1

Physics of magnetic resonance imaging: from spin to pixel

Gossuin Yves
1
, Hocq Aline
1
, Gillis Pierre
1
and Vuong Quoc Lam
1
1
Biological Physics Deparmen, !niversiy o" #ons $ !#%&', () Place du Parc, *))) #ons,
B+LG,!#-

Abstract:
#agneic resonance imaging has .ecome a ma/or diagnosic ool in modern medicine- #0,
ma1es i possi.le o o.ain highly conrased .ody images 2ihou ioni3ing radiaion- !sing he
magneic properies o" hydrogen proons, #0, is a he crossroads .e2een physics, elecronics,
signal processing and in"ormaics- ,n his inroducory e4, he .asic physical principles o" #0, image
"ormaion are e4plained- 'ome imporan clinical applicaions are also presened-

Confidential: not for distribution. Submitted to IOP Publishing for peer review 23 March 2010
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Author manuscript, published in "Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 43, 21 (2010) 213001"
DOI : 10.1088/0022-3727/43/21/213001
(
Introduction
5or hiry years no2, #agneic 0esonance ,maging 6#0,7 has .een rouinely used in hospials
2orld2ide as a non8invasive and non8ioni3ing imaging echnique- Based on he nuclear magneic
resonance phenomenon o.served in 19:; "or proons .y Bloch and Purcell, #0, 2as developed only
in 19*< .y Lauer.ur and #ans"ield, noa.ly .ecause i required some imporan progress in
echnology and in"ormaics- 5or heir conri.uions o he developmen o" #0,, Paul Lauer.ur and
Peer #ans"ield received he &o.el Pri3e in medicine in ())<- =he evoluion o" he iniial mehod has
.een veriginous> he ime needed o acquire an image has .een divided .y 1)), he resoluion is
no2 .elo2 he millimeer, and he developmen o" ne2 imaging sequences is a science in isel"-
=here are numerous #0, applicaions in he clinical "ield, including he deecion o" umors,
"uncional imaging o" he .rain, angiography, .rain "i.er analysis, parallel imaging ? #0, has also
"ound indusrial applicaions, in he "ood indusry "or e4ample-
#0, is .ased on quanum mechanics, uses advanced echnology "or creaing srong magneic
"ield gradiens, "or radio"requency e4ciaion and deecion- =he image "ormaion is .ased on
mahemaical rans"ormaions e4ecued .y e""icien in"ormaics sysems- =his 2ide variey o"
disciplines involved in #0,, com.ined 2ih he mainly .iological applicaions, ma1es i someimes
di""icul o undersand- =he aim o" his shor $ and incomplee $ inroducion o #0, is o give a .asic
descripion o" he physical principles o" his imaging echnique as 2ell as some e4amples o" is clinical
applicaions-
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
1,2,,!,",#,$

Magnetic properties of the atomic nucleus
+ach nucleus possesses a 1ineic momenum J, relaed o is spin I .y>
J I =
r r
h 617
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=he measura.le values o" he pro/ecion o" he 1ineic momenum in a random direcion,
ar.irarily a1en as he 38a4is, are hus J
3
@ AI, A6I817, A6I8(7, ?, 8A6I8(7, 8A6I817, 8 AI- %ne can assign a
magneic momen o he nucleus han1s o he relaion>
J =
r
r
6(7
2here is he gyromagneic raio o" he nucleus,
n
g = h , g
n
is he LandB "acor o" he
sudied nucleus and 2
p
e m = h is he nuclear Bohr magneon- =he pro/ecion o" he nucleus
magneic momen in he 38direcion is hus also quani"ied,
z z
J = - %nly he nuclei having a non8
null magneic momen $ hus a non8null spin $ are o.serva.le .y &uclear #agneic 0esonance
6&#07- =he resuling spin o" a nucleus depends on he num.er o" proons and neurons i conains- ,
is non8null i" he num.er o" proons is odd or i" i is even 2ih an odd num.er o" neurons- =he &#0
.ehavior may hus .e di""eren "or isoopes o" he same elemen- =he &#0 sensiiviy o" a given
isoope a1es ino accoun is naural a.undance and he ampliude o" he &#0 signal i produces,
depending on is gyromagneic raio 6a.le 17-
Nucleus Spin I Gyromagnetic ratio
[10
7
T
-1
s
-1
]
Natural abundance
[%]
NM
sensiti!ity
relati!e to
1
"
1
H C (;-*D( 99-9ED 1-))
1<
F C ;-*(E 1-1)E 1-*; 1)
8:
1:
& 1 1-9<: 99-;< 1-)) 1)
8<
1*
% DG( 8<-;(E )-)<* 1-)E 1)
8D
19
5 1G( (D-1E1 1)) )-E<
Table 1: NM sensiti!ity o# di##erent nuclei$

,n he res o" his aricle, only he case o" proons 6hydrogen nuclei7 2ill .e discussed, since #0,
uses he &#0 signal "rom he proons o" he .ody, even i" some imaging applicaions use oher &#0
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:
acive nuclei- , should .e noed ha he nuclear magneic properies o"
1<
F and
1:
& are inensively
used in &#0 specroscopy, 2hich is anoher applicaion o" nuclear magneic resonance-
Protons under a magnetic field
%uantum approach
5or a proon, he possi.le values o"
3
are / 2
z
= h since I @ C- ,n he a.sence o" a magneic
"ield, here is degeneracy .ecause he energies corresponding o hese 2o values o"
3
are equal-
Ho2ever, i" a magneic "ield
0
B
r
is applied along he 38direcion, he energy levels 2ill spli .ecause o"
he Heeman coupling .e2een he nuclear magneic momen and he magneic "ield 6"igure 17- =his
can .e descri.ed .y he "ollo2ing Hamilonian>

0
H B =
r
r
6<7
=he 2o eigenvalues E
I
and E
8
o" his Hamilonian correspond o he energies o" he proons 2ih

3
respecively aligned and ani8aligned 2ih he magneic "ield>

0 0
2 and 2 E B E B
+
= = + h h 6:7
Figure 1% &eeman splitting o# t'e proton energy le!els$
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=he energy di""erence .e2een he 2o levels is simply given .y>

0 0
E B = = h h 6D7
Jhere
0 0
B = is called he Larmor angular "requency- =he e4ciaion o" a proon "rom he E
I
level o he E
8
level requires a phoon 2ih he righ energy, E, and here"ore he righ "requency,
called he Larmor "requency>

0 0
2 B = 6;7
5or a populaion o" & proons a a consan emperaure, he disri.uion o" he 2o energy
levels 2ill "ollo2 a Bol3mann saisic- ," N
I
and N
8
are respecively he num.er o" proons 2ih E
I
and E
8
, one o.ains>

0
kT
N
e
N

=
h
6*7
T is he a.solue emperaure and k he Bol3mann consan- 5or usual magneic "ields, N
I
N
8
,
here are a "e2 more proons 2ih
3
aligned han ani8aligned 2ih
0
B
r
- =he sysem o" proons
.ehaves li1e a paramagne> under he applicaion o" a magneic "ield, i acquires a magneic momen
2ih he same direcion as he "ield- , can .e calculaed using a "irs order developmen equaion 6*7>

( )
2
0 0
4
z z
N N N B
kT

+
+
= + =
h
6E7
5or e4ample, one can calculae he magneic momen o" proons o" he human .ody 2hen hey
are placed inside an #0, scanner using a magneic "ield o" < =- %ne o.ains "or a human o" E) 1g
2hose .ody conains *)K 2aer 2eigh,
)
@ D 1)
8:
Am
(
- =his magneic momen is o" he same order
as he LelecronicM diamagneic momen o" () g o" 2aer in he same magneic "ield- =his e4plains
2hy he LsaicM magneic properies o" nuclei are al2ays over2helmed .y he elecronic properies
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o" he aoms hey .elong o- , is hus impossi.le o direcly measure he saic equili.rium magneic
momen o" a proon populaion-
&lassical approach
A classical descripion o" he .ehavior o" proon magneic momens in he presence o" a
magneic "ield can .e quie use"ul "or undersanding #0, acquisiion sequences- ,n his case, he
proons have a classical magneic momen ha is relaed o heir 1ineic momenum hrough>

2
e
J
m
=
r
r
697
," 2e a1e 2 e m = , his equaion is similar o 6(7- ,n a saic magneic "ield
0
B
r
, a orque
0
B =
r
r r
appears ha 2ill modi"y he 1ineic momenum according o he classical relaion>

dJ
dt
=
r
r
61)7
=he evoluion o" he magneic momen is hus given .y>

0
d
B
dt

=
r
r
r
6117
%ne can sho2 ha 6117 descri.es he precession o" he magneic momen around
0
B
r
a he
Larmor "requency
0 0
2 B = - =he roaing re"erence "rame 64N, yN, 37 is de"ined as he re"erence
"rame urning around he 38direcion a he Larmor "requency, 2ih respecively 4 and 4N, and y and yN
a4es coinciding 2hen @ )- =ha "rame is especially convenien "or descri.ing he dynamics o" he
magneic momens-

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'xcitation of the system by a radiofre(uency field
=o pu he sysem o" proons ou o" equili.rium, 2e mus irradiae he proons 2ih phoons
having he appropriae "requency
0 0
2 B = - 5or e4ample, i" he saic magneic "ield is 1 =esla,
he corresponding "requency is :(-; #H3, corresponding o he radio"requency domain-
5rom he quanum poin o" vie2, his 2ill cause ransiions .e2een he Heeman energy levels,
2hich 2ill perur. heir equili.rium populaions-
5rom a classical poin o" vie2, 2e have o use a magneic "ield oscillaing a
)
"requency and
perpendicular o
0
B
r
, in he 48direcion "or e4ample- 5or he res o" he discussion, such a "ield can .e
seen as a "ield ( )
1
B t
r
, roaing around he 38a4is a he Larmor "requency, li1e he proon magneic
momens
1
- Jhen ( )
1
B t
r
is applied, equaion 61)7 .ecomes>

( )
0 1
d
B B
dt

= +
r
r r
r
61(7
,n a "rame roaing a he pulsaion
0
"ollo2ing he magneic momens and he roaing
"ield ( )
1
B t
r
, equaion 61(7 is modi"ied>

0
0 0 1
1 1
Z Z
rot
d d
B B
dt dt

| |
| | | |
= + = +
| | |
\ . \ .
\ .
r r
r r r r
r r
61<7
0 0
1
Z
B B =
r r
and in he roaing "rame,
1 1 '
1
X
B B =
r r
- As
0 0
B = , relaion 61<7 simpli"ies o>

1 '
1
X
rot
d
B
dt

| |
=
|
\ .
r
r
r
61:7

1
,n "ac, he magneic "ield oscillaing a
)
can .e seen as he sum o" 2o vecors roaing in opposie
direcions- , can .e sho2n ha only he componen roaing in he same direcion as he precession o" he
magneic momen is e""icien-
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0
0
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1
1
,

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2
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2
0
1
1
E
=his equaion is very similar o relaion 6117- Jhen an oscillaing magneic "ield 2ih he Larmor
"requency is applied, he resuling magneic momen o" he proon populaion roaes around he
1
B
r
direcion in he roaing "rame-
1
B
r
is only e""icien i" i roaes ogeher 2ih he proon magneic
momen a he Larmor "requency- =his is hus a resonance phenomenon- =he angular "requency o"
he roaion o"
r
around
1
B
r
in he roaing "rame is .y analogy
1 1
B = - 'o he "lip angle o" he
magneic momen is given .y>

1 1
t Bt = = 61D7
By varying he duraion t o" applicaion o" he B
1
"ield 6or in some cases .y varying is ampliude7,
one can choose o roae he resuling magneic momen o" he proons 2ih di""eren angles- =he
mos used "lip angles are 9)O and 1E)O, one spea1s hen o" 9)O and 1E)O pulses, respecively 6"igure
(7-
A"er a radio"requency pulse uned a he Larmor "requency, he proon sysem is ou o"
equili.rium $ i 2ill reurn o equili.rium hrough ransiions .e2een he Heeman energy levels- =his
could no .e achieved .y sponaneous ransiions> heir pro.a.iliy is negligi.le- ,n "ac he reurn o
equili.rium is caused .y ime8modulaed ineracions o" he proons 2ih heir environmen, in a
process called rela4aion-

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Figure 2% Illustration o# (0) and 1*0) radio#re+uency pulses in t'e rotating #rame$
NMR relaxation
A"er a 1E)O pulse, he equili.rium magneic momen o" he proon sysem is invered along he
38direcion- =he 38componen o"
0

r
,noed
z
, mus go "rom
0
/us a"er he pulse o
0
+ a
equili.rium- Bloch phenomenologically descri.ed he reurn o equili.rium o"
z
2ih he "ollo2ing
equaion>

[ ]
0
1
( )
( )
Z
Z
t
d t
dt T

= 61;7
=his leads o an e4ponenial evoluion o"
z
>
1
0
( ) 1 2
t T
Z
t e

( =

a"er a 1E)O pulse 61*7
=he reurn o equili.rium o"
z
is called he longiudinal rela4aion, .ecause i concerns he 38
componen o" he magneic momen- =he ime consan T
1
is he longiudinal rela4aion ime 6"igure
<7-
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1
1)

Figure 3% Illustration o# t'e return to e+uilibrium o# ,a-
z
a#ter a 1*0) radio#re+uency pulse and ,b-
' ' X Y
a#ter a (0) pulse$
%n he oher hand, a"er a 9)O pulse, he magneic momen is in he ransverse plane PNYN $i-e-
he plane perpendicular o he B
)
"ield direcion- Le us call
' ' X Y
he ransverse componen o" he
magneic momen in he roaing "rameQ i is null a equili.rium,
' ' X Y
mus hus cancel during
rela4aion- =he reurn o equili.rium o"
' ' X Y
is called he ransverse rela4aion, .ecause i concerns
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he ransverse componen o" he magneic momen- =ransverse rela4aion can .e descri.ed .y he
"ollo2ing Bloch equaions>

' ' ' '
2
( ) ( )
X Y X Y
d t t
dt T

= 61E7

2
' ' 0
( )
t T
X Y
t e

= 6197
=he ime consan T
(
is called he ransverse rela4aion ime- A"er a roaion .y an ar.irary
angle, he reurn o equili.rium o" he magneic momen is given .y he soluion o" he sysem o"
equaions 61;7 and 61E7- T
1
and T
(
are no necessarily equal 6=
1
=
(
7 since some processes paricipae
in ransverse rela4aion and no in longiudinal rela4aion- =he rela4aion imes are dependen on he
magneic "ield B
)
and emperaure- 5or pure 2aer, he T
1
and T
(
o" he proon are ~ :s, .u in mos
.iological issues =
(
RR =
1
- Sno2ing he rela4aion imes is crucial "or #0,, since he rela4aion
governs he signal inensiy and here"ore he image conras-
NMR signal and basic experimental setup
Je have already seen ha a saic nuclear magneic momen is di""icul o deec- Ho2ever,
a"er a 9)O pulse, he magneic momen is perpendicular o
0
B
r
, so ha i precesses around he 38a4is
a he Larmor "requency- =his precession causes magneic "lu4 variaions ha can .e deeced .y a
coil uned o he Larmor "requency- According o 5aradayNs la2, an induced volage 2ill appear in he
coil- =he signal 2ill .e proporional o he magneic momen, 2hich is very lo2, .u also o he "lu4
variaion speed, 2hich is given .y he Larmor "requency- As his laer is o" he order o" ens o" 1)
;
H3
"or usual magneic "ields, he induced signal is measura.le-
As a consequence, in &#0 and #0,, only he ransverse componen o" he nuclear magneic
momen can .e deeced- A 9)O pulse is hus used .e"ore any measuremen o" he magneic
momen- 5igure : sho2s he .asic &#0 e4perimenal seup-
p
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0
0
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1
1
,

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1
1(

Figure 4% .asic NM e/perimental setup0 1it' t'e permanent magnet and t'e e/citation-detection coil$
A"er a 9)O pulse, he deecion coil 2ill hus measure an elecric signal oscillaing a he Larmor
"requency- =his oscillaion is removed .y he deecion elecronics, and he resuling signal is simply
an e4ponenial decay, called he 5ree ,nducion Decay 65,D7- ,deally, he ime consan o" his decay
should .e T
(
, .u he signal decays more rapidly, in "ac, 2ih a T
(
T ime consan- =his "as decay is
due o he dephasing o" he proon magneic momens in he ransverse plane /us a"er he 9)O
pulse- =his dephasing is e4plained .y he spaial inhomogeneiies o" he
0
B
r
"ield, 2hich causes
variaions o" he precession "requency among magneic momens siuaed a di""eren posiions o"
he sample> some magneic momens roae "aser han he meanQ some ohers roae more slo2ly
han he mean- =his dephasing phenomenon is illusraed in he roaing "rame in "igure D- , causes a
loss o" signal 2hose ime consan is T
(
T-
p
e
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r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
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1

-

2
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2
0
1
1
1<

Figure 5% 2ep'asing o# t'e proton magnetic moments in t'e rotating #rame a#ter a (0) pulse on t'e 1
34

direction$
Measurement of )1 and )2
+4cep in some speci"ic applicaions, #0, is no used o measure rela4aion imes- Ho2ever, he
sequences used in convenional &#0 "or he measuremen o" T
1
and T
(
are use"ul o inroduce he
.asic #0, sequences and conras mechanisms-
In*ersion+reco*ery for )1
=he mos popular sequence "or he measuremen o" T
1
is he inversion8recovery, illusraed in
"igure ;- =he magneic momen is "irs invered .y a 1E)O pulse- A"er a rela4aion delay , 2hile
z

parially reurns o equili.rium,

z
is roaed in he ransverse plane .y a 9)O pulse, and is ampliude
is measured- A"er his measuremen, a repeiion delay o" a leas DT
1
is respeced, in order o ge
.ac1 o equili.rium, and a ne2 sequence is sared "or a di""eren value o" . =his is repeaed n imes
p
e
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r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
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1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
1:

"or n di""eren values o" , and an inversion8recovery curve 2ih n poins is consruced 6"igure <a7- T
1
is o.ained 2hen equaion 61*7 is "ied o he daa-

Figure 6% In!ersion-reco!ery se+uence #or t'e measurement o# T
1
$ ,a- diagram o# t'e pulses0 ,b-
e!olution o# t'e proton magnetic moment$
,pin echo for )2
As seen a.ove, a"er a 9)O pulse, he magneic momens de"ocus in he ransverse plane,
.ecause o" spaial variaions o" precession speed 2ihin he sample- =his process is reversi.le and
can .e cancelled .y using a 1E)O pulse applied a @ /2 on he yN a4is- =hen he mos rapid
magneic momens are delayed and he slo2er ones are given an advance- =his leads o a re"ocusing
o" he magneic momens a @ =+, corresponding o a ma4imum signal called he spin echo- =his
p
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r
-
0
0
5
6
9
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1
1
,

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-

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5

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2
0
1
1
1D

process is illusraed in "igure *- 5or he sa1e o" clariy, only he magneic momens roaing "aser
han he mean are illusraed- =o measure T
(
, his sequence should .e repeaed 62ih a DT
1
repeiion
ime7 "or n di""eren values o" - =he evoluion curve o" he ransverse magnei3aion can .e
reconsruced and a "iing o" equaion 6197 o he daa provides T
(
-
Figure 7% ,a- Spin ec'o se+uence #or t'e measurement o# T
5
0 ,b- e!olution o# t'e trans!erse magnetic
moments during t'is se+uence$
Because o" he mo.iliy o" he proons 2ihin he sample, he 1E)O pulse is only e""icien "or shor
echo imes "or 2hich he precession speeds o" he proons are he same .e"ore and a"er he
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
1;

re"ocusing pulses- Anoher sequence 2as hus developed o avoid using long echo ime, he Farr8
Purcell8#ei.oom8Gill 6FP#G7 sequence- =his echnique 6"igure E7 uses regularly8spaced successive
1E)O pulses and successive echoes are hus o.ained in one single measuremen, allo2ing a
signi"ican gain o" ime-
Figure 8% 67MG se+uence #or t'e measurement o# T
5
$
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
-,.,1/,11,12

=he human .ody is composed o" *)K 2aer 2eigh- =he 2aer molecule .ears 2o hydrogen
proons and several oher molecules o" our .ody, li1e "a, also .ear proons- %ur .ody is here"ore an
ideal o./ec "or a proon &#0 e4perimen- Ho2ever, he signal o.ained 2ih hese in vivo proons is
a "irs glance useless o o.ain an image- =he .rillian idea "rom Paul Lauer.ur 2as o use magneic
"ield gradiens
(
o LagM he signal "rom proons according o heir spaial posiion-
,lice selection
=he "irs sep is o selec a (8dimensional slice o" he .ody- ,", as usual, 3 is he direcion o" he
saic magneic "ield, his slice selecion is achieved han1s o a magneic "ield gradien G
3
along he 38
direcion>

0 0m z
B B G z = + 6()7

(
=he magniude o" he gradiens used in #0, is comprised .e2een )-)1 and )-1 =Gm- 5or #0, research on
small animals, he gradiens can reach )-; =Gm-
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
1*

=he magneic "ield hus increases linearly 2ih he 38coordinae- As a consequence, he Larmor
"requency 6given .y equaion ;7 also depends linearly on 3 6"igure 97- , is hus possi.le o selecively
e4cie proons .elonging o a slice perpendicular o he 38a4is .y choosing an e4ciaion pulse 6a 9)O
pulse, "or e4ample7 having he e4ac "requency corresponding o he Larmor "requency o" he slice
proons- =o change he posiion o" he slice up2ards or do2n2ards, he e4ciaion pulse "requency
simply has o .e increased or decreased-
Figure 9% 7rinciple o# slice selection$
=he spaial 2idh z o" he slice depends on he "requency 2idh o" he e4ciaion- =he "requency
disri.uion o" he radio"requency pulse is o.ained han1s o he 5ourier =rans"orm 65=7 o" he ime
pro"ile o" he pulse 6"igure 1)7- =he spaial e4ciaion pro"ile in he slice8selec direcion is hus also
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
1E

appro4imaely given .y he 5= o" he pulse- A recangular pulse in he ime domain 2ill hus produce
a sinc pro"ile cenered a
0
in he "requency domain- =he de"iniion o" he slice 2ill no .e opimal
in his case .ecause o" he presence o" non8negligi.le laeral lo.es o" he sinc "uncion- As a
consequence, more ela.orae pulse envelopes in he ime domain have o .e used> "or e4ample an
in"inie sinc pulse pro"ile in he ime domain provides a per"ec recangular pro"ile in he "requency
domain, and hus a per"ec recangular slice- 0eal pulses are o" course runcaed in ime, 2hich
a""ecs he spaial shape o" he slice- %her pro"iles 6Gaussian, hyper.olic?7 are o"en used "or
radio"requency pulses in #0, sequences-
Figure 10% Slice selection pulse pro#ile in t'e time domain and in t'e #re+uency domain8 ,a- rectangular
pulse and ,b- sinc pulse$
'lice selecion is an imporan sep in he consrucion o" an image .y #agneic 0esonance, .u
in he seleced slice, ho2 is i possi.le o disinguish he proons according o heir 64,y7 coordinaeU
Gradiens along he 48 and y8direcions 2ill .e used a he righ momen o" he measuring sequence
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
19

in order o achieve he so8called "requency encoding and phase encoding o" he signal- 5or he
"ollo2ing 2o paragraphs, le us consider ha a slice8selecive 9)O pulse has .een made, and ha he
"requency and phase encoding o" he precession signal has o .e per"ormed-
0re(uency encoding
," 2e apply a gradien along he 48direcion
<
, he precession "requency o" he proons 2ill depend
on heir posiion on he 48a4is 6"igure 117- =his 2ill .e used o disinguish proons 2ih di""eren 4
coordinaes- =he "requency encoding is per"ormed .y applying he G
4
gradien during he acquisiion
o" he signal-

<
, should .e sressed ha a gradien on he 48direcion does no change he direcion o" he magneic "ield,
2hich is sill aligned in he 38direcion- , simply means ha he proons 2ill have di""eren B
)
ampliudes
depending on heir posiion on he 48a4is-
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
()

Figure 11% 7rinciple o# #re+uency encoding$
Phase encoding
As he acquisiion o" he signal is used o LdeecM he 4 coordinae han1s o "requency
encoding, one mus "ind anoher 2ay o ag he signal according o he y coordinae o" he proons-
=his is done han1s o he applicaion o" a gradien pulse along he y direcion .e"ore he acquisiion
o" he signal- Because o" his gradien, he signal o" proons siuaed a di""eren y posiions 2ill
presen di""eren phases-
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
(1

Figure 12% 7rinciple o# p'ase encoding
Imaging and 1+space
-,.,12,1

A"er he slice selecion, i is no2 inuiively clear ho2 he "requency encoding and he phase
encoding gradiens ma1e i possi.le o mar1 he signal according o he 64,y7 coordinae o" he
proons- , is, ho2ever, much less o.vious o undersand ho2 an Limage o" he proonsM can .e
o.ained "rom heir ime8dependen #0 signal- A"er acquisiion, he &#0 signal is ampli"ied and
demodulaed> he oscillaion a he Larmor "requency o" he deeced volage is cancelled- ," 2e
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
((

neglec he e""ecs o" rela4aion, he demodulaed signal o.ained during he "requency encoding is
simply given .y>

( )
/ 2
/ 2
( , , ) ( , )
with ( , ) , ,
( ) ( , )
x
x
i G xt
z
z
i G xt
slide
dS t x y I x y e dxdy
I x y x y z dz
S t I x y e dxdy

=
=
=
}
}}
6(17
( , , ) x y z is he proon densiy a he 64,y,37 posiion and
x
i G xt
e

e4presses $ in comple4
noaion
:
$ he "requency encoding, 2hich induces di""eren "requencies "or signals "rom proons a
di""eren 4 posiions- =he demodulaed signal o.ained a"er a phase8encoding gradien pulse o" T
P
duraion is>

( , , ) ( , ) 0
( , , ) ( , )
( ) ( , )
y
y P
y P
i G yt
P
i G yT
P
i G yT
P
slide
dS t x y I x y e dxdy t T
dS t x y I x y e dxdy t T
S t I x y e dxdy t T

= < <

= >

= >
}}
6((7

Jhere
y P
G yT is he phase accumulaed during he phase8encoding process .y he proons
2ih a y coordinae-
=he simples imaging sequence comprising a phase8encoding and a "requency8encoding sep is
he gradien echo sequence descri.ed in "igure 1:a, represening he imeline o" he di""eren
radio"requencies and G
3
, G
4
and G
y
pulses- =he G
3
gradien and he radio"requency pulses are al2ays
applied simulaneously o ensure slice selecion- =he negaive G
3
gradien "ollo2ing he 9)O pulse is
necessary o desroy he phases accumulaed .y he proons .ecause o" he slice selecion gradien-
Jihou his compensaion, he phase encoding along he y8direcion 2ould .e perur.ed- 'uch
compensaion gradiens should .e used a"er each e4ciaion pulse-

:
Fomple4 "ormalism is o"en used in &#0- =he real par o" he comple4 num.er represens he 4N componen
o" he nuclear magneic momen 2hile he imaginary par accouns "or is yN componen-
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
(<

5or he gradien echo sequence he acquired signal is hus given .y>

2
( ) ( , )
i
S t I x y e

=
y P
G T y + ( )
x
G t TE x
slide
dxdy
(

}}
6(<7

Jhere 2 = - ," 2e de"ine ne2 varia.les, relaion 6(<7 can .e re2rien>
x
k = ( ) and
x y
G t TE k =
2
( , ) ( , )
x y
y P
i k x k y
x y
slide
G T
S k k I x y e dxdy
( +

=
}}
6(:7
=his relaion sho2s ha he ime8dependen signal is he (8dimensional 5ourier =rans"orm o" he
spaial disri.uion o" signal ( ) , I x y in he slice-

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
, , and , ,
x y x y
S k k FT I x y I x y FT S k k

(
( = =


6(D7
'ampling he
( )
,
x y
S k k "uncion ma1es i possi.le o LmapM he proon signal in he slice .y a
mahemaical rans"ormaion, he 5ourier =rans"orm 6"ig- 1<7- %ne mus hus record he signal in he
so8called Lk8spaceM- 5or he gradien echo sequence, a line o" k8space 6along he k
4
direcion7 is
sampled during he "requency8encoded signal acquisiion- 5rom a pracical poin o" vie2, he
acquired ime8dependen signal is digii3ed "or successive t seps- By de"iniion he num.er o" seps
is N @ T
A
Gt, 2here T
A
is he acquisiion ime- A ne2 line is hen recorded .y repeaing he sequence
"or a ne2 k
y
value, o.ained .y changing he phase8encoding gradien G
y
2ih a G
y
incremen
6"igure 1:a7- =he oal k8space is sampled .y repeaing he sequence "or N di""eren values o" G
y
>
with , 1,..., 1,
2 2 2 2
2
n
y y
y
yMAX
N N N N
G n G n
N G
G
= = +

=
6(;7
Phase encoding 5requency encoding
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
(:

5inally an N4N mari4 o" k8space is o.ained, 2hose (8dimensional 5ourier =rans"orm provides an
NPN mari4 o" I64,y7, as illusraed in "igure 1<- =he incremens in he k
4
and k
y
direcions are simply
dependen on he sequence parameers t and G
y
>
x
k =
x
y
G t
k

=
y P
G T
6(*7
=he "ield o" vie2 6FOV7 is de"ined as he spaial dimension o" he image in he 48 and y8direcions-
,n our case, i is simply given .y FOV
P
@ (x
#AP
and FOV
y
@(y
#AP
- =he resoluions along he 48 and y8a4is
are given .y x and y- 5rom he 5ourier =rans"orm properies and he sampling heory 6re"7, i
"ollo2s ha>

1 1
=
x
x
FOV
k
=

1 1
;
y
x y
FOV
G t k
= =

1
=
y P
x
G T
FOV
x
N

=
1
;
2
y
x A
FOV
y
G T N
= =
yMAX P
G T
6(E7
5rom hese equaions, i is possi.le o deermine he e4perimenal parameers needed o o.ain
an image 2ih he desired resoluion-
Figure 13% k-space and image space$
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
(D

Imaging se(uences
=o .uild an #0 ,mage, one needs o sample he 18space- All he di""eren #0, sequences are
designed o L"illM he k8space e""icienly and rapidly- 'ome classical #0, sequences are illusraed in
"igure 1:- =he e""ec o" a 1E)O pulse can .e represened simply in he 18space> i invers he posiion
2ih respec o he cener o" he k8space- 'o i can .e sho2n ha
( ) ( ) ( )
*
180
2 2
*
, , ( , ) ( , ) ,
x y x y
i k x k y i k x k y
x y x y x y
slide slide
S k k S k k I x y e dxdy I x y e dxdy S k k

( ( + +

(
= = =
(

}} }}
6(97
5or each sequence, "igure 1: illusraes on he righ he sequences o" radio"requency pulses and
gradiens 6G
3
, G
4
, G
y
7, and on he le" he corresponding k8space "illing ra/ecory- Gradien echo 6"ig
1:a7 and spin echo gradien 6"ig 1:.7 sequences "ill a line o" k8space a each repeiion o" he
sequence- =his logical scheme is ho2ever very ime consuming since .e2een 2o sequences a delay
T
0
should .e respeced, in order o allo2 a complee rela4aion o" he proon magneic momens-
=his is necessary o ensure a ma4imum signal in he ransverse plane, /us a"er he 9)O pulse- ,deally,
T
0
DT
1
- 5LA'H 65as Lo2 Angle 'Ho7 sequence 6"ig 1:c7 ma1es i possi.le o "ind a compromise
.e2een he acquisiion ime and he signal8o8noise raio, .y using smaller T
0
values 6T
0
RR D=
1
7 and
ad/using he "lip angle o he +rns angle in order o o.ain he opimum signal>

1
arcos
R
T
T
e
| |
= |
|
\ .
6<)7
,n his sequence, a spoil gradien 6squared sur"ace on "igure 1:c7 is o"en applied along he y8
direcion, /us a"er he acquisiion, in order o desroy he residual signal .e"ore he ne4 "lip o" he
magnei3aion- 5aser k8space "illing can .e o.ained .y 5'+ 65as 'pin +cho, "ig 1:d7 and +P, 6+cho
Planar ,maging, "ig 1:e7 sequences- #uliple lines are hen encoded in a single sho, 2hich allo2s a
remendous ime gain- =his is achieved .y muliple echoes 6/us li1e in a runcaed FP#G sequence7
"or di""eren phase8encoding gradiens in 5'+- 0e2inding phase gradiens 6gray sur"ace in "ig 1:d7
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
(;

have o .e applied .e"ore each 1E)O pulse o allo2 accurae phase encoding o" he ne4 echo- A
di""eren sraegy is used in +P, imaging> muliple gradien echoes are used a"er he iniial spin echo,
o.ained han1s o a 1E)O pulse- 'hor pulses o" phase8encoding gradiens 6called L.lipsM7 are used o
/ump "rom a hori3onal line o" he k8space o anoher .e"ore each ne2 gradien echo-
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
(*

Figure 14% 7ulse and gradient succession o# some important MI se+uences and t'e corresponding
tra9ectory in t'e k-space% ,a- gradient ec'o0 ,b- spin ec'o0 ,c- :;<S"0 ,d- :S= and ,e- =7I$
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
(E

&ontrast, )1 and )2 2eighting
Fonras is .y de"iniion he relaive di""erence in inensiies o" 2o ad/acen pi4els 6picure
elemens7>

1 2
1 2
I I
C
I I

=
+
6<17
Jhere I
1
and I
(
are he signal inensiies o" pi4els 1 and (-
Fonras can .e caused .y di""erences in proon densiy - =his e4plains he naural conras
o.served on #0 ,mages .e2een .ones 6lo2 7 and "a 6high 7, "or e4ample- Di""erences in he
rela4aion imes T
1
and T
(
can also creae conras- Ho2ever, he in"luence o" he rela4aion imes is
dependen on he ype o" #0, sequence and on he sequence parameers- ," he sequence is
sensiive o T
1
6T
(
7, one spea1s o" T
1
82eighing 6T
(
82eighing7- =o undersand his rela4aion8ime
2eighing, le us imagine he simple case o" a spin echo sequence 6"ig 1:.7- =he signal in a pi4el is
given .y>

( )
1 2
/ /
( ) 1
R
T T TE T
H
S t e e

p 6<(7

H
is he proon densiy- =2o imporan parameers are he repeiion ime T
0
and he echo ime
TE- ," 2o regions 6region A and region B7 o" he imaged slice 6"igure 1D7 presen di""eren rela4aion
imes 6T
1A
V T
1B
and T
(A
V T
(B
7, ho2 2ill =
0
and =+ values in"luence he conras .e2een A and BU
," T
0
~ T
1A
and TE RR T
(B
, hen longiudinal rela4aion is no complee .e2een 2o
successive 9)O pulses, 2hich means he signal decreased a he second pulse "or he
proons 2hose longiudinal rela4aion 2as no complee 6region A7- =he proons
.elonging o region B have almos reached he equili.rium magneic momen 2hen he
second 9)O pulse is applied, inducing a large signal a"er he pulse- ,n his case, region B
2ill hus appear .righ and region A 2ill appear dar1- =he "ac ha TE RR T
(B
ensures ha
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
(9

he ransverse rela4aion does no occur .e2een he 9)O pulse and he spin echo, so he
signal is no a""eced .y di""erences in T
(
- =he o.ained image is purely T
1
82eighed-
," T
0
>> T
1A
and TE ~ T
(B
he ransverse rela4aion provo1es a loss o" signal .e2een he
9)O pulse and he spin echo- =his loss 2ill .e signi"ican "or he proons having he
shores =
(
6region B7 2hile i 2ill .e almos negligi.le "or proons 2ih a long T
(
6region
A7- 0egion B 2ill appear dar1 .ecause o" he signal loss and region A 2ill .e .righ- =he
condiion T
0
>> T
1A
ensures ha he magneic momens o" regions A and B compleely
reurn o equili.rium .e2een successive 9)O pulses, in order o avoid T
1
82eighing- =he
image is in his case purely T
(
8 2eighed-
#i4ed T
1
and T
(
2eighing can .e o.ained .y using T
0
~ T
1A
and TE ~ T
(B
-
," T
0
>> T
1A
and TE RR T
(B
he rela4aion raes do no a""ec conras- =he image is
2eighed .y proon densiy-
Figure 15% Illustration o# T
1
and T
5
1eig'ting o# an MI se+uence
p
e
e
r
-
0
0
5
6
9
6
1
1
,

v
e
r
s
i
o
n

1

-

2
5

F
e
b

2
0
1
1
<)

&ontrast agents
1!

=he naural conras o" #0, is e4cellen, and in mos scans, here is no need o improve i-
Ho2ever, in some imporan applicaions, such as umor deecion, e4ogenous conras agens 6FA7
have o .e used in order o shoren he rela4aion imes o" some o" he issue proons, 2hich causes
an improvemen in conras- ,n he e4ample o" "igure 1D, regions A and B could have di""eren
rela4aion imes .ecause o" he presence o" FA in region B and is a.sence in region A- =2o
caegories o" FA are used clinically>
1- Fomple4es o" paramagneic ions 6Gadolinium and #anganese7, acing similarly on T
1
and
T
(
- =hese are composed o" a paramagneic Gd
<I
or #n
(I
ion chelaed .y a molecule 2ih
small molecular 2eigh- =hey are called LposiiveM conras agens since heir use, in
com.inaion 2ih a T
1
82eighed sequence, leads o a sronger signal in heir
neigh.orhood 6B region, .righ on he image7- =he chelaion o" he ion is necessary
.ecause o" he o4iciy o" he "ree paramagneic ions- =he rela4aion induced .y
paramagneic ions is mainly caused .y he chemical e4change .e2een 2aer molecules
coordinaed o he paramagneic comple4 and .ul1 2aer molecules- Paramagneic
conras agens "aciliae he deecion o" .rain umors- ,ndeed, hese FA are una.le o
go hrough he .lood8.rain .arrier, he separaion o" circulaing .lood and cere.rospinal
.lood- Ho2ever, his .arrier is disruped in he umor region and he FA can hus
accumulae in he umor- 'o, umors, li1e B region o" "igure 1D, appear .righ in a T
1
8
2eighed .rain image, as illusraed in image 1;-
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Figure 16% T
1
-1eig'ted spin ec'o images o# t'e brain0 be#ore ,le#t- and a#ter ,rig't- in9ection o# a
gadolinium-based contrast agent$ T'e tumor appears brig'ter on t'e rig't image$ Images ac+uired 1it' a
7'ilips <c'ie!a 1$>T M scanner$ Image courtesy o# 2r T'ierry Metens0 ?;.-"@pital =rasme$
(- 'uperparamagneic iron o4ide nanoparicles, mainly acing on T
(
and T
(
T- =hese paricles
are LnegaiveM conras agens- ,ndeed, heir use, ogeher 2ih a T
(
82eighed sequence,
leads o a lo2er signal 6B region, dar1 on he image7 in heir neigh.orhood- =he
rela4aion mechanism o" 2aer proons in he presence o" magneic paricles is due o
he di""usion o" he proons in he magneic "ield inhomogeneiies creaed .y he
paricles- 'uperparamagneic conras agens are used o deec liver or spleen umors-
=hey are a.sor.ed .y he reiculoendohelial sysem .u no .y umors- 'o umors
appear .righ, li1e region A o" "igure 1D, in a Ldar1M organ on T
(
82eighed images, as
illusraed in image 1*-
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Figure 17% T
5
-1eig'ted spin ec'o images o# t'e li!er0 be#ore ,abo!e- and a#ter ,belo1- in9ection o# iron
o/ide nanoparticles$ T'e tumor appears brig'ter on t'e second image$ Images ac+uired 1it' a 7'ilips
<c'ie!a 1$>T M scanner$ Image courtesy o# 2r T'ierry Metens0 ?;.-"@pital =rasme$

&linical applications of MRI
0unctional MRI
1",1#,1$,1-

#0, gives in"ormaion a.ou he "orm and he srucure o" organs hrough anaomic imaging .u
also a.ou heir "uncions han1s o "uncional #0, 6"#0,7-
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<<

=he "irs images o" he "uncioning .rain 2ere made in he .eginning o" he 199)s- "#0, ma1es i
possi.le o sudy speci"ic .rain "uncions- =he purpose is o locae .rain areas involved in di""eren
psychomoor and sensorial as1s 6vie2, ase, smell?7 or lin1ed o language 6lisening, reading7- An
"#0, e4am consiss o" periods o" .rain acivaion during 2hich he su./ec mus per"orm a as1 6"or
e4ample, ouch his "inger, give he name o" a picured o./ec?7 alernaing 2ih res periods- =he
locali3aion o" acive .rain regions is possi.le han1s o he di""eren magneic properies o"
o4yhemoglo.in and deo4yhemoglo.in- ,ndeed, hemoglo.in, "ound in red .lood cells, can .e
o4ygenaed 6o4yhemoglo.in7 and diamagneic, or non8o4ygenaed 6deo4yhemoglo.in7 and
paramagneic- =he echnique is .ased on he signal modi"icaions due o he variaion, in he acive
.rain areas, o" he deo4yhemoglo.in concenraion- Acivaion o" a .rain area causes an o4ygen
consumpion increase- 'o, on he one hand, deo4yhemoglo.in concenraion increases- %n he oher
hand, increased o4ygen consumpion induces a large increase in local .rain .lood "lo2, rich in
o4yhemoglo.in- =he second e""ec is much greaer> so he raio o" deo4yGo4yhemoglo.in decreases-
Deo4yhemoglo.in .eing a paramagneic su.sance, 2hen is concenraion decreases, he T
(
T8
2eighed signal increases slighly in he acive areas- =his is he principle o" B%LD 6Blood %4ygen
Level Dependen7 conras- Deo4yhemoglo.in can hus .e considered as an endogenous conras
agen> i is a he origin o" conras .e2een acive and surrounding .rain areas- =he very sligh signal
increase ma1es i necessary o use a saisical reamen o" daa .e"ore any inerpreaion- =he
"uncional image is o.ained .y ma1ing a saisical comparison o" numerous images acquired during
he res and acivaion phases- , is hen superimposed on an anaomic image acquired during he
same e4am 6"igure 1E7- !lra8"as imaging sequences sensiive o T
(
T, li1e +P,, are o"en used in "#0,-
=he emporal resoluion is lo2er han one second and spaial resoluion is a.ou one millimeer-
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Figure 18% #MI study
1(
s'o1ing t'at a patient in a !egetati!e state 1as able to per#orm t1o mental
imagery tasAs$ T'e #irst tasA 1as imagining playing a game o# tennis0 1'ile t'e second 1as imagining !isiting
all t'e rooms o# 'er 'ouse$ T'e acti!ated brain regions 1ere undistinguis'able #rom t'ose o# 'ealt'y
controls$ eprinted #rom 15 1it' permission #rom <<<S$
Beyond is numerous applicaions in .rain research, "#0, is also clinically used o locae pre8
surgically "uncional areas in order o avoid hese regions during a umor resecion, "or e4ample-
MR Angiography 3MRA4
2/,21,22,2

Vascular #0, echniques are .ased on "lo2 e""ecs 6ime8o"8"ligh, phase conras, "resh .lood
imaging7, or on conras- =hese di""eren echniques "avor he .lood signal over ha o" he
surrounding issues- +4cep "or "resh .lood imaging 65B,7, hey use T
1
82eighed gradien echo
sequences- Parallel imaging can .e convenien "or all echniques in erms o" speed and enhanced
image qualiy-
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=ime8"85ligh 6=%57 sauraes he saionary issue signal> he magneic momens o" hese spins
do no have enough ime o compleely reurn o equili.rium .e"ore he .eginning o" he imaging
sequence- =heir signal is 2ea1- %n he oher hand, =%5 "avors he in"lo2 e""ec> he .lood "lo2ing
ino he e4plored 3one is no sauraed, so
z
is ma4imal- As a consequence, he signal "rom he
"lo2ing .lood spins is sronger han ha o" he sauraed saionary spins- =he .lood vessels hus
appear .righ on a dar1 .ac1ground-
Phase Fonras Angiography 6PFA7 relies on dephasing o" moving spins su.mied o a .ipolar
gradien- A"er he successive applicaion o" 2o gradiens 2ih equal magniude .u opposie
direcions, saionary spins, on one hand, do no undergo any change in phase, 2hile moving spins
6such as in .lood7, on he oher hand, acquire a phase shi" .ecause hey move consanly hrough
he gradien> hey e4perience a di""eren magneic "ield magniude during he applicaion o" he
second gradien compared o he "irs- PFA ma1es i possi.le o deermine he "lo2 velociy, 2hich is
proporional o he dephasing o" spins, and also o o.ain an #0 image o" he .lood vessels-
5resh Blood ,maging uses "as or ulra8"as spin echo sequences, synchroni3ed 2ih hear.eas-
Areries are visuali3ed han1s o he longer T
(
rela4aion o" .lood compared o surrounding issues-
=he conras8enhanced #agneic 0esonance Angiography 6#0A7 uses in/ecion o" gadolinium
chelaes o shoren T
1
and so o increase he .lood signal- 5or his applicaion, he conras agen
mus presen he longes .lood hal"8li"e-
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Figure 19% Magnetic resonance angiograp'y$ 6oronal slice$ Images ac+uired 1it' a 7'ilips <c'ie!a 1$>T
M scanner$ Image courtesy o# 2r T'ierry Metens0 ?;.-"@pital =rasme$
#0 angiography is used "or deecion and characeri3aion o" vascular 2alls and .lood "lo2- ,
allo2s visuali3aion o" he aora, areries and veins, mainly in he head, nec1, hora4, a.domen,
lungs, 1idneys and legs, in order o highligh anomalies, such as senosis, a.normal narro2ing,
aneurysm, vessel 2all dilaaion, and ris1 o" rupure-
5iffusion MR Imaging
2!,2"

Di""usion #0 ,maging ma1es i possi.le o sudy he molecular moions o" proons consiuing
he paienNs .ody- =he principle o" his echnique is o apply srong magneic "ield gradiens 2ih a
spin echo sequence> magneic momens o" saic proons are compleely LrephasedM 2hile moving
ones ha "eel di""eren "ields are LdephasedM, giving di""eren vo4el colors in he image- A map o" he
di""usion ensor can here"ore .e o.ained 2ih such a echnique-
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=he deduced di""usion coe""icien, called apparent diffusion coefficient (!"#, is empirical- =he
measuremen o" hese quaniies provides in"ormaion allo2ing, "or e4ample, deecion o" early
.rain ischemia or o.servaion o" .rain acivaion and 2hie maer srucure using a non8inrusive
mehod-
Anoher 2ay o sudy proon movemen is per"usion #0,- ,n ha case, magneic paricles are
used as racers> 2hen hey ge near a proon, he rela4aion raes o" he proons are modi"ied- =he
movemen o" he magneic paricles can hus .e deduced-
Parallel Imaging
2#,2$,2-

An ineresing 2ay o decrease image acquisiion ime is o use several coils o deec he #0
signal- Jih such an e4perimenal seup, images are recomposed han1s o he processing o" he
di""eren coil signals> each one is characeri3ed .y he parameers o" convenional #0, and .y is
sensiiviy- =hus each coil receives a signal
j
m
( ) ( , ) ( , )
ik r
j j
m k I x y s x y e dr

=
}
r
r r
r
2here
j
s is he sensiiviy o" he coil $- =hese muliple coils inroduce a ne2 degree o" "reedom ha
ma1es i possi.le o rea he signal more e""icienly-
=2o main echniques are possi.le> images can .e reconsruced in he image space 6'+&'+7
or in he 18space 6'#A'H7-
=he main idea o" he '+&'+ mehod is ha each coil 2ill produce a parial image o"
he 2hole slice- =he grea di""iculy is ha one image vo4el can .e measured .y
several coils> a correc 2eighing, .ased on he coil sensiiviies, o" he di""eren vo4el
signals has o .e done in order o reconsruc he image-
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=he sraegy o" he '#A'H sequence is o ma1e several ingenious linear
com.inaions o" he di""eren coil signals o o.ain a more precise inerpolaed 18
space- Jhen his enire space is consruced, he image is hen calculaed classically
using a 5ourier =rans"orm-
=he main advanages o" hese mehods are ha hey decrease he acquisiion ime o" an
image .y limiing he num.er o" repeiious seps o" he classical sequences> heoreically, i can .e
reduced .y a "acor equal o he num.er o" coils- Ho2ever, muliple coils increase he comple4iy o"
signal processing and decrease he signal8o8noise raio-

Perspecti*es and conclusion
#0, is coninuously evolving- &e2 sequences and applicaions are proposed each 2ee1- =he
echnological developmens allo2 o use sronger gradiens and higher "ields resuling in .eer
resoluion and shorer acquisiion imes-
5undamenal research can lead o use"ul applicaions- #0, is used in clinical rouine and 2ill
.e used more inensively in he "uure- Jhen hey discovered he &#0 phenomenon in 19:;, Bloch
and Purcell 2ere pro.a.ly no imagining he developmen, hiry years laer, o" a medical imaging
echnique .ased on heir resuls-

Ac1no2ledgments
=he auhors han1 0o.er & #uller "or help"ul discussions, Dr =hierry #eens 6!LB8HWpial
+rasme7 and Dr Vincen Denolin 6Philips7 "or allo2ing hem o use #0 images o illusrae he aricle-
YG han1s he Bio ,maging la.Ns eam in !A 6An2erp7 "or micro #0, raining in ())*- 0amona 'hel.y
is also ac1no2ledged "or her help in preparing he manuscrip-
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1
A.ragam A- =he principles o" nuclear magneism- %4"ord !niversiy Press- 19;1-
(
'licher FP- Principles o" magneic resonance- 'pringer series in solid sae sciences- 199(-
<
#c Fonnell X- =he heory o" nuclear magneic rela4aion in liquids- Fam.ridge universiy press- 19E*-
:
Bloch 5- &uclear inducion- Phys 0ev 19:;Q*)>:;)8:*:-
D
Bloem.ergen &, Purcell +#, Pound V- 0ela4aion e""ecs in nuclear magneic resonance a.sorpion- Phys
0ev 19:EQ*<>;*98*1(-
;
Hahn +L- 'pin echoes- Phys 0ev 19D)QE)>DE)8D9:-
*
Purcell +#, =orrey HF, Pound V- 0esonance a.sorpion .y nuclear magneic momens in a solid- Phys 0ev
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E
Liang H8P, Lauer.ur PF- Principles o" magneic resonance imaging- ,+++ press series in .iomedical
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Vlaardinger.roe1 #, den Boer XA- #agneic resonance imaging- 'pringer- ())<-
1)
Lauer.ur PF- ,mage "ormaion .y induced local ineracions> e4amples employing nuclear magneic
resonance- &aure 19*<Q(:(>19)8191-
11
#ans"ield P, Grannell PS- &#0 Ydi""racionN in solidsU X Phys F 19*<Q;>:((8:(;-
1(
Haac1e +#, Bro2n 0J, =hompson #0, Ven1aesan 0- #agneic 0esonance ,maging> physical principles
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1<
Bioun X- =heory o" 18space> 5ourier rans"ormaion o" a ime signal- +'#0#B advanced course, Leuven
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#er.ach A, =oh +- =he Fhemisry o" Fonras Agens- Jiley- ())1-
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:)

1D
%ga2a ', Lee =#, Say A0, =an1 DJ- Brain magneic resonance imaging 2ih conras dependen on
.lood o4ygenaion- Proc &al Acad 'ci 199)QE*>9E;E89E*(-
1;
Bandeini PA, Jong +F, Hin1s 0', =i1o"s1y 0', Hyde X'- =ime course +P, o" human .rain "uncion during
as1 acivaion- #agn 0eson #ed 199(Q(D><9)8<9*-
1*
%ga2a ', #enon 0', Sim ', !gur.il S- %n he characerisics o" "uncional magneic resonance imaging
o" he .rain- Annu 0ev Biophys Biomol 'ruc 199EQ(*>::*8:*:-
1E
#enon 0'- ,maging "uncion in he 2or1ing .rain 2ih "#0,- Furr %pin &euro.iol- ())1Q11>;<)8;<;-
19
%2en A#, Foleman #0, Boly #, Davis #H, Laureys ', Pic1ards XD- Deecing a2areness in he
vegeaive sae- 'cience ());Q<1<>1:)(-
()
+delman 00, #ale HP, A1inson DX, Hooge2oud H#- #0 angiography> revie2 aricle- Am X 0oengenol
199)Q1D:>9<*89:;-
(1
#iyasa1i #, 0oder 5- 5resh Blood ,maging> &e2 perspecives in #0 angiography- Visions ())*Q11>:)8:D-
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#eaney X5#, Boyle G, %NSee""e '- Fonras8enhanced magneic resonance angiography> Furren saus,
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&euroherapeuics ())*Q:>:998D1)-
(D
Le Bihan L- Loo1ing ino he "uncional archiecure o" he .rain 2ih di""usion #0,- &a- 0ev- &eurosci-
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(*
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(E
'odic1son DS-, #anning JX- 'imulaneous acquisiion o" spaial harmonics 6'#A'H7> "as imaging 2ih
radio"requency coil arrays- #agn 0eson #ed 199*Q<E>D918;)<
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