Johnson Et Al 2001 Ecca Basin Floor To Slope Tudbid

Anatomy, geometry and sequence stratigraphy of basin oor
to slope turbidite systems, Tanqua Karoo, South Africa

STEPHEN DAVID JOHNSON*
1
, STEPHEN FLINT*, DAVID HINDS*
and H. DE VILLE WICKENS
*STRAT Group, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Liverpool, Brownlow Street,
Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
Statoil Exploration and Petroleum Technology Centre, Rotvoll, N-7005, Trondheim, Norway
Department of Geology and Petroleum Geology, King's College, Aberdeen AB24 4UE, UK
Department of Geology, University of Stellenbosch, Matieland, South Africa
ABSTRACT
The Tanqua area of the Karoo basin, South Africa, contains ve Permian deep-
water turbidite fan systems, almost completely exposed over some 640 km
2
.
Reconstruction of the basin-ll and fan distributions indicates a progradational
trend in the 450 m+ thick succession, from distal basin oor (fan 1) through
basin-oor subenvironments (fans 2, 3 and 4) to a slope setting (fan 5). Fans are
up to 65 m thick with gradational to sharp bases and tops. Facies associations
include basin plain claystone and distal turbidite siltstone/claystone and a
range of ne-grained sandstone associations, including low- and high-density
turbidite current deposits and proportionally minor debris/slurry ows.
Architectural elements include sheets of amalgamated and layered styles and
channels of ve types. Each fan is interpreted as a low-frequency lowstand
systems tract with the shaly interfan intervals representing transgressive and
highstand systems tracts. All fans show complex internal facies distributions
but exhibit a high-frequency internal stratigraphy based on fan-wide zones of
relative sediment starvation. These zones are interpreted as transgressive and
highstand systems tracts of higher order sequences. Sandy packages between
these ne-grained intervals are interpreted as high-frequency lowstand systems
tracts and exhibit dominantly progradational stacking patterns, resulting in
subtle downdip clinoform geometries. Bases of fans and intrafan packages are
interpreted as low- and high-frequency sequence boundaries respectively.
Facies juxtapositions across these sequence boundaries are variable and may be
gradational, sharp or erosive. In all cases, criteria for a basinward shift of facies
are met, but there is no standard `motif' for sequence boundaries in this system.
High-frequency sequences represent the dominant mechanism of active fan
growth in the Tanqua deep-water system.
Keywords Architectural elements, correlation, Karoo Basin, sequence
stratigraphy, turbidites.
INTRODUCTION
There has been a renaissance of research into
deep-water clastic depositional systems in recent
years as a result of an increasing emphasis in
the oil industry on the exploration for, and
1
Present address: Statoil International, Exploration and
Production West Africa, B217, Grenseveien 21, N-4035,
Stavanger, Norway (E-mail: sdj@statoil.com).
Sedimentology (2001) 48, 9871023
2001 International Association of Sedimentologists 987
exploitation of, turbidite-hosted reservoirs. The
need to develop accurate predictive geological
models for deep-water clastic systems requires
data sets that span seismic-scale geometries to
core-scale lithofacies distributions. This paper
describes and interprets the sedimentology and
architecture of just such an area, the Tanqua
turbidite systems of South Africa. The paper also
assesses how the concepts of high-resolution
sequence stratigraphy may be applied to deep-
water clastic systems. Finally, a model is devel-
oped to predict the distribution and stratigraphic
evolution of the Tanqua submarine fans.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The study area is located in the south-western
Karoo foreland basin and is bounded by the
western and southern branches of the Cape Fold
Belt (CFB; Fig. 1A). The southern margin of the
Karoo Basin is underlain by the Cape Supergroup,
a lower Palaeozoic passive margin clastic wedge
up to 8 km thick (Tankard et al., 1982). During
the Permian and Triassic, the Cape Fold Belt
developed as a retro-arc thrust belt (De Wit &
Ransome, 1992). Major contractional/uplift
events dated at 278, 258, 247 and 230 Ma from
mica growth in cleavage (Halbich et al., 1983)
supplement the paucity of other chronostrati-
graphic information (Turner, 1999). The CFB
developed two limbs (Fig. 1B) with a central
syntaxis, the growth of which controlled the
development of the separate Tanqua and Laings-
burg subbasins (De Beer, 1990; Wickens, 1994).
Previous sedimentological studies on the Tanqua
fan complex reported by Wickens (1994), Bouma
& Wickens (1991, 1994), Bouma et al. (1995) and
Wickens and Bouma (2000) dene ve major
lithofacies for the sand-rich fan systems, but do
not present detailed analysis of the ne-grained
intervals between the fans. Specic studies on
individual fans and elements of fans are presen-
ted by Basu & Bouma (2000), Rozman (2000) and
Kirschner & Bouma (2000), leaving this paper as
the rst detailed treatment of the entire basin-ll
succession using an integrated sedimentological/
sequence stratigraphic approach.
Stratigraphy of the Tanqua subbasin
The Karoo Supergroup in the south-western Karoo
basin is divided into the Dwyka Group (Westpha-
lian to early Permian), the Ecca Group (Permian)
and the Beaufort Group (Permo-Triassic; Fig. 2A).
The Dwyka Group consists of glacial deposits. A
subsequent sea-level rise as a result of melting ice
sheets (Visser, 1991) established an extensive
shallow sea, represented by basal Ecca Group
marine shales of the Prince Albert and Whitehill
Formations (Visser, 1992). Overlying distal turbi-
dites and ashes of the Collingham Formation
provide evidence of active arc volcanism to the
south. The Collingham Formation is overlain by
dark basinal shales of the Tierberg Formation,
succeeded by the Skoorsteenberg Formation, a
450 m+thick succession of ve major deep-water,
sand-rich submarine fan complexes separated by
ne-grained intervals (Bouma & Wickens, 1991;
Wickens, 1994; Bouma, 1997), which forms the
basis of this study. The absence of body fossils led
some workers to propose a lacustrine setting for
the turbidites (see Scott et al., 2000), but the
trace fossils identied in this study suggest a
basin with marine salinity, as proposed by
Wickens (1994). The turbidite succession is
overlain by shoreface and tidal sandstones, which
also support a marine basin setting. This upper
Ecca Group shallow-marine succession is overlain
by uvial deposits of the Beaufort Group
(Wickens, 1994).
Data set and methodology
The Skoorsteenberg Formation crops out over
640 km
2
(Fig. 2B) and provides areas of near-
continuous exposure up to 60 km long. Vertical
exposure allows measurement of 200500 m con-
tinuous vertical sections through the complete
stratigraphy (over 3 km of section was logged at
centimetre-scale in fans 15 and the overlying
deltaic succession). This permits lithofacies
distributions, geometries and depositional envi-
ronments to be interpreted at scales from the
individual architectural element to the complete
fan. The vertical sections (Fig. 2B), combined
with eld mapping and interpretation of land and
aerial photomontages, constrain the large-scale
architecture and depositional style. Post-deposi-
tional tectonic disturbance is restricted to rare
low-angle thrust and normal faults.
In this paper, lithofacies associations are des-
cribed separately from geometrical arrangements
of facies associations, thus allowing an initial
process-based interpretation. The geometrical
context of the facies associations is then presen-
ted, allowing a direct comparison with seismic
interpretation from subsurface data sets. Facies
associations and their geometries are then
assigned to architectural elements, as described
988 S. D. Johnson et al.
2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 9871023
by Pickering et al. (1995). An interpretation of the
depositional setting is then provided; this proce-
dure allows objective analysis of complex sys-
tems in which similar processes and products
may be generated in different deep-water envi-
ronments, with different resultant geometries.
The second part of the paper interprets key
surfaces, stacking patterns and nally presents a
sequence stratigraphic model for the evolution of
the fan systems.
LITHOFACIES AND FACIES
ASSOCIATIONS
The general characteristics of the individual
lithofacies are described in Table 1, based on a
descriptive scheme cross-referenced to Pickering
et al. (1986, 1989) and Mutti & Ricci Lucci (1972)
with examples shown in Figs 3 and 4.
Cape Town
Tanqua Basin Floor
Fan Complex
Laingsburg Basin Floor
Fan Complex
Swartberg Branch
Direction of sediment
transport
Direction of compression
Karoo Supergroup
Cape Fold Belt
Scale
N
100 km
Klaasstroom
Syntaxis
anticlinoria
B
NAMIBIA
BOTSWANA
ZIMBABWE
SOUTH
AFRICA
KAROO BASIN
STUDY AREA
AFRICA
CAPE
TOWN
A
Laingsburg
16
0
E 20
0
E 24
0
E 28
0
E 32
0
E
20
0
S
24
0
S
28
0
S

24
0
E 22
0
E 20
0

E
Fig. 1. (A) Location map of the
study area. (B) General tectonic
setting of the south-western Karoo
(after Wickens, 1994).
Anatomy and stratigraphy of Karoo turbidite systems 989
24
Logged section
2a
1a
4
7
8
11
13
14
16 17
6
0 5 Km
18
B
Fig. 8C
Fig. 8F
Fig. 8E
Fig. 8D
Fig. 8G
Fig. 8A
Figs 8B
and 8H
ISOLATED RIPPLES
RIPPLE TO MASSIVE (T
c-e
)
WAVY LAMINATION
RIPPLE TO PARALLEL LAMINATION (T
c-d
)
MASSIVE (T
a
)
DISH STRUCTURES
PARALLEL LAMINATION (T
d
to T
b
)
PARALLEL TO MASSIVE (T
b
-T
a
)
WOOD AND LEAF
FRAGMENTS
ORGANIC FRAGMENTS
MASSIVE TO PARALLEL LAMINATION (T
a
-T
b
)
CURRENT RIPPLE LAMINATION (T
c
)
SCOUR AND FILL STRUCTURE
MASSIVE TO RIPPLE
LAMINATION (T
a
-T
c
with no T
b
)
LOAD
STRUCTURE
STARVED
RIPPLES
KEY TO LOGGED SECTIONS
LOADED BASE TO BED
RIP-UP CLASTS
CHAOTIC GEOMETRIES
CONCRETION
C
TRIASSIC
PERMIAN
CARBONIFEROUS
DEVONIAN
ORDOVICIAN
PRECAMBRIAN
POORTJIE SST
KOEDESBERG FM.
KOOKFONTEIN FM.
TIERBERG FM.
WHITEHALL FM.
PRINCE ALBERT FM
SKOORSTEENBERG FM.
BEAUFORT
GROUP
ECCA
GROUP
DWYKA
GROUP
WITTEBERG
GROUP
BOKKEVELD
GROUP
CAPE GRANITE
A
Ongeluks Rivier
Gemsbok Rivier
Skoorsteenberg
Facies association 1: Hemipelagic suspension
deposits
Description
This facies association comprises claystone
(lithofacies 1), siltstone (lithofacies 2; Fig. 3G),
volcanic ash (lithofacies 9; Fig. 3I) and concre-
tionary horizons (lithofacies 10; Fig. 3H). These
deposits are usually structureless or parallel
laminated, and claystone beds commonly coarsen
upwards into silty claystone or siltstone to form
<1-m-thick packages of thinly bedded heteroliths
(lithofacies 3 and 4). In the siltstones, starved
ripple lamination usually less than 5 mm in
height can be observed (Fig. 3G). Bioturbation is
rare and consists mainly of Chondrites.
Interpretation
The claystones represent hemipelagic back-
ground deposition from suspension. The concre-
tionary horizons associated with claystone are
interpreted to represent condensation associated
with minimum rates of clastic deposition in the
basin, allowing early diagenetic growth at or close
to the sediment water interface (Raiswell, 1971,
1987). In the siltstones and heterolithic facies, the
presence of isolated starved ripple lamination
indicates deposition from weak tractional cur-
rents. These facies are the products of dilute
turbidity currents on the distal basin oor. In
places, a change from dark grey/black to pale
grey/green weathering coincides with slightly
better indurated siltier material that forms more
prominent weathering horizons. Sections domin-
ated by this type of deposition represent long
periods of slow sedimentation rate, punctuated
by periods of heterolith deposition from dilute
turbidite ows. Infrequent volcanic events pro-
duced volcanic ash layers that are preserved
within this low-energy facies association.
Facies association 2: Thin-bedded turbidites
Description
This facies association consists of interbedded
millimetre- to centimetre-thick (20 cm maximum;
Fig. 3C) alternations of very ne sandstone and
siltstone that form heterolithic units up to 10 m
thick (Fig. 5; at 20 monloggedsection). Sandstone
beds showa variety of structures. Complete Bouma
(1962) sequences are rare, and base-absent T
de
to
T
cde
and T
ac
beds are most common. Bed bases
are sharp with prod and groove marks. Trace fos-
sils are common and include Chondrites, Hel-
minthopsis, Helminthoida, Gordia sp., Lorenzinia,
Lophoctenium, Granulana sp., Palaeodyctyon and
Cosmorhaphe. Less frequent massive beds grade
upwards to a siltstone top. In some cases, grading
is indistinct, andthe topof the bedis sharpwithno
apparent T
e
division; these beds are tabular and
can be traced for more than 200 m. This facies
association is commonly found in packages up to
10 mthick that exhibit an overall thickening- and/
or coarsening-upward trend (Fig. 3B). Less com-
mon thinning- and/or ning-upward packages and
packages with no trend also occur.
Interpretation
This facies association represents deposition from
low- to medium-density/concentration turbidity
currents. The thin-bedded heteroliths represent
the deposits of low-density turbidity currents,
and the thicker beds with more complete Bouma
sequences represent the deposits of higher den-
sity turbidity currents. The lack of full Bouma
sequences is highlighted as a common feature of
turbidite successions from both sand-rich and
sand-poor settings (Lowe, 1982; Kneller & Bran-
ney, 1995), and these deposits are interpreted
using the Kneller (1995) scheme as depletive
steady ows. The thickening-upward cycles may
indicate an increase in the strength/volume of
turbidity currents over time.
Facies association 3: Thick- to massive-bedded
turbidites
Description
This facies association contains two main styles
of bedding. The rst is massive sandstones
(lithofacies 6) that range from 20 cm to 4 m in
thickness (Fig. 3A) with sharp to erosive bases
that exhibit loading and dewatering (Fig. 4B).
Internally, the massive sandstones rarely exhibit
any structure except for dish and pillar forms
and rare diffuse parallel lamination. Thickness
between laminae (where present) is 24 cm, sug-
gesting rapid deposition of sediment in a steady
to pulsed aggradational manner (cf. Kneller &
Branney, 1995). This facies has no discernible
mud couplet, but beds of rip-up clasts or layers of
organic debris characterized by wood fragments
Fig. 2. (A) The Cape and Karoo Supergroup strati-
graphy in the Western Cape (after Wickens, 1994).
(B) Location of the main logged sections in relation to
the outcrop area. (C) Key to all logged sections.
Table 1. Characteristics of lithofacies dened in this paper.
Lithofacies
number Lithology
Sedimentary
structures
Bouma
divisions
Bounding
surfaces Thickness Geometry
Trace fossils
and other
notable features
Process of
deposition
Facies code of
other workers
1 Claystone/
silty
claystone
Generally
massive.
Rare parallel
lamination
None in
claystone.
T
dce
in
silt
Gradational 2-cm to
>10-m
packages
Often
laterally
extensive
sheets
Rare to present.
Chondrites.
Common
concretionary
horizons
(lithofacies 10)
Deposition
from
hemipelagic
suspension
and low-
concentration
turbidity
currents
P:E2 M:G
2 Claystone/
silty clay-
stone with
mm to cm
silt/vfs
laminae
Generally
massive to
parallel lam.
Starved ripple
lamination
T
de
rare
T
cde
Laminae
have sharp
bases and
gradational
tops
Laminae
011 cm.
Units
10 cm to
4 m
Laminae
tabular to
lenticular.
Units
often
sheet-like
Rare to moderate.
Chondrites,
Gordia sp.
Hemipelagic
and low-
concentration
turbidity
current
deposition
P:D2/E M:D,E
3 Siltvfs/
vfs clay-
stone
couplets
Silt to vfs have
starved
ripples,
parallel
lamination
and massive
nature. Prods
and grooves
on base
Variable.
Common
T
cde
, T
de
and T
bc
Sands have
sharp bases,
tops are
gradational
to sharp
1 cm to
5 cm
Individual
beds
tabular at
the
outcrop
scale.
Units
display a
sheet
geometry
Common.
Chondrites,
Helminthopsis,
Helminthoida,
Gordia sp.
Lorenzinia,
Lophoctenium
Cosmorhaphe,
Palaeodyctyon
Generally
low-
concentration
turbidity
current and
minor
hemipelagic
deposition
P:C2/D M:E-D
4 Vfsfs/silt
couplets
Variable.
Climbing
ripples,
parallel
lamination,
massive.
Local
sigmoid
geometry
and pinch
and swell
T
cde
T
ab
T
ae
(T
cde
most
common)
Sharp bases
to sands.
Sharp to
gradational
tops. Upper
ne layer
(T
e
) can be
absent
Sands
usually
form units
dominated
by bedding
of 510 cm,
1020 cm
and
>20 cm
Beds tabular.
Sheet
geometry
to units
Lowhigh
concentration
turbidity
currents
P:C/D M:C(B)
9
9
2
S
.
D
.
J
o
h
n
s
o
n
e
t
a
l
.
2
0
0
1
I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
A
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
S
e
d
i
m
e
n
t
o
l
o
g
i
s
t
s
,
S
e
d
i
m
e
n
t
o
l
o
g
y
,
4
8
,
9
8
7
1
0
2
3
Table 1. Continued.
Lithofacies
number Lithology
Sedimentary
structures
Bouma
divisions
Bounding
surfaces Thickness Geometry
Trace fossils
and other
notable features
Process of
deposition
Facies code of
other workers
5 Medium- to
thick-
bedded
sandstone
Commonly
massive,
parallel
lamination,
climbing
ripples. Some
scour and ll.
Dewatering
T
ab
and
T
ac
common
Bases sharp
and rarely
erosional
2060 cm Tabular to
locally
lenticular.
Units
form sheet
and
channel
geometries
Rare.
Helmenthoides
High-
concentration
turbidity
currents.
Variety of
ow types but
dominated by
depletive
steady ow
P:B1B11
M:(B)
6 Massive
sandstone
Massive, local
parallel
lamination.
Local scour
and ll.
Dewatering
T
a
Sharp to
erosive
bases and
sharp tops
2080 cm
10-m
packages
caused
by amal-
gamation
Channel lls
and some
sheets
Wood
fragments
occur
High-
concentration
turbidity
currents with
depletive
steady and
unsteady ows
P:B M:B
7 Intraclast-
rich
conglo-
merate
Chaotic Sharp and
sometimes
erosive
<50 cm Lenticular
pockets up
to 20 m
wide or
thin beds
at the top
of litho-
facies 5
and 6
No traces.
Wood and
organic debris
common
Deposits of
slurry ows
and more
localized
deposition of
rip-up clasts
P:F M:?
8 Distorted
heterolithic
units
Small folds and
thrusts at the
20-cm scale
Sharp often
associated
with
erosive
scour
Up to 5 m Lenticular
pockets up
to 200 m
wide
Local slumps
of overbank
and minor
levee deposits
P:F M:?
9 Tuffs None if not
reworked
Sharp Up to 30 cm Sheet Suspension
fall-out of
volcanic ash
P:F M:?
A
n
a
t
o
m
y
a
n
d
s
t
r
a
t
i
g
r
a
p
h
y
o
f
K
a
r
o
o
t
u
r
b
i
d
i
t
e
s
y
s
t
e
m
s
9
9
3
2
0
0
1
I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
A
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
S
e
d
i
m
e
n
t
o
l
o
g
i
s
t
s
,
S
e
d
i
m
e
n
t
o
l
o
g
y
,
4
8
,
9
8
7
1
0
2
3
can be common at the tops of beds (Fig. 4D and
E). Upper parts of beds may contain rare ripple
lamination. Thicker beds (>70 cm thick) are
commonly formed as a result of the amalgamation
of thinner beds. Amalgamation surfaces are com-
monly expressed as rip-up clast horizons appar-
ently `oating' within a bed, but can often be
traced laterally into a siltstone parting between
two separate sandstone beds (Fig. 4A).
Greater occurrence of sedimentary structures
characterizes the second bedding style. Sand
grade varies between very ne and ne sand
(rarely medium grained; Fig. 5), and some normal
grading is visible. Bed bases are sharp, commonly
loaded and can show localized scour and prod
and groove marks into interbedded shale. Internal
structures are variable, and complete Bouma
sequences are not observed. T
ac
sequences with
dish structures are common; alternatively, beds
are completely dominated by T
c
lamination,
which varies laterally along beds. Rare trough
cross-bedding and scour-and-ll structures are
observed (Fig. 3F). The scour-and-ll structure is
considered to represent occasional turbulent
bursts that create local scours on the sediment
water interface that are subsequently lled by
parallel lamination. Rip-up clasts and wood
fragments are commonly found in the upper part
of an individual bed (Fig. 4E). Trace fossils
including Helminthoida are primarily associated
with the silty shale interbeds.
Interpretation
Massive sandstones are interpreted as high con-
centrations of grains that ow rapidly on a slope
and are deposited in the upper ow regime (Lowe,
1982). A rapid decrease in ow velocity results in
abrupt fall-out of sediment, which suppresses
development of tractional structures or sorting of
grains at the base. The presence of oating rip-up
clasts and clast-rich tops to beds suggest possibly
aggrading ows of a high-density nature that form
in a depletive steady ow (Kneller, 1995). Exten-
sive climbing current ripples (bedding style 2)
suggest rapid deposition from high rates of sus-
pension fall-out from sustained ows.
Facies association 4: Sigmoidal
ripple-dominated deposits
Description
This distinctive facies association is conned to
the section between fans 4 and 5. It comprises
lithofacies 4 and 3 in small-scale (<5 m thick) T
a
b
l
e
1
.
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t
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d
.
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packages that show either thickening/slight coar-
sening-upward, ning-upward or more symmet-
rical motifs (Fig. 5, 110175 m on log section).
Key features are the dominance of sharp-based
and sharp-topped, very ne to ne sandstone
beds that contain current ripple lamination with
siltstone drapes. The ripples are 15 cm in height
(examples up to 10 cm are interpreted as minor
dunes) and show low to moderate angles of climb
(015). Beds exhibit a distinct pinch and swell to
a sigmoidal geometry (Fig. 3D). Concretionary
horizons are common. Trace fossils include
Chondrites, Helminthopsis, Helminthoida, Gor-
dia sp., Lorenzinia, Lophoctenium, Granulana sp.
and Cosmorhaphe.
Interpretation
The ripples, small dunes and parallel lamination
indicate tractional processes of the lower ow
regime. The ner couplet of siltstone settles as a
result of suspension from the dilute tail of an
individual turbidity current. The diverse trace
fossil assemblage suggests relatively unstressed
open marine conditions, in contrast to previous
lacustrine interpretations (Scott et al., 2000). The
ripple-dominated beds differ from rippled beds
typical of overbank deposition lower in the
succession on account of their sharp bases and
tops, the absence of grading and the pinch and
swell/sigmoidal bed geometries. These beds may
represent low mud content turbidites with relat-
ively high velocities that produced traction-
dominated structures before rapid cessation of
ow to give the sharp tops. The pinch and swell
nature of the bedding reects the preservation of
original depositional topography created by the
three-dimensional ripple form. The sigmoid
geometry (Fig. 3D) to some beds may be a result
Fig. 3. (A) Amalgamated sandstones of the thick- to massive-bedded turbidite facies association showing massive
style and faint diffuse parallel lamination in places. Vertical view is 7 m. (B) Thin-bedded turbidite facies asso-
ciation with a thickening-upward signature. Note the tabular nature at scale of outcrop. (C) Ripple-dominated thin-
bedded turbidites with pinch and swell bedding geometry (spade is 60 cm long). (D) Sigmoidal rippled bedding style
that characterizes slope sedimentation in the study area (pencil 15 cm). (E) Current ripple (T
c
)-dominated bedding
(pencil 15 cm). (F) Finger points to the base of a local scour and migrating bedform within a generally thick-bedded
to massive turbidite facies association. (G) Siltstone facies characterized by starved ripples deposited from slow
moving, very dilute turbidity current (pencil, 6 cm in view). (H) Concretionary horizon (pencil 15 cm). (I) Tuffa-
ceous horizon (arrowed) picked out by lighter grey horizontal band (total view 50 cm wide).
of minor compensation effects, in which later
ows deposit preferentially in the hollows
created by the depositional topography from
earlier ows. Deposits with these characteristics
have been interpreted as deposition on a slope
with the ripple forms produced by supercritical
ow (Prave & Duke, 1990). The sedimentological
evidence for variations in the mud content of the
ow and rate of sedimentation, combined with
the stratigraphic restriction of these deposits and
the character of the overlying fan 5 (see below),
combine to indicate a partially aggradational,
stable slope depositional setting for this facies
association.
Fig. 4. (A) Internal bedding amalgamation marked by rip-up clasts to the left of the pencil but not visible to the right
of the pencil. (B) Large-scale dewatering and ball and pillow structure from the axis of a depositional channel in fan 3
(25 cm of spade for scale). (C) Channels in upper fan areas show marked erosive scour (arrowed) and abundant rip-up
clasts (r). Vertical view 5 m. (D) Tops of thick-bedded to massive turbidites characterized by abundant organic
material, silt and rip-up clasts. (E) Wood fragments on bedding plane from the top of a thick- to massive-bedded
turbidite (pencil 15 cm). (F) Rip-up clasts (pencil 15 cm). (G) Slumped heterolithic sandstones preserved in
some channel scours exhibit a `brecciated' nature and could be misinterpreted as rip-up clasts from core. This
example could represent a locally slumped channel margin/levee and is only recognized in two places in the study
area (hammer 35 cm). (H) Outsize rip-up clasts are common and can appear to be oating in the ne-grained
matrix. Examples such as this can be traced laterally to a surface of bed amalgamation and therefore relate to either an
aggrading sedimentwater interface or an erosive bed amalgamation surface (pencil 15 cm). (I) Locally reverse-
faulted and fractured heterolithic sandstone and shale, possibly related to a localized slumped margin/levee
(pencil 15 cm).
Fig. 5. Example of the vertical arrangement of the
facies associations and their relation to different
depositional settings. For key, see Fig. 2C. In this sec-
tion (Fig. 2B; log section 4), fans 1 and 2 are not pre-
sent, because this section is located basinwards of their
pinchouts. Fans 3 and 4 represent a mid- to outer fan
environment dominated by sheets. The ner intervals
below fans 3 and 4 are interpreted to represent basin-
oor deposition of turbidites and hemipelagic deposits.
There is a clear change in the ne interval above fan 4
(110 m), where the section becomes more sand rich and
dominated by the sigmoidally bedded facies associ-
ation. This is thought to reect overall progradation of
the depositional system and development of a slope
above fan 4. Fan 5 is a slope fan deposited in an
intraslope basin comprising, in the lower part, chann-
elized, stacked, thick- to massive-bedded turbidites
and, in the upper part, heterolithic thin-bedded
channelized turbidites.
Facies association 5: Debris ow/slurry facies
association
Description
Sandstone beds are usually thin (<50 cm) with
sharp and planar to erosional bases and sharp to
undulatory tops (lithofacies 5). Subrounded silty
shale clasts, wood fragments and abundant black
organic material are common and mostly associ-
ated with the upper parts of beds (Fig. 4D). This
debris reaches sufcient volume in some beds to
classify them as clay pebble conglomerates,
which exhibit both matrix and clast support
fabrics. No discernible grading is observed in the
conglomerates, and sorting is moderate to poor.
Interpretation
The poor sorting and evidence for clast support
above the base of the bed suggests that shear
stress was distributed throughout the bed. This is
commonly the case with debris ow deposits in
which clasts are supported by the internal
strength of the matrix and inherent clast buoy-
ancy. This facies association occurs (1) as locali-
zed pockets of rip-up clast material associated
with periods of scouring within a channel or
in the channel to sheet transition zone; and
(2) concentrated at the tops of thick- to massive-
bedded turbidite beds of both channel and sheet
geometries. These deposits are interpreted as
debris or slurry ows, deposited in the tails of
high-density turbidity ows after rapid water
expulsion and a subsequent increase in matrix
strength.
Facies association 6: Slump facies association
Description
This association comprises deformed tabular
bedded alternations of 1- to 10-cm-thick very ne
to ne sandstones and siltstones (lithofacies 8).
The sandstone beds have sharp bases and contain
ripple and parallel lamination, but are sometimes
massive. Small (<1 cm) rip-up clasts are visible in
most of the sandstone beds. The siltstones com-
monly exhibit millimetre-scale lamination, and
bioturbation is absent. Deformation is expressed
as small-scale, open, rounded, overturned folds
(Fig. 4I) with a ductile appearance and as small-
scale faults with a reverse sense of movement
(usually < 15 cm displacement). The whole unit
may exhibit gentle undulations and common
dewatering structures, except for the thicker
sandstone beds (>10 cm), which maintain a
tabular geometry (Fig. 3G). Units of this associ-
ation lie directly on scours at the base of nested
channel complexes (Fig. 4C) at Ongeluks Rivier
(Fig. 2B; log sections 16 and 17).
Interpretation
The small-scale deformation associated with
reverse faulting and apparently ductile folding
represents localized slumping of a semi-consol-
idated sedimentary package. The association with
channel scours in updip areas of fans suggests
localized slumping of channel wing or minor
levee complexes into the channel. This facies
association is only found associated with three
channel complexes in updip regions of the fans,
in areas where preservation potential is inter-
preted to be low, probably because of repeated
channel incision.
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
Channel forms
A channel is the expression of negative relief
produced by conned turbidity current ow and
represents a long-term pathway for sediment
transport. Ancient channel-ll sequences com-
monly display a complex internal stratigraphy
that records the evolution of the channel through
time (Mutti, 1992). They are divided into three
main categories, erosional, depositional and
mixed, by Mutti & Normark (1987). Channels in
the study area include ve geometric types that
are summarized in Fig. 6.
Erosional, multiple-event channel with
complex ll
This channel type occurs in the upper to middle
fan regions, and studied examples have compli-
cated ll histories and heterogeneity distribu-
tions. Initial erosion and truncation of underlying
strata was followed by deposition of amalgamated
thick- to massive-bedded turbidites. The upper
parts of the lls comprise amalgamated channel
axis and heterolithic channel margin deposits
(Figs 6A (i) and 8A), overlain by a drape of thin-
bedded turbidites deposited from low-density
ows. In general, the sandstone percentage or
net:gross (N:G) ratio of channels of this type is
up to 80% with minor reduction towards the
margins.
60
45
50
55
1
5
10
15
10
25
20
15
AXIAL CHANNEL
FACIES
PROXIMAL CHANNEL
MARGIN FACIES
DISTAL CHANNEL
MARGIN FACIES
FLOW DIRECTION
CHANNEL AXIS
PROXIMAL CHANNEL MARGIN
DISTAL CHANNEL MARGIN
DISTAL CHANNEL MARGIN
PROXIMAL CHANNEL MARGIN
schematic
channel margin
dips (x 10)
Outcrop location of measured sections
Log 2 Log 3 Log 4
2 3 4
SCHEMATIC
18 m
log locations
0 m
3 m
(i). Erosive, multiple-event channel with a complex fill: Significant erosion and truncation of underlying strata
is followed by thick-bedded turbidity current deposits in axial and marginal areas. Subsequently, the upper
parts of the channel fill contain components of thin-bedded turbidites in channel margins and axial thick
bedded turbidites. Finally a drape fill of thin-bedded turbidites occurs over the full channel width
(iv). Erosional channel with a heterolithic thin-bedded fill. Significant erosion followed by a fill
of alternating thin-bedded turbidites, siltstones and minor amounts of thick-bedded turbidites
(v). Channel complex. Variable architecture consisting of channel fills which stack in an offset lateral and
vertical arrangement. Slumped material is observed together with channel types i) to iv) above. Most
common are complex erosional and depositional channel types (i and iii)
(iii). Depositional and minor erosional channel. Clear internal partitioning of sand-rich
axial facies and heterolithic channel margin facies
(ii). Erosional multiple-event channel with a simple fill. Significant erosion and truncation of underlying strata
followed by multiple-event fill of thick bedded turbidites. Zero to minor amounts of thin-bedded channel
margin facies
B.
A.
Variable lateral
scale from 300 m to
> 1Km
Erosional, multiple-event channel
with simple ll
These channels occur in the upper fan and at
the transition zone between the upper and mid-
fan and also characterize the lower part of the
fan 5 slope system. Initial erosion was followed
by a ll of thick- to massive-bedded turbidites
(Figs 6A (ii) and 8C). N:G can be as high as
90% across the complete width of the channel
ll.
Depositional and minor erosional channel
Depositional and minor erosional channels are
common in the mid-fan settings of fans 14
(Figs 6A (iii) and 8D). There can be minor erosion
at the channel base, but the predominant depo-
sitional style is of aggradation through time.
Internal lls can be complex, and the overall
geometry comprises a sand-rich axial zone with
extensive heterolithic wings (Fig. 6B). These
channels pass laterally into sandy overbank
deposits that have a sheet geometry. Extensive
levees appear to be absent, which suggests that
the ll of the depositional channels and laterally
equivalent overbank sheets are approximately
time equivalent (Zelt & Rossen, 1995). This mid-
fan depositional environment may represent a
deep marine equivalent of an aggrading braided-
uvial setting. In the axis of this channel type,
N:G can reach 80% (Fig. 6B; log section 3),
although an abrupt reduction to 30% is observed
at the margins.
Erosional channel with heterolithic,
thin-bedded ll
These channels (Figs 6A (iv) and 8C) occur in the
upper parts of the slope fan system (fan 5). They
are erosive and contain alternations of thin-
bedded, rippled to parallel-laminated thin-bed-
ded turbidites that ll the entire eroded conduit.
The channels commonly stack laterally and
vertically to dene a large-scale sheet geometry
with N:G of 50% or less.
Channel complex
Channel complexes (Figs 6A (v) and 8B) are
conned to the proximal upper fan sections of
the basin-oor fans andthe slope fan (fan5). Basin-
oor fan channel complexes are dominated by
erosional channels andsome depositional channel
types. Abundant rip-up clast material and locali-
zed slumps (Fig. 4G and I) are interpreted as small
levees that have slumped locally into the channel
axes. In the slope fan (fan 5), channel complexes
in the lower part of the fan are dominated by
erosive simple ll channels (Fig. 6A), and the
upper half of the fan is characterized by erosive,
heterolith-lled channels (Fig. 6A).
Transitional depositional styles
Transitional depositional styles are characterized
by units with an overall tabular sheet geometry,
mappable over several kilometres, with internal
scours and very minor channelization that denes
a complex internal heterogeneity (Figs 7A and
8E). This architectural style is common in areas
on the fan where ow changes from a conned to
an unconned nature, and has been recognized at
the downdip termination of channels and in
overbank areas downstream of interpreted chan-
nel bends. The most common facies associations
are thick-bedded turbidite and hemipelagic
deposits. Debris and slurry ows (Lowe & Guy,
2000) sometimes characterize bed tops. Internal
bedding is very complex and dominated by
abrupt lateral pinchouts and complex migrating
bed- and bar-forms, and is similar to that des-
cribed in the Black Flysch of northern Spain by
Vincente Bravo & Robles (1995). N:G is 6085%.
Sheets
Sheets have a tabular geometry with planar upper
and lower surfaces and can be divided into
amalgamated sheets and layered sheets (Fig. 7B).
The deposits are similar in style and architecture
to those described for the Ross Formation of
Western Ireland by Chapin et al. (1994).
Amalgamated sheets
Amalgamated sheets contain thin-bedded (<40 cm
thick) or medium- to thick-bedded (>40 cm thick)
turbidites, shown schematically in Fig. 7B. In
both types of sheet, compensation bedding styles
are common. The sheets contain <30% claystone/
siltstone and few or no signicant shale partings,
Fig. 6. (A) Schematic summary (iv) of the ve main
channel styles observed in the study area and (B)
detail of the depositional to minor erosive channel
type that characterizes channel styles in a mid-fan
erosional setting for all basin-oor fans in the study
area. Note the change in depositional style from the
sand-rich channel axis to the heterolithic channel
margin.
giving a massive to blocky appearance on photo-
montages (Fig. 8F) and in sedimentary logs.
Amalgamated sheets occur as thick (up to 15 m)
units in the mid- to outer fan region, downdip of
transitional architectural styles and main feeder
systems. They also occur in the areas between
channels in a mid-fan setting, where they are
thinner (maximum 8 m), less extensive and dom-
inated by ripple-laminated sandstone beds that
alternate with massive sandstone.
Layered sheets
Layered sheets (Figs 7B, 8G and 8H) have an
external geometry similar to amalgamated sheets
and exhibit planar upper and lower surfaces with
an overall tabular geometry. They are distin-
guished by the presence of siltstone and claystone
(40% or more) beds. Layered sheets commonly lie
stratigraphically between amalgamated sheets,
forming the less prominent, heterolithic horizons
visible on photomontages (Fig. 8G and H).
Layered sheets have been divided into those
composed of turbidite beds >40 cm thick and
those composed of turbidite beds <40 cm, illus-
trated schematically in Fig. 7B.
Thin-bedded turbidites characterize layered
sheets in the downdip areas of fans. They
represent thin, laterally inextensive, amalgama-
ted sheet fringe deposits, which are locally
traceable back updip into mid-fan amalgamated
sheets and pass downdip into siltstone. N:G is
usually <40%. Layered sheets are common bet-
ween channels in the mid- to upper fan, where
they comprise a mixture of low- and high-
Amalgamated thick-bedded sheet (Fig. 8F)
Layered thick-bedded sheet (Fig. 8H)
Claystone-dominated sheet
Amalgamated thin-bedded sheet (Fig. 8E)
Layered thin-bedded sheet (Fig. 8G)
Siltstone-dominated sheet
Areas of truncation
Top of Fan 3
Base of Fan 4
area of photo in Fig. 8E
Transitional architectural element
B Sheet architectural elements
C Fines architectural element
A Transitional
architectural
element
1 m 1 m
1 m
1 m
3 m 3 m
Sandstone
Claystone/silt
Fig. 7. Schematic line drawings of basic non-channelized architectural elements: (A) transitional architectural ele-
ments; (B) sheets; and (C) nes.
concentration ow deposits and are dominated by
ripple forms (T
c
) throughout the beds. In these
areas, they represent interchannel sheets and pass
laterally across depositional strike into deposi-
tional channel systems. N:G can reach 60%.
Fines
Claystone-dominated sheets
Claystone-dominated sheets occur downdip of
the siltstone pinchouts of each fan system, as the
ner intervals between sand-rich fans, and as thin
(>4 m thick) but extensive intrafan nes (Fig. 7C).
The claystones are predominantly hemipelagic
deposits (lithofacies 1); however, in updip local-
ities, a component of turbiditic claystone and
siltstone is also present.
Siltstone-dominated sheets
These sheets occur immediately downdip of the
sandstone pinchouts of the fans and have been
mapped intermittently for over 15 km in a basin-
ward direction. They reach a maximum thickness
of 3 m, contain parallel lamination and some rare,
starved ripple lamination and are interpreted as
the product of very low concentration turbidity
currents.
Distribution of architectural elements
Maps of the main architectural elements have been
made for fans 15, and a single genetic fan model
has been generated for a basin-oor fan (Fig. 9).
The outcrop window for each fan is illustrated in
Fig. 10 in relation to the preserved architecture.
The maps can be used to appreciate the plan-view
geometries and distribution of architectural
elements within successive fans. The downdip
evolution of channels, from erosive/bypass to
depositional types (summarized in Fig. 6), is
shownin Fig. 11. In fan3, erosive, nested channels
(Fig. 11A) pass basinwards through erosive, mul-
tiple-event (Fig. 11C) and depositional (Fig. 11B)
styles into unconned, depositional sheets
(Fig. 11E) over a distance of 25 km. Channel to
Fig. 8. Plate of main architectural styles observed in the study area. (A) Erosive, multiple-event channel with
complex ll (scale bar 25 m, truncation arrowed). (B) Channel complex (individual channels numbered 14; scale
bar 20 m). (C) Erosive, multiple-event channel with simple ll (labelled 1 and 2) and erosional channel with
heterolithic, thin-bedded ll (labelled 3). Scale bar 10 m. (D) Depositional and minor erosive channel (labelled 1).
Note the clearly thinner wings (w) away from the axis (a). Scale bar 15 m. (E) Transitional architectural style
characterized by overall sheet geometry with internal scour (arrowed). Scale bar 17 m. (F) Amalgamated sheets in
fan 4 (a) and layered sheets in fan 3 (b). Scale bar 20 m. (G) Alternation of amalgamated sheets in overbank
environment (fan 3 mid-fan, labelled a) and layered sheets in a mid-fan environment interchannel setting labelled (b).
Scale bar 10 m. (H) Example of succession dominated by layered sheets (thick-bedded labelled a, thin bedded
labelled b) in interchannel setting in fan 3, upper to mid-fan transition. Scale bar 20 m.
Erosive channel Depositional channel Massive filled broad
thin channel
Heterolith-filled
broad thin channel
Transitional depositional style
Amalgamated thick- and
thin-bedded sheet
Layered thin-bedded sheet Layered thick-bedded sheet Fines (silts and claystones)
ZONE 1 ZONE 2 ZONE 3 ZONE 4
This area is dominated by
multi-storey and multi-
lateral channel complexes.
Channels are erosive and
rarely depositional with
extensive rip-up clasts,
local slumped deposits
and many erosive
contacts. In early fan
development sediments
mainly bypass this area.
Channel fill is
aggradational to
retrogradational in later
stages of fan development.
This zone is a mixture of
erosive channels and
laterally-inextensive interchannel
sheets.
Channels have massive to
thick-bedded fills and overbanks
are rippled, thin- to thick-bedded
amalgamated sheets.
A complex zone with architecture
controlled by geographic position
and up-dip to down-dip
relationships.
Largest proportion of interchannel
deposition in this zone is
characterised by extensive
tabular sheets of rippled bedded
sandstone. Dominant
sedimentation occurs in
depositional channels
and associated interchannel areas.
In the down-dip areas of this
zone extensive
tabular sheets can develop
with a massive-bedded style.
In this zone down-dip of extensive
sheet deposits, deposition is
characterised by isolated broad,
thin channels and laterally
inextensive- to moderately-
extensive thin-bedded sheets.
Fan deposition in the pinch out
area is ultimately only represented
by a thin silt unit.
Sequence boundary is
erosive to sharp with
channels overlying
the sequence boundary.
Sequence boundary is erosive
to sharp. Channels and some
sheet like deposits overlie the
sequence boundary.
Variable sequence boundary
expression in this zone:
Erosive below channels;
Sharp below sheets;
Gradational below thin-bedded
turbidites and silts.
Sequence boundary expression
is dominated by gradational and
sharp styles in this zone.
Rare sharp to erosive sequence
boundary expression at the base
of localised channels.
Schematic map view
and expected
cross-sectional profiles at
specific points on the fan
Fig. 9. Model for basin-oor fan systems developed from fans 14.
sheet transitional styles (Fig. 7A) are well exposed
in fan 2 (Fig. 11D), and amalgamated sheets of the
mid-fan area of fan 4 are shown in Fig. 11F.
Layered sheets (Fig. 7B), developed within a
long-term interchannel area of fan 3, are domin-
ated by current ripple lamination in both thick-
and thin-bedded styles (Fig. 12A). Fines-domin-
ated sections between fans include thin-bedded
turbidites and concretion-bearing condensed de-
posits (Fig. 12B), and distal basin-oor sections
Fan 1
Fan 2
Fan 3
Fan 4
Main
palaeocurrents
Main
palaeocurrents
Main
palaeocurrents
Main
palaeocurrents
0 Km 5
0 Km 5
0 Km 5
0 Km 5
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
Fig. 10. Diagram to illustrate the window of observation afforded by the outcrop orientation, compared with the
interpreted architecture of fans 14 at the time of deposition.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
56
55
83
82
81
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
84
56
55
54
53
52
51
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
154
153
152
151
150
149
148
147
146
144
143
142
141
145
140
139
138
137
136
135
134
133
132
131
130
129
128
127
Erosive channel from
nested channel complex at
Ongeluks Rivier (Fig. 12E).
Fan 3 base of slope channel
complex.
Depositional channel (axis) from
Kanaalkop area (Fig. 12E).
Mid-fan depositional
channel.
Amalgamated sheet. Thick-bedded
Fan 3 mid- to outer-fan.
Erosive, multiple-event channel
with a complex fill.
Fan 3 mid-fan position.
A: LOG 17 B: LOG 13 C: LOG 11 D: LOG 18 E: LOG 4 F: LOG 4
Transitional depositional
architecture.
Note abundant scour and fill.
Fan 2 mid- to outer-fan. This
depositional style occurs at
the transition between a channel
and a sheet environment.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Amalgamated sheet. Thick-bedded
Fan 4 mid-fan area.
CLST SILT VFS FS
CLST SILT VFS FS
CLST SILT VFS FS
CLST SILT VFS FS
CLST SILT FS CLST SILT VFS FS CLST SILT VFS FS CLST SILT VFS FS CLST SILT VFS FS CLST SILT VFS FS
Fig. 11. Type sections along an approximately dip-parallel transect of the fan model. For key, see Fig. 2C. (A) Erosive channel within nested channel complex,
upper fan area, fan 3. This section is characterized by abundant rip-up clasts, erosive bedding contacts and thick- to massive-bedded turbidites. (B) Charac-
teristic bedding in mid-fan section of a depositional channel axis (4861 m) and alternating thick and thin, high-suspension fall-out climbing ripple-dominated
turbidites of the interchannel succession (6170 m). (C) Example of bedding style from erosive, multistorey channel in an axial position. The lower section is
dominated by amalgamated thick- to massive-bedded turbidites, whereas the upper, more depositional section (above 59 m) is dominated by current ripple
lamination. (D) In areas characterized by a transitional architectural style, bedding is thick, with localized scour-and-ll structures (e.g. at 5 m) but is often
massive. Rip-up clasts occur but are not frequent. (E) Sheets in the mid- to outer fan area of fan 3 show some ripple lamination and parallel lamination, but are
generally massive. (F) Sheets dominated by thick- to massive-bedded turbidites in the mid-fan environment of fan 4 with noticeable loading, amalgamation and
scour.
1
0
0
4
S
.
D
.
J
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,
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3
CLST SILT VFS FS
Location of sections
from Figs 11 and 12
11A
11 F
11 C
11 D
11 E
12 A
12 C
11 B
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14 28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Section between
Fans 2 and 3 (Klein Riet
Fontain area; fig. 12E).
Basinward of sand pinchout
in Fan 2
Basin floor sediments:
Hemipelagic shales and thin-bedded
turbidites and condensed sections
represented by concretionary horizons
Basin floor setting. Dilute silt turbidite
deposition that characterises fan
style down-dip of the sand pinchout.
This is located in the down-dip area of
Fan 2 in the ZMF area on the map
(Fig. 12E).
148
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
149
150
151
152
153
154
70
69
68
67
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
84
83
82
81
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
Layered sheets.
Thick-bedded style (57 m to 66 m on log) and
thin-bedded style (71 m to 76 m on log).
Overbank setting in Fan 3 (Klein Riet Fontein
area; Fig. 12E).
Note the predominance of ripple bedding in
this area
CLST SILT VFS FS CLST SILT VFS FS CLST SILT VFS FS
CLST SILT VFS FS
CLST SILT VFS FS
A: LOG 14 B: LOG 14 C: LOG 7 D: LOG 2a
24 Logged section
2a
1a
4
7
8
11
13
14
16 17
6
0 5 Km
18
Slope depositional setting.
Section between Fan 4 and Fan 5 in
the Skoorsteenberg area of the
map (Fig.12E).
Kanaalkop
Klein Riet Fontain
Ongeluks Rivier
ZMF
E
F
Fig. 12. (A) Heterolithic sheets dominated by alternating ripple-laminated sandstones and shales from a mid-fan interchannel environment, fan 3. (B)
Dilute turbidites in thickening- and coarsening-upward interfan sandstone cycles, within the shaly intervals between the main fans. (C) Hemipelagic shale
and rare turbidites (195 m) and a well-developed 2-m-thick siltstone unit with starved ripples and parallel lamination (205227 m) that represents the
expression of a fan beyond the downdip sand pinchout. (D) Example of the ne-grained slope succession between fans 4 and 5. (E) Location map of
logged sections. (F) Inferred position of logged sections on a basin-oor fan.
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4
8
,
9
8
7
1
0
2
3
are dominated by hemipelagic sediments. Mas-
sive siltstone beds represent the downdip expres-
sions of fans and extend for more than 10 km
basinwards of the mapped distal fan pinchouts
(Fig. 12C). The slope depositional setting is char-
acterized by facies association 4 heteroliths, well
exposed between fans 4 and 5 in the Skoorsteen-
berg area (Fig. 12D).
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
Introduction
Application of classical sequence stratigraphic
models to deep-water clastic systems implies that
all volumetrically important turbidite successions
are basin-oor fans or leveed channel complexes,
deposited during or shortly after an episode of
relative sea-level fall (Vail et al., 1977; Mitchum,
1985; Mutti, 1985; Pickering et al., 1989; Weimer,
1990; Posamentier et al., 1991; Den Hartog Jager
et al., 1993). In addition the validity of the basin-
oor fan model and the necessity of a period of
relative sea-level fall to produce turbidites have
been questioned by many authors (e.g. Kolla &
Perlmutter, 1993; Shanmugam et al., 1995; Bur-
gess & Hovius, 1998). The basic model, derived
mainly from seismic sections (Mitchum, 1985),
does not address the higher frequency cyclicity
observed in outcrop data sets (Mutti et al., 1994),
but recent work has attempted to apply sequence
stratigraphic principles at outcrop scale (Gardner
& Sonnenfeld, 1996). A fundamental difference
between deep-water and other depositional envi-
ronments is that, at any relative sea-level position,
there is always accommodation space in which to
deposit and preserve sediment in the deep basin.
Locally, variable equilibrium proles may affect
accommodation space on the slope (Prather et al.,
1998; Prather, 2000). However, at times of negative
or minimal accommodation space on the shelf,
sediment supply to the deep basin is maximized.
For example, Kohl & DSDP Shipboard scientists
(1985) showed that, for the Mississippi fan during
low sea level, the non-decompacted rate of sedi-
mentation was 6001100 cm/1000 years but
dropped to 213 cm/1000 years during high sea
level. This does not mean that all turbidites
represent lowstand systems tracts, because there
are active deep-sea fans around the world today,
coincident with a highstand systems tract (e.g. the
Var Fan; Piper & Savoye, 1993), and calculations
suggest that many rivers can build deltas to the
shelf edge and thus source turbidites during
highstands (Burgess & Hovius, 1998). However,
the above studies do indicate that a major control
on the sequential development of deep-water
clastic systems is the volume and type of sediment
supplied to the system at a given time. This
allows an objective view of vertical stratigraphic
evolution in ancient turbidite deposits, based on
volume of sediment input at a given time.
Condensed sections
The most reliable correlation markers in the
Tanqua system at all scales are condensed sec-
tions, which therefore form the basis of the
sequence stratigraphic analysis provided here.
Three consistently recognizable associations of
sedimentary facies represent condensed sections.
Type 1 horizons
Type 1 horizons are condensed sections marked
by nodular concretionary horizons (Fig. 3H). The
concretions are commonly iron stained with
cone-in-cone structures and vary between 7 cm
and 50 cm in diameter. They form either exten-
sive layers or more localized lozenge forms in the
ne-grained packages of facies association 1
between the fans. The variation between concre-
tionary nodule horizons and concretionary pans
is thought to result from variations in the length
of time that sedimentation was suppressed (Rai-
swell, 1987), with the concretionary `pans' form-
ing during longer periods of hiatus. Type 1
horizons represent relatively long-duration breaks
in sedimentation that allowed the development of
distinct diagenetic processes and are associated
with the 20- to 60 m thick, ne-grained basinal
shale packages developed between fans. These
shaly packages are interpreted as transgressive
and highstand systems tracts of low-frequency
sequences (see below). Stratigraphically clustered
type 1 concretionary horizons are interpreted as
the deep-basin equivalent of the maximum ood-
ing surface on the coeval shelf (i.e. the time of
lowest net rates of sediment supply via the shelf
to the deep basin).
Type 2 horizons
Type 2 horizons comprise 20 cm- to 3 m-thick
intrafan packages of facies associations 13.
These predominantly shale to silty-shale horizons
(Fig. 13) are traceable for >20 km laterally within
the fans and therefore represent signicant peri-
ods of condensation across whole fan systems.
Type 2 condensed horizons are most common
between amalgamated sheets or above channel
lls (Fig. 13). Because of their lateral extent and
intrafan setting, type 2 horizons are interpreted as
higher order (shorter duration) condensed sec-
tions than type 1 horizons. An abrupt reduction
in sand supply over a whole fan system may
result from an increase in water depth on the
coeval shelf, thereby trapping sand updip. These
increases in shelf water depth could be related to
relative sea-level rises, but this cannot be proved
as the coeval shelf is not preserved.
An alternative interpretation is that these sand-
poor zones relate to autocyclic switching of
channels within the fan. For example, updip
channel switching may cause the development of
intersheet/sheet fringe deposits above an older
sheet, producing a succession with the character-
istics of a type 2 horizon. In this interpretation,
a less highly ordered vertical and lateral strati-
graphic signature might be expected within a fan
than those observed herein. Another possibility
might be climatically driven reductions in sand
supply, but there is no regional evidence for
signicant climate change in the Ecca Group
(Wickens, 1994). The present interpretation there-
fore favours type 2 horizons being related to
relative sea-level rises on the shelf and represent-
ing transgressive and highstand systems tracts to
high-frequency sequences.
Type 3 horizons
Type 3 horizons are commonly <30 cm thick, are
composed of facies associations 14 and occur
within individual amalgamated sheets or within
channel complexes (Fig. 14). Type 3 horizons
have limited lateral extent (<5 km) and are
interpreted to represent a shorter duration of
more localized sediment starvation than type 2
horizons. The origin of type 3 horizons could be
autocyclic switching within the fans, related to
compensation cycles or very high-frequency para-
sequence-scale, shelf-ooding events.
Use of condensed sections for correlation
Three fan-wide type 2 horizons allow the division
of fan 3 into four high-frequency sequences with
the whole fan complex bounded by type 1
horizons (Fig. 15). Type 3 horizons occur within
each of the high-frequency sequences and cannot
be correlated fan-wide. The type 2 horizons
clearly dene `clinoform'-like geometries, with
low basinward dips when sections are hung on
the base of the fan (Fig. 16). Using the same
approach, a strike-oriented section of fan 4 shows
a more uniform `layered' distribution of type 2
horizons (Fig. 17). The large-scale stratigraphic
relationship between fans 3 and 4, which are
separated by type 1 condensed sections (Fig. 18),
demonstrates (1) the basinward-thinning nature
of fan 3 to the north; (2) the clearly developed
lobate geometry of the rst unit of fan 3; and (3)
the large-scale compensational stacking between
the two fans, as fan 3 is clearly thicker where fan
4 is thinnest (Fig. 18).
Intrafan sandstone cycles
The sand-rich packages between type 2 horizons
form the main building blocks of the fans, but it is
not consistently possible to pick a `standard'
Fig. 13. Example of a type 2 con-
densed horizon, comprising turbi-
ditic siltstone and thin sandstone
beds with minor amounts of hemi-
pelagic shale. Note the sharp base to
the overlying sandy growth phase.
These zones of reduced sandstone
deposition are mappable across the
complete exposures of basin-oor
fans. Scale bar 30 cm.
25
30
35
A
Type 3
Type 3
Type 3
Type 2
Type 2
Type 2
SB: Sharp
Clystn
Silt vfs
fs
B D A C
Log 4. Fan 3. Mid- to
outer-fan sheet setting.
In this area type 2 and
type 3 horizons are
also well developed.
The sequence boundary
at this locality is sharp
and planar due to sheet
deposits overlying a
type 2 horizon.
45
50
55
60
30
35
40
Type 3
Type 3
Type 3
Type 3
Type 2
Top
Fan 4
Type 1 horizon
Type 2
Clystn
Silt vfs
fs
10
5
1
25
20
15
Clystn
Silt vfs
fs
Type 2
Type 3
Type 3
Type 3
Type 3
Type 2
Base
Fan 4
Type 1
horizon
Type 2
SB: Sharp
SB: Gradational
SB: Sharp
SB: Sharp
SB: Sharp
Fan 4, log 4.Type 1, type 2 and
type 3 horizons developed in a sheet
dominated mid-fan setting.
70
75
80
Type 3
Type 2
Type 2
Type 3
Type 3
Clystn
Silt vfs
fs
SB: Gradational
Log 11. Fan 3.
Upper- to mid-fan
interchannel setting.
Type 2 and type 3
horizons are well
developed.
Deposition is intitiated
by a gradational contact
that marks the sequence
boundary.
is gradational.
Log 7. Fan 3.
Outer-fan.
In this area type 2 and
type 1 horizons are
dominant.
developed in this area is
often gradational but is
occasionally erosive at the
base of localised
channels.
SB: Gradational
70
Clystn
Silt vfs
fs
Type 1 horizon
E
A
B
C
D
Interpreted position
on a basin floor fan
65
60
vertical motif between the type 2 horizons. In
areas lateral to stacked channel systems, the sand-
rich packages are up to 6 m thick and comprise
aggradational to ning-upward units of rippled
very ne unamalgamated sheet sandstones,
whereas in axial channel complexes, they may
be represented only by time-equivalent erosion
surfaces, rip-up clast horizons or amalgamation
surfaces (Fig. 14). In downdip sheet deposits,
intrafan sandstone cycles are 1- to 5-m-thick sheet
sandstone packages of Bouma sequences with
their upper CD divisions missing. Mid-fan areas
contain cycles that show complex arrangements
of sheet and depositional channel sandstones
(Fig. 14).
Interfan sandstone cycles
Interfan sandstone cycles are present in the 30- to
60-m-thick ne-grained intervals between fans
14 (Fig. 19). These sandstone cycles are domin-
ated by facies association 2 and are bounded by
type 1 or type 2 condensed sections (Fig. 19).
Each cycle can be traced over the whole exposure
(20 km +) and has the same mappable extent as
fans 13. These cycles are never >8 m thick
(Fig. 19), do not grade laterally into thick fans,
and sets of two to six cycles exhibit a range of
stacking patterns. These cycles may represent
much longer durations of deposition than the
intrafan sandstone cycles, based on the higher
proportion of ner, more slowly deposited sedi-
ment. Interfan sandstone cycles are tentatively
interpreted as parasequences within the low-
frequency highstand systems tract that separate
each major fan lowstand systems tract.
Initiation of active fan growth
Field relations
Within the stratigraphic framework based on
condensed zones, it is possible to identify epi-
sodes of active fan growth (sensu Pickering et al.,
1995) at stratigraphic positions coincident with
interpreted regional-scale changes in the calibre,
rate and architectural style of deposition. Partic-
ular vertical facies juxtapositions that are
mappable over the whole study area show the
following characteristics:
1 A clear surface that separates thin-bedded
turbidites from an overlying succession of thick-
bedded turbidites (Fig. 14). In different areas of an
individual fan, this change can be marked by
either the base of a channel complex overlying
distal basin plain or fan fringe deposits or the base
of an amalgamated sheet sandstone overlying
more distal turbidite deposits (Fig. 14). The sur-
face can be erosive if at the base of a channel, or
planar with little appreciable erosion at the base
of a sheet succession. It is important to note that
the expression of the sequence boundary varies
depending on the position on a depositional
prole. The exact expression of the sequence
boundary is described and illustrated in Fig. 14,
with a general tendency towards a more erosive to
sharp sequence boundary in updip areas and a
gradational to sharp boundary in downdip areas.
2 A grain-size increase across the surface
coupled with a change to more frequent, higher
concentration turbidity current deposits above
the boundary.
3 A net increase in sedimentation rate above
the surface.
4 Surfaces can be traced over extensive distan-
ces with the above characteristics.
Interpretation
The increase in sediment volume, sand:shale
ratio and change in style from low- to high-
concentration turbidite current deposition at any
given point on the fan is associated with the
initiation of a phase of active fan growth and is
interpreted as an abrupt increase in sediment
supply to the basin oor. This abrupt increase in
sediment supply over the whole fan system is
considered to be related to a decrease in accom-
modation space on the coeval shelf and the
generation of an updip sequence boundary.
Episodes of fan growth occur at a high-frequency
intrafan scale marked by abrupt increases in sand
deposition immediately above type 2 condensed
sections and also on the lower frequency of the
ve complete fans marked by a variable sequence
boundary expression.
With limited data sets, it is difcult to be sure
that an abrupt increase in sediment supply
denitely represents a basinward shift in facies
(for example, proximal fan strata abruptly
overlying distal fan strata). The alternative
interpretation is a lateral shift in fan lobe depos-
ition related to autocyclic processes. The key
Fig. 14. Types 1, 2 and 3 condensed horizons and
sequence boundary expression in different fan settings:
(A) interchannel setting, fan 3; (B) mid- to outer fan
setting, fan 3; (C) outer fan setting in fan 3; (D) mid-fan
sheet-dominated setting in fan 4. (E) Positions of logged
sections on a basin-oor fan.
Fan 3
LOG 12
?
65
1
1
3.2 km 6.5 km 8.2 km 600 m 700 m 700 m 8.9 km 300 m
KEY
MAIN SANDSTONE UNITS:
SHEET GEOMETRY
CHANNELISED UNITS
MAIN CORRELATION ZONES
TYPE 1 HORIZON
TYPE 2 HORIZON
TYPE 3 HORIZON
SHALE
SANDSTONE
5 m
0 m
SCALE
LOG 17 LOG 16 LOG 9 LOG 8 LOG 7 LOG 6 LOG 4 LOG 11 LOG 13 LOG 14
10
20
30
40
60
50
40
30
70
80
90
80
70
60
50
40
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
40
50
60
70
80
90
40
50
60
80
70
30
20
10
0
10
0
20
10
0
20
10
Moderate to good correlation confidence Excellent to good correlation confidence Moderate to good
correlation confidence
Good correlation confidence
Fig. 15. Fan 3, correlation of type 2 condensed sections, using the top of the fan as a datum.
1
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8
,
9
8
7
1
0
2
3
5 m
0 m
SCALE
KEY
MAIN SANDSTONE UNITS: SHEET GEOMETRY
CHANNELISED UNITS
TYPE 1 HORIZON
TYPE 2 HORIZON
TYPE 3 HORIZON
SHALE
SANDSTONE
LOG 17 LOG 16 LOG 9 LOG 8 LOG 7 LOG 6 LOG 4 LOG 11 LOG 13 LOG 14
1
28
3.2 km 6.5 km 8.2 km 600 m 700 m 8.9 km 300 m 700 m
35
LOG 12
1
65
base Fan 3
?
?
?
70
60
30
40
50
40
30
20
50
60
70
60
50
80
90
30
20
80
70
60
60
70
80
90
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
90
80
70
60
50
10
0
20
10
10
20
30
0
10
20
Moderate to good correlation confidence Excellent to good correlation confidence Moderate to good
Good correlation confidence
Fan 3
Fig. 16. Fan 3, correlation of type 2 condensed sections, using the base of the fan as a datum. Note the basinward-dipping clinoform geometries of the
condensed sections and the lobate geometry of the lowest sandy unit.
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0
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1
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8
,
9
8
7
1
0
2
3
LOG 2A LOG 1A LOG 4 LOG 5 LOG 6 LOG 14
1
5 0
5
1
3 3
1 0
1 5
4 5
5 m
0 m
SCALE
800 m 1.8 km 1.7 km
2.2 km
6 km
19 km
Base Fan 4
1 2 0
LOG 7
KEY
MAIN SANDSTONE UNITS:
SHEET GEOMETRY
CHANNELISED UNITS
TYPE 1 HORIZON
TYPE 2 HORIZON
TYPE 3 HORIZON
SHALE
SANDSTONE
Good to excellent correlation confidence
Moderate to good
Poor to moderate
Fan 4
Fig. 17. Fan 4, correlation of type 2 condensed sections in a depositional strike-oriented mid-fan setting, using the top of the fan as a datum. Note the general
sheet-like nature of this system.
1
0
1
2
S
.
D
.
J
o
h
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s
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t
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2
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1
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,
4
8
,
9
8
7
1
0
2
3
SCALE
5 m
0 m
Location of logs in Fans 3 and 4
Log 1a Log 2a Log 4 Log 5 Log 6 Log 7
Log 14
Log 4 Log 6
Log 7
Log 8
Log 11
Log 13
Log 14
Log 16
Log 17
Fan 4
Fan 3
Section
between
Fans 3 and
4 is 14 m
thick at
this point
Section
between Fans
3 and 4 is 18 m
thick at
this point
Section
between Fans
3 and 4 is 19 m
thick at
this point
Section between
Fans 3 and 4 is 20 m
thick at this point
Key: Sheets
Channels
Fines-dominated packages
Basin shale dominated package
Main correlatable sand-
rich packages
Main palaeoflow of individual
depositional packages
3 km
1a
17
24
Logged section
2a
7
8
11
13
14
16
6
4
0 5 Km
Fig. 18. Large-scale compensational stacking of fans 3 and 4.
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Basin Floor inter-fan sandstone cycle
145
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135
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PS
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BURROWS AND
VESTIGE OF WAVE
RIPPLED
SANDSTONE
HUMMOCKY
BEDDING
TROUGH
CROSS-
BEDDING
SANDSTONE
MUDSTONE
P L A NA R
BEDDING
BEDDING
IN
CORE
GR
API UNITS
0 150
PARASEQUENCE
BOUNDARY
FS = FORESHORE; USF = UPPER SHOREFACE; LSF =
LOWER SHOREFACE; D.LSF = DISTAL LOWER
SHOREFACE; SH = SHELF
Slope inter-fan sandstone cycle
Shallow marine parasequence for comparison
Redrawn from Van Wagoner et al., 1990
PS = SANDSTONE CYCLE BOUNDARY
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
PS
BASE
FAN
PS
A B C
Type 1 horizon (concretionary horizon)
PS
Thickness in metres
Fig. 19. Comparison of interfan sandstone cycles (interpreted as parasequences) in basin-oor (A and B) and slope depositional settings (C). A schematic
example of a shallow marine parasequence is included for comparison (after Van Wagoner et al., 1990).
1
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observation in the Tanqua fans is that certain
surfaces occur fan-wide and are always associated
with an increase in sediment supply, but their
specic expression in terms of facies juxtaposi-
tions is quite variable (Fig. 14), owing to autocy-
clic processes, type of geomorphological element
above the surface and geographic position on the
fan prole.
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC
EVOLUTION OF THE TANQUA FANS
Fan 1
Fan 1 has the smallest outcrop extent, and the
exposed area is limited to the distal/lateral
pinchout area. Based on the presence of a
downdip pinchout and palaeocurrent analysis,
fan 1 is interpreted as mid- to outer fan deposits
(Figs 9 and 10). Owing to the bedding nature,
amalgamation and geometry, an unconned
depositional setting is interpreted, but no specic
lobe geometry can be proved from the limited
outcrop control. The fan is up to 20 m thick and
comprises three high-frequency lowstand systems
tracts separated by type 2 condensed zones,
which represent the corresponding high-fre-
quency transgressive and highstand systems
tracts. The basal unit 1 is characterized by
localized channel complexes up to 10 m thick
and 1 km wide that are erosive with a heterolithic
ll. Units 2 and 3 are mid-fan sheets and shallow
depositional channels. The stacking pattern of the
high-frequency lowstand systems tracts is prog-
radational or basinward stepping (Fig. 20), as
described from other fan systems by Nilsen et al.
(1994) and Normark et al. (1999).
Fan 2
Fan 2 represents the mid- to outer fan environ-
ment (mostly zone 3 and 4 deposition, Fig. 9).
The fan contains three high-frequency lowstand
systems tracts separated by type 2 condensed
Fan 5 is
landward stepping
Landward stepping
Fan 4 is aggradational to
slightly basinward stepping
Aggradational
Fans 1,2 and 3
step basinward
Basinward stepping
Large-scale stacking pattern analysis in the study area
This is caused by the successive stacking of the high-resolution sequences
defined by type 2 starvation zones (each 10-20 m+ thick).
This may be a mechanism to accurately subdivide fan systems on seismic data.
Tieing condensed sections, defined by borehole biostratigraphic data, to seismic
reflectors could enhance sub-surface fan delineation and interpretation.
Fig. 20. Observed styles of large-
scale stacking patterns in the Karoo
Basin fans. The style observed is
caused by the stacking of a number
of high-resolution sequences in
basinward, landward or aggrada-
tional patterns.
sections and has a maximum thickness of 42 m.
The lowest unit comprises heterolithic channel
lls and thin, elongate sand sheets that pinch out
basinwards into siltstones. The middle and upper
units of fan 2 comprise sheets, transitional and
channelized architectural elements (Rozman,
2000). The distal pinchout of the upper section
of fan 2 exhibits a gradational facies change in a
basinward direction and a channelized style, as
described for fan 1 above. The distal sandy areas
of the fan show localized channel lls up to 10 m
thick and 12 km wide. Although sandstone
deposition has a denite basinward limit, a 2-m-
thick siltstone package (Fig. 3G) with rare centi-
metre-thick starved current ripple lamination
extends for 15 km further basinwards from the
sand pinchout that is a characteristic depositional
style of zone 4 deposition.
The base of fan 2 is erosional in the locality of
channels and sharp elsewhere. Regional mapping
shows that the high-frequency lowstand systems
tracts step successively further basinwards, de-
ning an overall progradational stacking pattern
similar to that of fan 1 (Fig. 20).
Fan 3
Fan 3 shows the greatest variety of facies and
architectural elements (Fig. 9) and affords a full
view of the updip to downdip stratigraphic evolu-
tion. The principal palaeocurrent orientations are
to the north/north-east, and sections are oriented
ina roughnorthtosouthtransect. Thickness trends
are variable but, overall, the fan thins to the north
froma maximumthickness of 55 m. The base of fan
3 is always sharp but variable in facies. In places,
thick-beddedsheet sands overlie thin-beddedvery
ne sandstones and siltstones, whereas stacked
channel lls overlie shales inproximal/axial areas.
The basal contact is sharp where sheet sands occur
with little evidence of large-scale erosion. In the
downdip parts of fan 3, where thin-bedded turbid-
ites are the dominant facies, the initiation of active
fan growth occurs above a gradational sequence
boundary. Fan 3 represents a low-frequency low-
stand systems tract, as interpreted by Wickens
(1994).
The mainarchitectural elements infan3 include
a nested channel complex (in the most proximal
southern area), thin amalgamated sheets separated
by heterolithic sheets and isolated large deposi-
tional and erosional channel complexes. The
amalgamated sheets of thick-bedded and massive
turbidites are interpreted as lobes (sensu Mutti &
Normark, 1987) on account of their laterally
extensive, parallel-sided, stacked character. The
nes and unamalgamated sheets represent inter-
channel/overbank complexes because of the lack
of clear channelization, the ubiquity of current
rippled strata and the dominance of thin beds in
small-scale thinning- and/or ning-upward bed-
sets. Thin, base-absent turbidite sheet sandstones,
representing local fan abandonment, occur in
places.
Fan 3 can be divided into four separate high-
frequency lowstand systems tracts, separated by
regional type 2 condensed horizons (Fig. 16). In a
similar manner to the underlying fans, the high-
frequency sequences step successively further
basinwards, which is interpreted as a prograda-
tional stacking pattern (Fig. 20).
Fan 4
Fan 4 exhibits less internal complexity than fan 3.
Palaeocurrents show a 90 swing to a general
eastward trend, providing both dip and strike
sections. Fan 4 thins from 65 m in the Skoors-
teenberg area to around 35 m in the south and
comprises laterally extensive, stacked amalgama-
ted sheets, channels and transitional architectural
styles (Fig. 9). The sheets comprise medium- to
thick-bedded (and massive) turbidites with par-
allel tops and bases. Channels occur only in the
upper part of fan 4 and are mainly large, single
storey and erosionaldepositional in type. How-
ever, a channel complex is exposed in the south
of the study area (Fig. 8B). Transitional channel
to unconned depositional settings are inter-
preted where a series of shallow erosive scours
at the base of a sheet complex pass basinwards
into amalgamated sheets with planar, parallel
bases. The base of fan 4 is abrupt and more clearly
dened than the base of fan 3, because of the
common lack of thickening-upward packages
below the basal surface. There is no large-scale
basal erosion, but shale rip-up clasts, wood
fragments and organic debris are common. This
surface is interpreted similarly to the bases of the
older fans as correlative to an updip, low-
frequency sequence boundary.
Fan 4 can be divided into ve high-frequency
lowstand systems tracts, bounded by type 2
condensed zones up to 2 m thick (Fig. 17). The
lower four sequences are generally not associated
with channel deposits, although a channel to
sheet transition is seen in places, whereas the
uppermost sequence contains the best developed
channel lls. The stacking pattern of the high-
frequency sequences is aggradational to slightly
progradational (Fig. 20), in contrast to the prog-
radational stacking patterns within fans 13.
Fan 5
Fan 5 has only been examined in the northern part
of the study area because of sporadic exposure
elsewhere. Unlike the other fans, it shows clear
truncation of underlying facies association 4 slope
deposits with more than 6 m of erosion over less
than 500 m. This truncation surface is interpreted
as a slump scar, which provided local healed slope
accommodation space (Prather, 2000) that was
later lled. This basal surface may be a sequence
boundary but, as slumping on the slope can occur
during any position of relative sea level, this
interpretation is tentative. However, the develop-
ment of a50 m thicksandypackage above the basal
surface represents active fangrowth, whichis more
likely when sediment supply to the slope is
increased during relative sea-level fall.
Above the basal erosion surface, fan 5 is com-
posedof channels that have amalgamated to forma
large-scale sheet geometry. There is a clear vertical
partitioning of channel lls through the fan. The
lower part comprises large channels with up to
2 m of basal erosion that are mainly lled by
massive to structured sandstone with minor
amounts of thin- to medium-bedded sandstone.
Large-scale internal scours and smaller scour-and-
ll bedforms are common in the lower part of the
fan. The upper part of the fan is dominated by
laterally offset-stacked depositional channels with
heterolithic lls. This fan-wide change in archi-
tecture is interpreted as the deep-water equivalent
of a backlling depositional system, evidenced by
an upsection decrease in the volume of the
turbidity currents. The backstepping stacking
pattern (Fig. 20) may represent the rst signicant
increase in the rate of relative sea-level rise during
late lowstand, with sand starting to be trapped in
shelf-edge deltas and incised valleys updip. The
fan is overlain by prodelta shales and heteroliths
and is interpreted as a slope fan that lled an
erosive slump-dened intraslope mini-basin.
Interfan nes and interfan sandstone cycles
The ne-grained intervals below fan 1 and
between fans 1 and 2 are dominated by basin
plain claystones of facies association 1 with
abundant, well-developed concretionary hori-
zons. Minor, thin (<1 m) sandstone/siltstone
intervals represent very dilute, distal turbidite
deposition. The interval between fans 2 and 3
contains four interfan sandstone cycles (Fig. 5). A
gradational change in the interfan nes is evident
through the 70 m thick interval between fans 4
and 5 (Fig. 5). The lower 10 m is composed of
claystone, siltstone and thin-bedded turbidites
that form interfan sandstone cycles up to 4 m
thick. Above this point, the succession is domin-
ated by sigmoidal ripple-laminated slope deposits
of facies association 4, organized in small-scale
thickening- and coarsening-upward cycles and
cycles with no discernible trends. These interfan
sandstone cycles have overall sheet geometries,
comprise 60% sand and maintain a constant
thickness over several hundred metres.
The intervals of nes between the fans are
interpreted as low-frequency transgressive and
highstand systems tracts, and the interfan sand-
stone cycles are thus tentatively interpreted as
parasequences (Van Wagoner et al., 1988) within
the low-frequency highstand systems tracts.
Recognition and correct interpretation of interfan
sandstone cycles can impact signicantly on
subregional interpretations, because these depos-
its have very similar characteristics to sheet fringe
or fan fringe deposits of the major fans.
Sequence hierarchy
Low-frequency sequences
The stratigraphic division on the basis of a
hierarchy of condensed zones delineates three
scales of cyclicity in the Tanqua succession. The
ve fans and interfan deposits are interpreted as
low-order sequences (sensu Vail et al., 1977). The
base of each fan marks a sequence boundary, and
each fan is a low-order lowstand systems tract.
The nes-dominated interfan units comprise the
transgressive and highstand systems tracts. It has
not yet been possible to map the basinal equiv-
alent of the maximum ooding surfaces reliably.
In places, however, closely spaced type 1 con-
densed horizons 1020 m above the tops of the
fans most probably represent candidates for these
zones of maximum condensation. The section of
nes above these condensed zones (candidate
basinal equivalents to maximum ooding surfa-
ces) between fans 1, 2, 3 and 4 tend to show a
subtle upward increase in the presence of turbi-
ditic shale and interfan sandstone cycles. This
trend of gradually increasing sediment supply to
the basin oor may be indicative of highstand
systems tract progradation on the coeval shelf.
The trend is not so clearly developed in the slope
interval between fans 4 and 5 (Fig. 5).
High-frequency sequences
As demonstrated above, the ve fans can be
subdivided on the basis of intrafan type 2
condensed horizons. Each intrafan sand-rich
package and overlying Type 2 condensed horizon
is interpreted as a high-frequency sequence, and
these sequences show progradational, aggrada-
tional and retrogradational stacking patterns
(Fig. 20). According to the concept of sequence
hierarchy (Mitchum & Van Wagoner, 1991), each
fan is interpreted as a sequence set, built of the
high-frequency sequences.
CONTROLS ON STRATIGRAPHIC
ARCHITECTURE
Chronostratigraphy
The literature is replete with examples of both
eustatic and tectonic driving mechanisms for
sequence development, often lacking direct
unequivocal evidence for the exact driving mech-
anism or, more usually, the combination of
mechanisms (for a review, see Miall, 1997). A
more objective approach is to compare the timing
and duration of stratigraphic features with known
rates of potential driving mechanisms. This is
only possible within the available time frame-
work, which is limited in the case of the Tanqua
basin. Poor absolute age dating has led several
workers to assign dates to the turbidites based on
assumed linkages between thrust belt tectonics
and certain stratigraphic intervals of the foreland
basin (Wickens, 1994; Scott et al., 2000). Using
this approach, ashes from the lower Ecca Coll-
ingham Formation in the Laingsburg subbasin,
interpreted by Halbich et al. (1983) to rst date
uplift/shortening in the Cape Fold Belt (278 Ma),
and Visser's (1990) estimation from regional
correlations suggests that the entire Ecca Group
represents 35 My (Wickens, 1994). This short
duration precludes most tectonic driving mech-
anisms (Miall, 1997). Bouma & Wickens (1991)
also postulated a 100 000 years cyclicity for the
fans, and Goldhammer et al. (2000) followed this

Fig. 21. Schematic summary of architectural elements, geometries and stratigraphic positions of the Tanqua Karoo
fan systems.
argument. None of the above authors delineated
the intrafan high-frequency sequences.
The most reliable estimate of Ecca Group
duration is based on a recent radiometric date of
270 1 Ma for the Collingham Formation (Tur-
ner, 1999) and a reptilian assemblage date of
255 Ma for the overlying lower Beaufort Group
uvial deposits (Rubidge, 1991), thus bracketing
the Tanqua fans within a 15 My period. On this
basis, the ve major fans may each represent the
lowstand systems tracts to third-order relative
sea-level cycles, which have durations of
23 My (Haq et al., 1987). The intrafan high-
frequency sequences would then represent
fourth-order (05 My) sequences.
Sequence driving mechanisms
The highly diachronous nature of the Gondwana
glaciation means that glacial/interglacial activity
in this known icehouse climatic system remained
operative during Ecca Group times elsewhere on
the supercontinent (Visser, 1990). Although intra-
Dwyka chronostratigraphy is poor, loose analogy
with the late Cenozoic glacial cycles provides
a plausible Milankovitch cyclicity, producing
eustatic sea-level changes on a 10 000100 000
years frequency (Abreu & Anderson, 1998). Elder
et al. (1994) correlated 100 000 years duration
interpreted Milankovitch cycles across the Creta-
ceous Western Interior retro-arc foreland basin,
USA, from clastic cycles in the west to carbonate
cycles in the east, over a distance of 1500 km. This
correlation effectively precluded thrust belt tec-
tonics as the origin of the cycles, as the eastern
section of the basin was not directly affected by
the local subsidence variations caused by thrust
movements.
Changes in thrust propagation rates and the
development of local imbricate structures within
thrust belts bounding foreland basins have been
suggested as mechanisms for controlling strati-
graphic cyclicity in the basin ll, particularly
where thrust fault dynamics are complex, with
the development of imbricate structures where
movement on a hierarchy of faults may occur at
different rates (Boyer, 1992). Many authors have
interpreted a causal link between the shortening
history of the thrust belt and cyclicity in the basin
ll. The main problem is the paucity of data to
link rates of fault movement quantitatively with
the estimated duration of high-frequency cycles
in the Karoo basin and limited understanding of
the exact timing of subaerial emergence of the
thrustbelt (Turner, 1999). Without better age
dating, it can only be speculated as to the exact
duration and hence driving mechanism of the
Tanqua cycles, but the presence of coeval glacial
cycles provides a viable eustatic mechanism for
at least the high-frequency sequences. Goldham-
mer et al. (2000) speculated that fans 15 com-
prise a highstand sequence set controlled by
glacio-eustatic sea-level changes.
IMPLICATIONS FOR SUBSURFACE
DATA INTERPRETATION
Interpretation of cores and well logs
A basin-oor fan model (Fig. 9), built from the
most regionally exposed fan (fan 3) and comple-
mented with data from fans 1, 2, 4 and 5,
illustrates the sedimentary style and vertical
geometric style at different positions in equival-
ent subsurface data sets based on interpreted
position on a basin to slope prole (Fig. 21). A key
nding is the difculty of distinguishing reliably
between channel and amalgamated sheet sand-
stones, because vertical bedding trends in a single
locality can be misleading in terms of lateral
architectural style (see discussion in Cheng &
Hiscott, 1999). For example, many successions
interpreted from subsurface data as stacked sheets
(based on thinning-up trends in a vertical well
log) may be formed of stacked channels with a
complex vertical and lateral heterogeneity.
The Tanqua fans allow characterization of one
specic style of distal fan pinchout, which is
gradual rather than abrupt and characterized by
localized channels and sheets rather than exten-
sive sandy sheets as current facies models suggest
(Walker, 1992). The Tanqua model predicts that
signicant volumes of sand lie basinwards of
likely fan pinchouts dened purely from seismic
mapping, where the vertical resolution of many
seismic surveys would necessitate a sand cut-off at
10 m. Distal fan margins in the Tanqua also pro-
vide robust stratigraphic trapping mechanisms.
Lithology prediction from stacking patterns
The recognition of condensed sections and, to
a lesser extent, sequence boundaries (Fig. 22)
allows a rened interpretation of the mechanism
of fan growth over time and a partly predictive
understanding of the distribution of lithologies
based on the ability to map out high-frequency
depositional sequences. The high-frequency
sequences dene uid ow units for reservoir
simulation and deterministically mappable verti-
cal permeability barriers. Net:gross variations
within the high-frequency sequences are com-
plex, and mapping may be facilitated by combi-
ning seismic data, well logs and production test
data in subsurface areas and a knowledge of the
statistical distribution of architectural elements
and size based on analogue data.
When the base of a fan complex is used as a
datum, progradational stacking patterns of high-
frequency intrafan sequences dene subtle `clino-
form' geometries, which indicate that a layer-cake
Initial sea-level
Lowest sea-level
Highest sea-level
ZONE 1 ZONE 2 metres
Zone 2:
A decrease of turbidite deposition.
Dominantly thin-bedded turbidites, siltstones and
claystones.
Stacking patterns controlled by high-frequency
sea-level changes and autocyclicity
Zone 1:
Flooding surfaces develop on the
shelf that relate to zones of sediment
starvation in deeper water
Decreased probability of sediments
fed to canyons during rsl highstand
C
Sea level curve based on
Kolla & Perlmutter (1993)
Initial sea-level
Lowest sea-level
Highest sea-level
ZONE 1 ZONE 2
HST
HST
Low &
E. Rise
Zone 2:
An increase of turbidite deposition.
Dominantly thin-bedded turbidites
with less frequent thick-bedded turbidites.
Stacking patterns controlled by high-
frequency sea-level changes and autocyclicity
Area of well-
developed key
surfaces of
sequence
stratigraphic
significance Zone of deep-water fan deposition
Zone of slope mini-basin and
channel transport systems
Zone 1:
During initial sea-level fall
turbidites may develop
from shelf bypass
Initial sea-level
Lowest sea-level
Highest sea-level
ZONE 1 ZONE 2
10s m
Zone 2:
At this time an increased rate of supply and
calibre of sediment causes a change in depositional
style.Thick-bedded turbidites begin to dominate
with less frequent thin-bedded turbidites.
Stacking patterns are controlled by high-frequency
sea-level changes and autocyclicity
Zone 1:
Sub-aerial exposure surface develops
on the coeval shelf and incised
valleys may feed directly to canyon
mouths
B
Increased probability of sediments
fed to canyons during early lowstand
A
Maximum potential for bypass
through canyons during lowered sea-level
Falling
Late
Rise
HST
HST
Low &
E. Rise
Falling
Late
Rise
HST
HST
Low &
E. Rise
Falling
Late
Rise
Fig. 22. Schematic model for the generation of a single fan unit (low frequency or high frequency) through a
single relative sea-level cycle. (A) Early stage of relative sea-level fall results in more rapid progradation of deltas
across the shelf and increased probability of sand being supplied to shelf-edge canyons. Falling-stage bypass of
the shelf is possible. Basin-oor response may be thin-bedded turbidites. (B) Sequence boundary formation,
subaerial exposure of shelf and cutting of incised valleys to lowered base-level position. Maximum volume of
sand fed to deep basin, resulting in thick-bedded turbidites of fan growth stage. (C) Rapid rate of relative sea-level
rise leads to ooding of shelf and storage of sand in shoreline and uvial environments. Reduced sediment supply
to the basin and the formation of a type 1 or type 2 condensed zone (dependent on rate and duration of the
relative sea-level rise).
stratigraphy is not present in fan systems, and
internal stratigraphic trapping of uids may occur
at the distal ends of turbidite systems. In strike
sections of sheet-dominated fans, such as fan 4,
a layer-cake interpretation may be more appro-
priate.
CONCLUSIONS
1 The linkage of facies associations to archi-
tectural elements and regional mapping of
extremely well-exposed strata leads to a model
for the sequence stratigraphic development of
basin oor and slope fans in the Tanqua basin.
2 Cyclicity is well developed at both fan and
intrafan scales, and the key stratigraphic markers
are a threefold hierarchy of condensed ne-
grained deposits.
3 Each of the ve fans is interpreted as a low-
frequency (speculatively third order) lowstand
systems tract, with the intervening nes repre-
senting transgressive and highstand systems
tracts. Minor interfan sandstone cycles are
interpreted as highstand systems tract parase-
quences.
4 Active fan growth occurred as a series of
high-frequency episodes, punctuated by periods
of regional sand starvation. The sandy growth
packages are interpreted as high-frequency (spec-
ulatively fourth order) lowstand systems tracts,
with intervening nes representing high-fre-
quency transgressive and highstand systems
tracts. Local internal variability within the growth
packages is a result of autocyclic processes.
5 Sequence boundaries are interpreted at the
bases of the ve fans and at the bases of the
intrafan high-frequency sequences on the basis of
a clear surface that marks a fan-wide abrupt
increase in sediment supply. This change can be
marked by either the erosive base of a channel
complex overlying distal basin plain or fan fringe
deposits or the planar base of an amalgamated
sheet sandstone overlying more distal turbidite
deposits. There is usually a grain-size increase
across the surface, and the surface can be traced
for up to 30 km. This abrupt increase in sediment
supply over the whole fan system is related to a
decrease in accommodation space on the coeval
shelf and the generation of a sequence boundary
updip.
6 Intrafan, high-frequency sequences stack pro-
gradationally in fans 13, aggradationally in fan 4
and aggradationally to retrogradationally in fan 5.
High-frequency sequences may dene the deter-
ministically mappable permeability structure of
similar turbidite hydrocarbonreservoirs. Whenthe
base of the fan denes a datum, progradational
stacked high-frequency sequences dene a subtle
clinoform geometry, which may lead to internal
stratigraphic trapping of uids at the distal ends
of turbidite systems.
7 Sandstone deposition has a clear basinward
limit, but local depositional channel lls up to
10 m thick and 12 km wide are locally present at
this point. Siltstone extensions to the fans are
present for up to 15 km further onto the basin
plain.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper derives from a two-year research
project completed in 1997, supported by Shell
UK, who are gratefully acknowledged for nan-
cial support and permission to publish. Our ideas
on the Tanqua have been rened during discus-
sions with colleagues in the STRAT Group,
Statoil, and industry-based eld course partici-
pants over the last 4 years. Fieldwork was under-
taken with the assistance of Pete Sixsmith.
Reviewer Brad Prather and editor Jim Best are
thanked for their expert help in the shaping of the
nal paper.
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Manuscript received 6 July 1999;
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Debris flow/
slurry
Thin bedded
turbidites
Hemipelagic
shale
10
5
1
25
20
15
30
35
40
55
50
45
95
90
85
110
105
100
70
65
60
75
80
?
A
A
A
Top
Fan 3
Top
Fan 4
0 m
5 m
CLYST SILT
VFS
FS CLYST SILT
VFS
FS CLYST SILT
VFS
FS CLYST SILT
VFS
FS
Basin
floor
fine
deposits
Base
Fan 4
Fan 4
Basin
floor
fan
Basin floor
fine
deposits
Thick bedded
turbidites
Fan 3
Basin
floor
fan
Slope
deposits
Fan 4
Basin
floor
fan
Fan 4
Basin
floor
fan
Fan 3
Basin
floor
fan
140
135
130
115
120
125
145
150
165
160
155
170
175
180
185
190
195
A
205
200
0 m
5 m
Slope
deposition
Slope
deposition
Slope
deposition
Fan 5
Slope
fan
Fan 5
slope
fan
Sump scar
defined base
of Fan 5
Top
Fan 5
CLYST SILT
VFS
FS CLYST SILT
VFS
FS CLYST SILT
VFS
FS CLYST SILT
VFS
FS
Sigmoidal
heterolithic
bedding

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Anatomy, geometry and sequence stratigraphy of basin oor

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