improved to near )((N to achieve
good system reliability. It has already been mentioned that in a system ;(( elements, each of 2=N reliability, the system reliability
will come only about &N. +ut if the reliability of individual elements6components or subassemblies can not be improved further, we
can duplicate do triplicate those components to improve the system reliability.
Get us take a simple case of one pump unit, one valve unit and one cylinder in hydraulic system and assume the probability of success
of each as *(N, 2(N and =(N respectively. In a non#redundant system the reliability of the system, 1s %system- can be shown as8


Cow if we duplicate the pump unit i.e... 5dd on more pump unit in parallel along with original pump unit the system
failure on account of the pump unit will occur only when both pump fail. 5gain assuming the reliability of both pumps 1s
%p- as *(N i.e.. 1robability of the failure of each pump 1f%p- as :(N the system can be shown and system reliability 1s
%system- can be calculated as given below8

herefore 1s %at least one pump- b)((N#pf %p)-a pf %p&-
b)(( N#% :(Na:(N- b2)N
1ump
1s %1- b *(N
1alve
's (1)
234
,ylinder 1s %,-
b=(N
1ump# )
1s %1)- b *(N
1f %1)- b :(N
,ylinder
1s %,- b =(N
1ump#&
1s %1&- b *(N
1f %1&- b :(N
@alve
1s %@- b 2(N
))=
herefore %system-b1s%at least one pump -a1s%v-a1s%c-
b2)Na2(Na=(N

b''N, hus by redundancy, the system reliability can be improved.
In addition to cost and space limitation there are some additional constraints in reliability through redundancy such as 8
1arallel equipment are some times, connected with charge over switch%for automatic charge over- which may not be fail#
proof and may introduce another reliability factor.
7ith duplication or triplication of components not working failed components may cause adverse effect on working
components%eg. 1ossible internal leakage through failed or non working hydraulic valves or pumps which may cause mal#
function-.
If the state of the art is such that either it is not possible to produce highly reliable components or the cost of producing
such components is very high, we can improve the system reliability by the technique of introducing redundancies this
involve the deliberate creation of the new parallel path in a system.
here are many methods of introducing redundancies in a system. 5 few of these will be consider below.
4tand by redundancy8
5nother type of redundancies that can be introduced in a system is standing by redundancy. 5 two
element parallel system used for comparison all the channels or paths are active from the beginning of the operation of the
system till it failure. In a stand by system all the paths are not active at the same time.
B1IMIQ5IBC8
he reliability of a system can be improved considerably by introducing redundancy either in the sub
system or in the element. It was also shows that the element or component redundancy is superior to sub system or unit
redundancy.
Maintaibility ,riteria8
!0ecutive 4ummary8
>aced with shrinking maintenance budgets and increasingly competitive markets, maintainability is an issue of growing
importance for many companies. 5lthough, maintainability is not a defnewdeg concept, many companies struggle with
consistent, standardi/ed maintenance input during the project delivery process. 5n important characteristic of any design,
maintainability pertains to the ease, accuracy, safety, and economy in the performance of maintenance actions. his
research e0amines the opportunities available through the effective inclusion of maintainability concepts during the
project delivery process.
he ,onstruction Industry Institute %,II- defines maintainability as the optimum use of facility maintenance knowledge
and e0perience in the design6engineering of a facility that meets project objectives %,onstructability Implementation
Auide )22:-. In this conte0t, maintainability refers to a formal process to include relevant maintenance input during all
phases of the facility delivery process. he Maintainability "esearch eam adopted a format similar to constructability for
its research methodology and developed model process.
"esearch 1urpose and Bbjectives
he primary purpose of this research is to develop a model process for incorporating maintenance
knowledge and e0perience into the planning, design, procurement, construction, and start#up of facilities. 4pecific
research objectives include8 %)- define e0isting levels of maintainability implementation9 %&- identify best practices that
))2
improve maintainability of capital projects9 %:- compile a model process for implementing maintainability9 and %;-
conduct case studies to illustrate best practices and the model process for maintainability implementation.
"esearch 4cope 8 Aiven
comple0ity and variations of maintainability, this research focused on general practices to aid in formali/ation of
maintainability efforts during the project delivery process. >ormal implementation of maintainability is not sufficiently
mature to obtain quantitative data, and it would be difficult to develop a basis for evaluation. he scope of this
investigation is limited to maintainability activities during si0 phases of the project delivery process8 %)- planning9 %&-
design9 %:- procurement9 %;- construction9 %<- start#up9 and %'- operations and maintenance. his research surveyed a
broad cross#section of companies engaged in many different types of construction, ranging from general building to
petrochemical. ,apital and retrofit projects for equipment, systems, and facilities were included in this research. 5s
maintainability most directly impacts the owner of constructed projects, this research focused on owner organi/ations.
"esearch Methodology 8 he
research methodology included8 %)- literature review9 %&- a questionnaire survey9 %:- :< personal and telephone
interviews9 and %;- seven in#depth case studies with industry representatives.
Gevels of Maintainability Implementation8
he research data revealed attributes that were subjectively organi/ed into five levels of
maintainability implementation8 %)- design6engineering e0perience9 %&- effective organi/ational standards9 %:- developing
maintainability process9 %;- formal maintainability process9 and %<- comprehensive maintainability program. !ach level
e0pands and refines the attributes of the preceding level, increasing the opportunity for maintainability improvement on
capital projects.
Model 1rocess for Maintainability Implementation 8
+est practices observed during the research data collection were organi/ed into a model process
for maintainability implementation. he model process was developed to provide guidance in the planning, development,
and implementation of maintainability at both the corporate and project levels. 1roviding an overview of the
maintainability program, the model process has si0 milestones8 %)- commit to implementing maintainability9 %&- establish
maintainability program9 %:- obtain maintainability capabilities9 %;- plan maintainability implementation9 %<- implement
maintainability9 and %'- update maintainability program. !ach milestone contains several steps and activities that further
describe the details of implementation.
1ractical 5pplications8 1roject#
specific factors affecting the need for maintainability efforts are grouped into two categories8 owner related issues and
project attributes. he owner related issues are8 %)- owner type9 %&- past maintenance e0perience9 %:- maintenance
strategy9 and %;- projected cost of maintenance. 1roject attributes include8 %)- construction type9 %&- criticality9 %:-
comple0ity9 %;- projected life of facility9 and %<- location. >ive factors that affect how a formal maintainability process
will be implemented are8 %)- new versus retrofit9 %&- project si/e9 %:- project delivery system9 %;- maintenance
organi/ation9 and %<- related industry practices.
,onclusions8 Implementation
of a formal maintainability process involves a fundamental shift in the role of maintenance, from a defnecessary evildeg
to a value adding activity, in the project delivery process. Maintenance helps achieve and sustain optimum reliability and
performance for all projects. >ormal maintainability programs provide benefits to both owner and contractor
organi/ations. Bwners benefit from improved control over maintenance costs and improved facility availability. ?esigners
and constructors can increase client satisfaction and use success with a maintainability process as a value#adding service
for owner clients.
"ecommendations8 !ach
company must assess the need for maintainability on future projects and then determine the appropriate level of
maintainability efforts. ?evelopment of the formal process should reflect the organi/ational need, with the purpose of
ensuring maintainability objectives are met. 5 maintainability process has the potential for greatest %and most cost
effective- impact if it can be integrated with e0isting company work processes and related improvement initiatives, such
as otal Zuality Management, etc.
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Ceed for >uture "esearch8
>uture research needs to be conducted in measuring and quantifying costs6benefits of maintainability in order to
demonstrate the financial aspects of maintainability. 4imilarly, the need e0ists to measure and document performance of
the maintainability process implementation.
Maintaina%ility Pro&ram Plan
Bverview
he primary purpose of the VMaintainability 1rogram 1lanV is to improve operational readiness, reduce maintenance
manpower needs, reduce system life cycle cost and provide data essential for management.
he objective shall be to ensure attainment of the maintainability requirements of the acquisition.
he maintainability aspect during the systems development is e0tremely important and it is vital that supplier are aware of
their responsibilities in this respect as the results can have serious affects for the user. he Maintainability requirements
must be e0pressed as definitively as possible. he requirements shall apply to planned maintenance in the support
environment and shall be e0pressed in quantitative terms8
time %e.g., turn around time, time to repair, time between maintenance actions-9
rate %e.g., maintenance hours per operating hours, frequency of preventative maintenance-9
,omple0ity %e.g., number of people and skill levels, variety of support equipment-.
he e0pectation of carrying out repairs in the field by substitution of components %e.g., the replacement of a faulty card or
module in an electronic item- shall be defined.

Ishikawa diagram
?efinition8
5 graphic tool used to e0plore and display opinion about sources of variation in a process. %5lso called a ,ause#and#
!ffect or >ishbone ?iagram.-
1urpose8
o arrive at a few key sources that contributes most significantly to the problem being e0amined. hese sources are then
targeted for improvement. he diagram also illustrates the relationships among the wide variety of possible contributors
to the effect.
he figure below shows a simple Ishikawa diagram. Cote that this tool is referred to by several different names8 Ishikawa
diagram, ,ause#and#!ffect diagram, >ishbone diagram, and "oot ,ause 5nalysis. he first name is after the inventor of
the tool, $aoru Ishikawa %)2'2- who first used the technique in the )2'(s.
)&)
he basic concept in the ,ause#and#!ffect diagram is that the name of a basic problem of interest is entered at the right of
the diagram at the end of the main UboneU. he main possible causes of the problem %the effect- are drawn as bones off
of the main backbone. he U>our#MU categories are typically used as a starting point8 UMaterialsU, UMachinesU,
UManpowerU, and UMethodsU. ?ifferent names can be chosen to suit the problem at hand, or these general categories can
be revised. he key is to have three to si0 main categories that encompass all possible influences. +rainstorming is
typically done to add possible causes to the main UbonesU and more specific causes to the UbonesU on the main UbonesU.
his subdivision into ever increasing specificity continues as long as the problem areas can be further subdivided. he
practical ma0imum depth of this tree is usually about four or five levels. 7hen the fishbone is complete, one has a rather
complete picture of all the possibilities about what could be the root cause for the designated problem.
he ,ause#and#!ffect diagram can be used by individuals or teams9 probably most effectively by a group. 5 typical
utili/ation is the drawing of a diagram on a blackboard by a team leader who first presents the main problem and asks for
assistance from the group to determine the main causes which are subsequently drawn on the board as the main bones of
the diagram. he team assists by making suggestions and, eventually, the entire cause and effect diagram is filled out.
Bnce the entire fishbone is complete, team discussion takes place to decide what the most likely root causes of the
problem are. hese causes are circled to indicate items that should be acted upon, and the use of the tool is complete.
he Ishikawa diagram, like most quality tools, is a visuali/ation and knowledge organi/ation tool. 4imply collecting the
ideas of a group in a systematic way facilitates the understanding and ultimate diagnosis of the problem. 4everal computer
tools have been created for assisting in creating Ishikawa diagrams. 5 tool created by the Kapanese 3nion of 4cientists and
)&&
!ngineers %K34!- provides a rather rigid tool with a limited number of bones. Bther similar tools can be created using
various commercial tools.
Bnly one tool has been created that adds computer analysis to the fishbone. +ourne et al. %)22)- reported using ?empster#
4hafer theory %4hafer and Gogan, )2=*- to systematically organi/e the beliefs about the various causes that contribute to
the main problem. +ased on the idea that the main problem has a total belief of one, each remaining bone has a belief
assigned to it based on several factors9 these include the history of problems of a given bone, events and their causal
relationship to the bone, and the belief of the user of the tool about the likelihood that any particular bone is the cause of
the problem.
.ow to ,onstruct8
1. 1lace the main problem under investigation in a bo0 on the right.
2. .ave the team generate and clarify all the potential sources of variation.
3. 3se an affinity diagram to sort the process variables into naturally related groups. he labels of these groups are the
names for the major bones on the Ishikawa diagram.
4. 1lace the process variables on the appropriate bones of the Ishikawa diagram.
5. ,ombine each bone in turn, insuring that the process variables are specific, measurable, and controllable. If they are
not, branch or Ue0plodeU the process variables until the ends of the branches are specific, measurable, and controllable.
Tip:
ake care to identify causes rather than symptoms
.1ost diagrams to stimulate thinking and get input from other staff.
4elf#adhesive notes can be used to construct Ishikawa diagrams. 4ources of variation can be rearranged to reflect
appropriate categories with minimal rework
Insure that the ideas placed on the Ishikawa diagram are process variables, not special caused, other problems,
tampering, etc
"eview the quick fi0es and rephrase them, if possible, so that they are process variables.
)&:
"eferences8
Cause J Effect /ia&ram:
he cause O effect diagram is the brainchild of $aoru Ishikawa, who pioneered quality management processes in the
$awasaki shipyards, and in the process became one of the founding fathers of modern management. he cause and effect
diagram is used to e0plore all the potential or real causes %or inputs- that result in a single effect %or output-. ,auses are
arranged according to their level of importance or detail, resulting in a depiction of relationships and hierarchy of events.
his can help you search for root causes, identify areas where there may be problems, and compare the relative
importance of different causes.
,auses in a cause O effect diagram are frequently arranged into four major categories. 7hile these categories can be
anything, you will often see8
Manpower, methods, materials, and machinery %recommended for manufacturing- !quipment, policies, procedures, and
people %recommended for administration and service-.
hese guidelines can be helpful but should not be used if they limit the diagram or are inappropriate. he categories you
use should suit your needs. 5t 4ky Mark, we often create the branches of the cause and effect tree from the titles of the
affinity sets in a preceding affinity diagram.he ,O! diagram is also known as the fishbone diagram because it was
drawn to resemble the skeleton of a fish, with the main causal categories drawn as UbonesU attached to the spine of the
fish, as shown below.
,ause O effect diagrams can also be drawn as tree diagrams, resembling a tree turned on its side. >rom a single outcome
or trunk, branches e0tend that represent major categories of inputs or causes that create that single outcome. hese large
branches then lead to smaller and smaller branches of causes all the way down to twigs at the ends. he tree structure has
an advantage over the fishbone#style diagram. 5s a fishbone diagram becomes more and more comple0, it becomes
difficult to find and compare items that are the same distance from the effect because they are dispersed over the diagram.
7ith the tree structure, all items on the same causal level are aligned vertically.
)&;
To ,+##e,,.+11' 2+!1d a #a+,e ad e..e#" d!a&ra% :
). +e sure everyone agrees on the effect or problem statement before beginning.
&. +e succinct.
:. >or each node, think what could be its causes. 5dd them to the tree.
;. 1ursue each line of causality back to its root cause.
<. ,onsider grafting relatively empty branches onto others.
'. ,onsider splitting up overcrowded branches.
*. ,onsider which root causes are most likely to merit further investigation.
Bther uses for the ,ause and !ffect tool include the organi/ation diagramming, parts hierarchies, project planning, tree
diagrams, and the < 7hyVs.
1areto ,hart or Kuran ?iagram
5 quality tool, also called a Kuran diagram, that is based the 1areto 1rinciple, which uses attribute or discrete data with the
data arranged in descending order, and with the most occurrences shown first. May use a cumulative line to mark
percentages for each group or bar, which distinguishes the 1areto 1rincipal or the =(6&( rules that states &( percent of
items will cause =( percent of the problems.
1rinciple8 the =(6&( "ule
In the very early )2((s, an Italian economist by the name of @ilfredo 1areto created a mathematical formula
describing the unequal distribution of wealth he observed and measured in his country8 1areto observed that roughly
twenty percent of the people controlled or owned eighty percent of the wealth. In the late )2;(s, ?r. Koseph M. Kuran, a
Zuality Management pioneer, attributed the =(6&( "ule to 1areto, calling it 1aretoVs 1rinciple. 7hile some may claim that
Kurans broad attribution of this scientific observation to 1areto is inaccurate, 1aretoVs 1rinciple or D1aretoVs GawE as it is
sometimes called, can be a very effective business tool one that can help us manage more effectively.
he e0ample below is from the ?ale .. +esterfield, 1h.?. book, Zuality ,ontrol 4i0th !dition, that includes a ,? of
!0cel macros
1aint Conconformities
)&<
Cumber ,ategory >req. 1ercent ,umulative N
& Gt. 4pray <=& :(.2 :(.2
* "uns ;:; &:.) <;.(
: ?rips &&* )&.) ''.)
) +lister &)& )).: **.;
< 4platter );) *.< =;.=
' +ad 1aint )&' '.* 2).<
; Bverspray )(2 <.= 2*.:
= Bther <( &.* )((.(
there are a few of issues with this debate that are not considered in the article8
)- he ratio of Ucasual playersU to Upower gamerU and the resulting revenue stream they represent.
&- he cost of power gamers on resources %ie bandwidth- vs casual gamers.
:- he average length of subscription between the two demographics.
;- he effects of poor code and game design on the power curve over time. Br in other words it pays to e0ploit early
and e0ploit often. he folks that can get to the broken content first %ie power gamers- get the easy path to victory
that is then nerfed %typically over#nerfed- so that the casual players need to slog through mind#numbing UcontentU
to achieve the same ends.
Items )#: should be a factor in determining which demographic to cater toward...even if the only game that seems to
cater to the casual player has been...ah hem...Uless than fully successfulU %.ori/ons-.
)&'
Item ; makes a mockery %or perhaps strawman- of the Ulife isnVt fairU concept as MMB"1A game designers have, as a
whole, stacked the deck against the casual player. his isnVt about UskillU but ability to take advantage of broken game
mechanics while they e0ist to get ahead of the power curve and stay there whether it is items in !Z or realm points in
?5o, or ^your favorite e0ample hereh.
.aving played !Z with >o. members and then est 4erver players and finally a live guild with far above average
representation of +est of the +est winners I can agree that some players are simply better than others. Bn the other
hand, they are better because they understand the underlying game mechanics better than the average player and uses
%or e0ploits- them to their ma0imum benefit. actics and strategies that once known to the general populace %and
thereby the devs- are typically nerfed into oblivion.
he e0perimentation required typically is beyond the time constraints of a casual player and even if they could, once
you drop behind the power curve, typically you cannot access the e0ploitable content %abilities, classes, mobs, etc-
until after its been nerfed.
Gow ParetoIs Principle Can Gelp Us
he value of the 1areto 1rinciple in management is in reminding us to stay focused on the D&( percent that mattersE. Bf all
the tasks performed throughout the day, one could say %based on 1aretos 1rinciple- that only &( percent really matter.
hose tasks in the &( percent very likely will produce =( percent of our results. hus, its critical that we identify and
focus on those things. 7hen the fire drills surrounding the Dcrisis of the dayE begin to eat up precious time, remind
yourself of the critical &( percent you need to focus on. If anything in the list of activities and action items has to fall by
the wayside left undone be sure it isnt listed in that critical &( percent.
?!>IC5IBC4 B> M5IC5IC5+IGIS 8
Maintainability is defined as the probability of restoration of a failed device or equipment or asset to
operational effectiveness with in a specified period of time through the prescribed maintenance operation.

Maintenance can be defined as the characteristic of equipment design and installation which is e0pressed in
terns of easy and economy of maintenance, availability of equipment, safety and accuracy of performance parameter of
equipment.
Its aim is to design and develop a system or equipment that can be easily maintained at a reasonable cost with minimum
resources, without affecting the performance and safety of equipment.
Maintainability is associated with the design of assets to be maintained. It is a measure of the easy of
maintenance, the parameter for e0pressing the maintainability is Mean ime to "epair %M"-.
he concept of maintainability is different from reliability. "eliability is the probability that an asset or a system will
operate satisfactory for some determined period of time, the parameter e0pressing reliability is >ailure "ate %>"- B"
Mean ime +etween >ailures %M+>-.
Maintainability is not a factor # this is a short term tactical solution. It is agreed that the system will be replaced or
rewritten before maintenance costs become a problem. It is particularly important that any decision to build a tactical
solution is documented as there is a tendency for such systems to become long term corporate business systems.
Maintainability is key # this is a long term system which needs to be easily maintained. .ere the criterion for
deployment is not just to provide required business functionality in a robust way, but that the design and code meet a
maintainability standard before the system is accepted and released to the business. his means that activities such as
documentation and tested production should not be allowed to be cut out if time runs short in a time bo0. It could mean
designing the system so that logic is e0ternali/ed so that it can be easily changed during maintenance activities. his may
mean that time bo0es need to be a little longer than usual.
Maintainability will be built in later # the business priority is to elicit and implement required functionality
quickly. he system needs a long life and to be maintainable, but the business is prepared to pay for subsequent %behind
the scenes- re#engineering after implementation. his means a greater development cost than engineering for
maintainability first time, but gives a quicker initial delivery, and may produce a lower lifetime ownership cost than
)&*
struggling for years with maintenance problems. %his is often the case where time to market is critical # either in software
for sale into a fast moving market, or software to satisfy a fast moving business-.
Maintenance can be said to start after the first increment of a system has been delivered. In most cases, any maintenance
on this will need to be undertaken by the ?4?M development team during the second increment. If the system is not
maintainable, then the second increment will be slowed down at this stage. 5ny requirements not covered during the main
part of the development lifecycle because they were prioriti/ed out due to time bo0ing or using Moscow are often held
over to be considered for future work done by the maintenance team.
.owever, maintenance is usually considered to begin post implementation. It should not make any difference whether this
process is undertaken by a separate maintenance team or by the development team. .owever, maintenance is often
transferred to a different team which means that the goal of maintainability is essential since the maintenance team will
not have gained knowledge of the system during development. It is important that the maintenance team are represented
during the development process # this role is recommended in ?4?M.
he Zuality 4trategy for the project needs to consider how quality control will be applied to ensure that the
Maintainability Bbjective is met.
5ppropriate staff should be involved in implementing maintainability objectives. he echnical ,o#ordinator is
responsible for ensuring the maintainability objectives are met. he 1roject Manager is responsible for identifying and
calling in specialist roles as required # these could be 4upport and Maintenance team representatives and the 4ervice6.elp
?esk Manager to assist with planning for maintainability and to consider the eventual support of this system once it is
running live.
?4?M does not ensure maintainability by itself. Maintainability is made possible by a combination of four factors within
a well managed ?4?M project8
ools # he use of tools to cover such areas as configuration management, testing and impact analysis aids
maintainability
1eople # he people aspects affecting maintainability are development team skills6e0perience6business
knowledge6user contribution6maintenance team skills6motivation.
?ocumentation # 5 minimum documentation set is needed for maintenance. his does not have to be paper#based
documentation but could be information residing in a toolset. his documentation set will vary according to installation
guidelines.
Aood practice guidelines # such aspects as standards, style guide, use of ?4?M for this installation etc. # in fact
everything that maybe we would have done automatically for a waterfall approach and should not forget just because a
"5? method is being used.
Gimitations
It can not be put in comple0 machine systems because design considerations and secondly, it does not improve
the performance of the equipment.
,hecklist for 1lanning Maintainability 5ctivities and "esources8
1roject team Ses\ Co\ ,omments
?oes the cross#functional project team include operations6 maintenance\
Is there a designated operations6maintenance personnel for de# sign input and reviews, installation, and start#up\
7ho is responsible for complete operations and maintenance documentation such as manuals\ Maintainability concepts
7ill the project incorporate the following8 1reventive maintenance features\
1redictive maintenance\
)&=
5ccessibility for maintenance\
4afety\
!ase of alignments and quick changeovers\ maintenance design considerations, maintenance documenta#
tion, and maintenance training. he checklist aids in assigning accountability for the activities. 5dditionally, individual
plants have a contact matri0 that identifies subject matter e0perts %pri# mary and secondary contacts- who can assist
project teams in specific areas of maintenance. he combination of the check# list and contact matri0 provides users with
sufficient tools to plan activities and resources for maintainability implementa# tion.
In comparison, the contractor#led program uses a flowchart to plan and integrate maintainability activities into the project
delivery process, shown in >ig. ). he flowchart helps delin# eate tasks, assigns lead responsibilities and personnel, and
identifies activities such as meetings and conferences. he flowchart is a component of the process coordination methods
employed by the contractor#led program to plan and coordi# nate maintainability activities and resources.
B+K!,I@!4

). o design equipment that can be maintain easily in minimum time and at minimum cost. It implies that the
requirement of other supporting resources such as spare parts, man power, and facilitates of tools and test equipment must
also be minimal.
&. Aood maintainability can also improve the safety of personal.
:. Maintainability increase the cost of production of any machine and it reduce the operating cost considerably.
;. o reduce the products life cycle cost of maintenance.
<. Aood maintainability provisions can help the maintenance department to carry out maintenance successfully with
proper cooperation of the equipment.
'. 5t the time maintainability implementation program, reliability and other characteristic can be evaluated.
*. its objectives are system readiness and achievements of desired results.

!stablish Maintainability Bbjectives

Maintainability objectives are governed by the maintenance strategy selected for the project. Maintainability objectives
must be clearly defined and must support business goals. 7hile qualitative maintainability objectives are very useful,
preference is for quantitative maintainability objectives that can be measured and recorded. +oth programs were able to
define quantitative maintain# ability objectives. he owner#led program uses quantitative
objectives such as %)- total spare parts inventory per unit of sales value of production9 %&- maintenance cost per unit of
sales value of production9 %:- maintenance cost per unit of product produced9 %;- planned versus unplanned maintenance
cost9 %<- start#up costs %training, travel, checkout, materials-9 %'- annual maintenance costs9 and %*- overall equipment ef#
fectiveness. ?uring project planning and design, maintainabil# ity objectives are established by a joint effort of the project
engineer and plant6maintenance engineer. he cooperative joint effort increases the likelihood of designed#in maintaina#
bility and realistic attainment of maintainability objectives. In comparison, the contractor#led program identified mean
time to repair as a maintainability objective. Bther maintain# ability objectives were not as clearly definedLa common
oc# currence throughout industry. Maintainability results can be difficult to track or measure because maintenance has
initial and long#term impacts occurring over the life cycle of a proj# ect. Conetheless, continuous tracking and
measurement of maintainability objectives provides a means to assess true value and performance. he continuous
assessment also allo informed decisions to be made for appropriate changes to im# prove long#term maintainability.
>ault ?iagnosis
5 guess as to whats wrong with a malfunctioning circuit
Carrows the search for physical root cause
Makes inferences based on observed behavior
3sually based on the logical operation of the circuit
ypes of ?iagnosis
g ,ircuit 1artitioning %D!ffect#,auseE ?iagnosis-
o Identify fault#free or possibly#faulty portions
)&2
o Identify suspect components, logic blocks, interconnects
g Model#+ased ?iagnosis %D,ause#!ffectE ?iagnosis-
o 5ssume one or more specific fault models
o ,ompare behavior to fault simulations
,ircuit 1artitioning
4eparate known#good portions of circuit from likely areas of failure
4implest method8 identify failing flip#flops
o ester can identify failing flops or outputs
o Input cone of logic is suspect
o Intersection of multiple cones is highly suspect
o 4ingle clock pulse with scan can be used for sequential6functional fails

aka !ffect#,ause ?iagnosis
"easoning based on observed behavior and e0pected %good#circuit- functions
,ommonly used at system and board#levels
ries to separate good and suspect areas
5dvantage8 4imple and general
?isadvantage8 Cot very precise, often gives no indication of defect mechanism
,ause#!ffect ?iagnosis
4tart from possible causes %fault models-, compare to observed effects
5 simulator is used to predict behavior of the circuit in the presence of various faults
Match prediction%s- against observed behavior
5dvantage8 Implicates a mechanism as well as a location
?isadvantage8 ,an be fooled by unmodeled defects
,omponents of >ault ?iagnosis
>ault models
>ault simulators
>ault dictionaries
?iagnosis algorithms
>ault Models
5 fault $odel is an abstraction of a type of defect behavior
5 fault instance is the application of a model to a circuit wire, node, gate, etc.
3sed to create and evaluate test sets
>or diagnosis, they can be used to simulate and predict faulty behaviors

he most#used fault model %by far-
):(
4imple to simulate and enumerate
!ffective for testing, fault grading, and diagnosis of some defects
Many defects are not well represented by the stuck#at model
4tuck#at >ault Model

4horts are a common defect type in ,MB4
?ifferent bridging fault models have varying accuracy and precision, from simplistic to very sophisticated
?ifficult or impractical to enumerate

4ome ?iagnostic >ault Models
Aate >ault
Cet >ault
+ridging >ault
1ath >ault
>ault 4imulators
g 5 fault simulator can simulate instances of a particular fault model
g Inputs8
o ,ircuit %netlist-
o est set
o >aultlist %list of fault instances-
g Butput8 circuit response
g 3sually, simulates the presence of a single fault instance %Dsingle#fault assumptionE-
>ault ?ictionaries
5 fault dictionary is a database of the simulated responses for all faults in faultlist
3sed by some diagnosis algorithms for convenience8
o >ast8 no simulation at time of diagnosis
o 4elf#contained8 netlist, simulator, and test set not needed after dictionary creation
,an be very large, however[
he >ull#"esponse ?ictionary
>or each fault % f -, store the response to each test vector % v -
Bne bit per vector, pass % ( - or fail % ) -
>or each vector, store the e0pected output response % o -
otal storage requirement8 f v o bits
):)
he 1ass#>ail ?ictionary
>or each fault, store only the test vector responses
Bne bit per vector, pass % ( - or fail % ) -
otal storage requirement8 f v bits
Much smaller than full#response, and often practical for even very large circuits
?ynamic ?iagnosis
5lternative to dictionary#based diagnosis
>ault simulation is only done for certain faults, based on test results
o Bnly simulate faults in input cones of failing
flip#flops6outputs
?ictionary is eliminated, but requires complete netlist and test pattern file
3sed by most commercial 51A tools8 Mentor >astscan, 4ynopsys, ,adence, etc.




?iagnosis 5lgorithms
5lgorithms compare observed behavior to predicted behaviors
5n algorithm attempts to De0plainE the observed failures with fault candidates
he job of a diagnosis algorithm is to report the best fault candidate%s-
D+estE is determined by scoring method
>ault ,andidate 4coring
wo common scoring methods
o Match6mismatch points
o >ault candidate probability
Bther common scorings8
o .amming distance
o 4et intersection6overlap
o Cearest neighbor

Match6mismatch 1oint 4coring
g 5ward points for matching observed failures
g Bptionally deduct points for not predicting fails
g 5onprediction8 5 behavior not predicted by candidate
g Misprediction8 5 prediction not fulfilled by behavior
):&
g ,ommercial tools %e.g. >astscan- are usually biased to lowest nonprediction
1robabilistic 4coring
1robability score based on matches and mismatches and error assumptions
o 7eights for non# and mis#prediction
o ?ifferent prediction probabilities for different fault candidates %bridges vs. stuck#at-
3sually normali/ed so that total of all candidates equals ).(
3,4, method uses probabilities to compare stuck#at candidates to bridges in same diagnosis
ypes of ?iagnosis 5lgorithms %,ont-
+ridging#fault
o May better represent common ,MB4 faults
o More complicated fault model
o +iggest problem8 candidate selection
Bther possible %future- directions8
o >unctional fails
o ?elay fails
o 1arametric failures
?iagnosis in 1ractice
3sing a diagnosis
ranslating the results8 circuit navigation
!valuating diagnosis quality
,ommercial diagnosis tools
3sing a ?iagnosis
>ault diagnosis is used to aid physical inspection and root#cause identification
?iagnosis output is logical, not physical8
o 5bstract faults %such as stuck#at-
o Aates, ports %nodes-, and nets
o Co information about location or si/e
ranslation to physical location requires navigation of circuit
ypes of ,ircuit Cavigation
Cetlist
o !0amine "G %@erilog6@.?G etc- for gates and data paths
4chematic
o 4ymbolic view of gates and wires
Gayout6artwork
o Araphical view of metal lines, poly, vias,
cell boundaries, etc.
Cetlist Cavigation
!ither use te0t editor on netlist, or use browser function in simulator
+rowsers allow you to trace forward and backward and see logic values
,an be used to view hierarchy and functional blocks
,an be tedious
)::
4chematic Cavigation
!ither hand#drawn %from netlist navigation- or tool#generated gate symbols and wires
4chematic tools in simulators also allow forward and backward traversal and display of logic values
3sed to verify fault propagation
?oes not reflect physical distances
Gayout %5rtwork- Cavigation
3se routing6floorplanning tools to view artwork
,an usually input cell or wire name and tool will highlight the object
3seful for determining %0,y- values
5lso good for evaluating physical implications of a set of fault candidates
o >aults clustered in a small area are good
o >aults6nets spread around large die areas are bad

!valuating a ?iagnosis
5 diagnosis without one or a few strong %high#scoring- candidates is usually poor
,an indicate8
o Multiple defects
o 3nmodeled %comple0- behavior
o Inappropriate algorithm
If the diagnosis is poor, either try another algorithm or look for more data %failures-
!valuating a ?iagnosis %cont-
Many diagnoses %i'(N- implicate a single stuck#at fault
3sually a good sign, but you must consider equivalent faults
Many defects can mimic a stuck#at fault, without being a short to @dd or And
,onsider nearby nodes also, if practical
,ommercial ool8
Mentor Araphics
51A tool8 >astscan
4tuck#at diagnosis only
Co I??Z capability
Brders candidates by number of matched failures %biased to lowest non#prediction-
5lso has netlist O schematic browser
+ased on 7aicukauski O Gindbloom %?OP=2-
,ommercial ool8 4ynopsys
51A tool8 etraM5M
K. 7aicukauski moved to 4ynopsys after writing >astscan
?iagnosis capability unknown8 assumed to be similar to >astscan


):;
,ommercial ool8 ,adence
5A1 tool8 !ncounter est
est and diagnosis tools purchased from I+M
I+M has had good diagnosis research, but !ncounters capabilities are unknown
5lso of interest8 4ilicon !nsemble # routing tool
Araphical artwork viewer
Aood for highlighting nets and cells based on diagnosis results
Aood for determining %0,y- and producing screen shots
1rior 5rt
7aicukauski O Gindbloom, #EEE Design 6 Test, 5ug. P=2
o Most widely#used algorithm for commercial tools
o >inds candidates to match individual tests, attempts to De0plainE all failing tests
5bramovici O +reuer, #EEE Trans& Co$puting, Kune P=(
o !ffect#cause diagnosis
o 1ermanent stuck#at fault assumption
5itken O Ma0well, ,' )ournal, >eb. 2<
o 5nalysis of relative importance of models vs. algorithms
Gavo, Garrabee, et. 5l., 'roceedings of #TC 728
o 1robabilistic scoring
o Mi0ed#model diagnosis
+artenstein et. 5l., 'roceedings of #TC 739
o 4G58 4ingle Gocation 5t#a#ime diagnosis
o >ocus on matching per#vector results
1rior 5rt %cont-
Kee O >erguson, 'roceedings of #*TF 72:
o ,arafe Inductive >ault 5nalysis %I>5-
o !0amine circuit to determine likely failure locations
5itken, 'roceedings of #TC 72;
o 3sing >I+s to insert defects
o ,alibrate6evaluate diagnosis methods
.enderson O 4oden, 'roceedings of #TC 72<
o 1robabilistic physical failure analysis
Cigh, @allett, et. 5l., 'roceedings of #TC 728
o Garge#scale, multi#company 4!M5!,. e0periment
o >ailure analysis of timing and I??Z fails
"esearch ?irections
,omple0 defect behaviors
o +eyond stuck#at and &#line bridges
o Intermittent faults
o ?elay and timing#related defects
o 1arametric O process#related defects
o Multiple simultaneous defects
o Is there a simple, inductive way to infer comple0 defects\

):<
"esearch ?irections %cont-
?iagnosibility
o 7hat makes a particular circuit easy or hard to diagnose\
o 7hat can we do to make diagnosis easier\
!valuation of diagnoses
o 7hat makes a good diagnosis\
o ,an we quantify our confidence in a diagnosis\
"esearch ?irections %cont-
Integration with physical >5 O yield improvement
o ,an we incorporate process information\
o ,an we produce a Dphysical diagnosisE\
o Bn#line %or even on#chip- diagnosis
,ommercial toolflow integration
o ,an diagnosis tools use industry#standard data formats\
o ,an commercial tools be scripted or programmed to do better diagnosis\
):'