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3 .1 FLY ASH
Fly ash is a by-product of burning coal at electric power plants. It is a fine residue
composed of unburned particles that solidifies while suspended in exhaust gases. Fly ash
is carried off in stack gases from a boiler unit, and is collected by mechanical methods or
electrostatic precipitators. Fly ash is composed of fine spherical silt size particles in the
range of 0.074 to 0.005 mm. Fly ash collected using electrostatic precipitators usually has
finer particles than fly ash collected using mechanical precipitators. Fly ash is one of the
most useful and versatile industrial by-products. When geotechnical Engineers are faced
Stabilization of black cotton soil using lime and fly ash with clayey or expansive soils,
the engineering properties of those soils may need to be improved to make them suitable
for construction. Waste materials such as fly ash or pozzolanic materials are a source of
silica and alumina with high surface area has been used for soil improvement. Fly ash is
generated in huge quantities as a by-product of burning coal at electric power plants . The
potential for using fly ash in soil stabilization has increased significantly in many
countries since it is environmentally safe.
Fly ash is classified into two classes: F and C. Class F fly ash which is not self-
cementing fly ash is produced from burning anthracite and bituminous coals and contains
small amount of lime (CaO) to produce cementitious products. An activator such as
Portland cement or lime must be added. This fly ash has siliceous and aluminous
material, which itself possesses little or no cementitious value but it reacts chemically
with lime at ordinary temperature to form cementitious compounds.
Class C fly ash which is self-cementing fly ash is produced from lignite and sub-
bituminous coals and usually contains significant amount of lime .This type (class C) is
self-cementing because it contains a high percent of calcium oxide (CaO) ranging from
20 to 30%.
Formation of cementitious material by the reaction of lime with the pozzolans
(Al
2
O
3
, SiO
2
, and Fe
2
O
3
) in the presence of water is known as hydration of fly ash. The
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hydrated calcium silicate or calcium aluminate as cementitious material, can join inert
materials together.
The pozzolanic reactions for soil stabilization are as follow :
CaO + H
2
O Ca(OH)
2
+ Heat
Ca (OH)
2
Ca ++ + 2 (OH)
Ca ++ + 2 (OH) + SiO
2
CSH Calcium silicate hydrate (silica) (gel)
Ca ++ + 2 (OH) + Al
2
O
3
CAH Calcium aluminate hydrate (alumina) (fibrous)
In case of the class C fly ash, the lime present in the fly ash reacts with the
siliceous and aluminous materials in the fly ash. A similar reaction can occur in class F
fly ash, but lime must be added because of the low lime content of the fly ash class F.
3.1.1 Chemical composition and classification
Component Bituminous Subbituminous Lignite
SiO
2
(%) 20-60 40-60 15-45
Al
2
O
3
(%) 5-35 20-30 20-25
Fe
2
O
3
(%) 10-40 4-10 4-15
CaO (%) 1-12 5-30 15-40
LOI (%) 0-15 0-3 0-5
Fly ash material solidifies while suspended in the exhaust gases and is collected
by electrostatic precipitators or filter bags. Since the particles solidify rapidly while
suspended in the exhaust gases, fly ash particles are generally spherical in shape and
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range in size from 0.5 m to 300 m. The major consequence of the rapid cooling is that
only few minerals will have time to crystallize and that mainly amorphous, quenched
glass remains. Nevertheless, some refractory phases in the pulverized coal will not melt
(entirely) and remain crystalline. In consequence, fly ash is a heterogeneous material.
SiO
2
, Al
2
O
3
, Fe
2
O
3
and occasionally CaO are the main chemical components present in
fly ashes. The mineralogy of fly ashes is very diverse. The main phases encountered are a
glass phase, together with quartz, mullite and the iron oxides hematite, magnetite and/or
maghemite.
Other phases often identified arecristobalite, anhydrite, free lime, periclase,
calcite, sylvite, halite, portlandite, rutile and anatase. The Ca-bearing minerals anorthite,
gehlenite, akermanite and various calcium silicates and calcium aluminates identical to
those found in Portland cement can be identified in Ca-rich fly ashes. The mercury
content can reach1 ppm , but is generally included in the range 0.01 - 1 ppm for
bituminous coal. The concentrations of other trace elements vary as well according to the
kind of coal combusted to form it. In fact, in the case of bituminous coal, with the notable
exception of boron, trace element concentrations are generally similar to trace element
concentrations in unpolluted soils Two classes of fly ash are defined by ASTM C618:
Class F fly ash and Class C fly ash. The chief difference between these classes is the
amount of calcium, silica, alumina, and iron content in the ash. The chemical properties
of the fly ash are largely influenced by the chemical content of the coal burned (i.e.,
anthracite, bituminous, and lignite).
Not all fly ashes meet ASTM C618 requirements, although depending on the
application, this may not be necessary. Ash used as a cement replacement must meet
strict construction standards, but no standard environmental regulations have been
established in the United States. 75% of the ash must have a fineness of 45 m or less,
and have acarbon content, measured by the loss on ignition (LOI), of less than 4%. In the
U.S., LOI needs to be under 6%. The particle size distribution of raw fly ash is very often
fluctuating constantly, due to changing performance of the coal mills and the boiler
performance. This makes it necessary that, if fly ash is used in an optimal way to replace
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cement in concrete production, it needs to be processed using beneficiation methods like
mechanical air classification. But if fly ash is used also as a filler to replace sand in
concrete production, unbeneficiated fly ash with higher LOI can be also used. Especially
important is the ongoing quality verification. This is mainly expressed by quality control
seals like the Bureau of Indian Standards mark or the DCL mark of the Dubai
Municipality.
3.1.2Class F fly ash
The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces
Class F fly ash. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains less than
20% lime (CaO). Possessing pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica and alumina of Class
F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated
lime, with the presence of water in order to react and produce cementitious compounds.
Alternatively, the addition of a chemical activator such as sodium silicate (water glass) to
a Class F ash can lead to the formation of a geopolymer.
3.1.3 Class C fly ash

Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or subbituminous coal, in
addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing properties. In the
presence of water, Class C fly ash will harden and gain strength over time. Class C fly
ash generally contains more than 20% lime (CaO). Unlike Class F, self-cementing Class
C fly ash does not require an activator. Alkali and sulfate (SO
4
) contents are generally
higher in Class C fly ashes.
At least one US manufacturer has announced a fly ash brick containing up to 50%
Class C fly ash. Testing shows the bricks meet or exceed the performance standards listed
inASTM C 216 for conventional clay brick; it is also within the allowable shrinkage
limits for concrete brick in ASTM C 55, Standard Specification for Concrete Building
Brick. It is estimated that the production method used in fly ash bricks will reduce the
embodied energy of masonry construction by up to 90%. Bricks and pavers were
expected to be available in commercial quantities before the end of 2009.
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3.1.4 Disposal and market sources
In the past, fly ash produced from coal combustion was simply entrained in flue
gases and dispersed into the atmosphere. This created environmental and health concerns
that prompted laws which have reduced fly ash emissions to less than 1% of ash
produced. Worldwide, more than 65% of fly ash produced from coal power stations is
disposed of inlandfills and ash ponds.
The recycling of fly ash has become an increasing concern in recent years due to
increasing landfill costs and current interest in sustainable development. As of 2005, U.S.
coal-fired power plants reported producing 71.1 million tons of fly ash, of which 29.1
million tons were reused in various applications. If the nearly 42 million tons of unused
fly ash had been recycled, it would have reduced the need for approximately
27,500 acre ft (33,900,000 m3) of landfill space. Other environmental benefits to
recycling fly ash includes reducing the demand for virgin materials that would
need quarrying and substituting for materials that may be energy-intensive to create such
as Portland cement.
As of 2006, about 125 million tons of coal-combustion byproducts, including fly
ash, were produced in the U.S. each year, with about 43% of that amount used in
commercial applications, according to the American Coal Ash Association Web site. As
of early 2008, the United States Environmental Protection Agency hoped that figure
would increase to 50% as of 2011.
3.1.5 Fly ash reuse
There is no U.S. governmental registration or labelling of fly ash utilization in the
different sectors of the economy - industry, infrastructures and agriculture. Fly ash
utilization survey data, acknowledged as incomplete, are published annually by the
American Coal Ash Association.
The ways of coal ash utilization include (approximately in order of decreasing
importance):
Concrete production, as a substitute material for Portland cement and sand
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Embankments and other structural fills (usually for road construction)
Grout and Flowable fill production
Waste stabilization and solidification
Cement clinkers production - (as a substitute material for clay)
Mine reclamation
Stabilization of soft soils
Road subbase construction
As Aggregate substitute material (e.g. for brick production)
Mineral filler in asphaltic concrete
Agricultural uses: soil amendment, fertilizer, cattle feeders, soil stabilization in
stock feed yards, and agricultural stakes
Loose application on rivers to melt ice
Loose application on roads and parking lots for ice control
Other applications include cosmetics, toothpaste, kitchen counter tops, floor and
ceiling tiles, bowling balls, flotation devices, stucco, utensils, tool handles, picture
frames, auto bodies and boat hulls, cellular concrete, geopolymers, roofing tiles, roofing
granules, decking, fireplace mantles, cinder block, PVC pipe, Structural Insulated Panels,
house siding and trim, running tracks, blasting grit, recycled plastic lumber, utility poles
and crossarms, railway sleepers, highway sound barriers, marine pilings, doors, window
frames, scaffolding, sign posts, crypts, columns, railroad ties, vinyl flooring, paving
stones, shower stalls, garage doors, park benches, landscape timbers, planters, pallet
blocks, molding, mail boxes, artificial reef, binding agent, paints and
undercoatings, metal castings, and filler in wood and plastic products.
3.1.6 Portland cement
Owing to its pozzolanic properties, fly ash is used as a replacement for some of
the Portland cement content of concrete. The use of fly ash as a pozzolanic ingredient
was recognized as early as 1914, although the earliest noteworthy study of its use was in
1937. Roman structures such as aqueducts or the Pantheon in Rome used volcanic ash
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or pozzolana (which possesses similar properties to fly ash) as pozzolan in their
concrete. As pozzolan greatly improves the strength and durability of concrete, the use of
ash is a key factor in their preservation.
Use of fly ash as a partial replacement for Portland cement is particularly suitable
but not limited to Class C fly ashes. Class "F" fly ashes can have volatile effects on the
entrained air content of concrete, causing reduced resistance to freeze/thaw damage. Fly
ash often replaces up to 30% by mass of Portland cement, but can be used in higher
dosages in certain applications. Fly ash can add to the concretes final strength and
increase its chemical resistance and durability.
Fly ash can significantly improve the workability of concrete. Recently,
techniques have been developed to replace partial cement with high-volume fly ash (50%
cement replacement). For roller-compacted concrete (RCC)[used in dam construction],
replacement values of 70% have been achieved with processed fly ash at the Ghatghar
dam project in Maharashtra, India. Due to the spherical shape of fly ash particles, it can
increase workability of cement while reducing water demand. Proponents of fly ash claim
that replacing Portland cement with fly ash reduces the greenhouse gas "footprint" of
concrete, as the production of one ton of Portland cement generates approximately one
ton ofCO
2
, compared to no CO
2
generated with fly ash. New fly ash production, i.e., the
burning of coal, produces approximately 20 to 30 tons of CO
2
per ton of fly ash. Since
the worldwide production of Portland cement is expected to reach nearly 2 billion tons by
2010, replacement of any large portion of this cement by fly ash could significantly
reduce carbon emissions associated with construction, as long as the comparison takes
the production of fly ash as a given.
3.1.7 Contaminants
Fly ash contains trace concentrations of heavy metals and other substances that
are known to be detrimental to health in sufficient quantities. Potentially toxic trace
elements in coal include arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, barium, chromium, copper, lead,
mercury,molybdenum, nickel, radium, selenium, thorium, uranium, vanadium, and zinc.
Approximately 10% of the mass of coals burned in the United States consists of
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unburnable mineral material that becomes ash, so the concentration of most trace
elements in coal ash is approximately 10 times the concentration in the original coal. A
1997 analysis by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) found that fly ash typically
contained 10 to 30 ppm of uranium, comparable to the levels found in some granitic
rocks, phosphate rock, and blackshale.
In 2000, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) said that coal
fly ash did not need to be regulated as a hazardous waste. Studies by the U.S. Geological
Survey and others of radioactive elements in coal ash have concluded that fly ash
compares with common soils or rocks and should not be the source of alarm. However,
community and environmental organizations have documented numerous environmental
contamination and damage concerns.
A revised risk assessment approach may change the way coal combustion wastes
(CCW) are regulated, according to an August 2007 EPA notice in the Federal Register. In
June 2008, the U.S. House of Representatives held an oversight hearing on the Federal
government's role in addressing health and environmental risks of fly ash.
3.2 Black cotton soil
Black cotton soils are inorganic clays of medium to high compressibility and form
a major soil group in Maharashtra. They are characterized by high shrinkage and swelling
properties. Because of its high swelling and shrinkage characteristics, the Black cotton
soil has been a challenge to the highway engineers. The Black cotton soil is very hard
when dry, but loses its strength completely when in wet condition. It is observed that on
drying, the black cotton soil develops cracks of varying depth.The roads laid on Black
cotton soil (BC soil) bases develop undulations at the road surface due to loss of strength
of the sub grade through softening during monsoon. Around 40 to 60% of the Black
cotton soil (BC soil) has a size less than 0.001 mm. At the liquid limit, the volume change
is of the order of 200 to 300% and results in swelling

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STRUCTURE OF SOIL

3.3 Rice Production
Paddy rice (Oryza sativa) is grown on every continent except Antarctica and the
extent of paddy cultivation covers about 1 percent of the earths surface. More than half
of the worlds population depends on rice as a staple food and it ranks second to wheat in
terms of cultivation area and production. The quantum of global production of paddy is
close to 650 million tons per annum. Production of rice is dominated by Asia, where rice
is the only food crop that can be grown during the rainy season in the waterlogged
tropical areas. Asia generates over 90 percent of world rice production. Together, China
and India accounted for over half of the worlds rice supply. In India, Tamil Nadu is the
third ranking state in the production of paddy after Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal.
Paddy production is nearly 7 million tonnes in Tamil Nadu.
Paddy, on an average, consists of about 72 percent of rice, 5-8 percent of bran,
and 20-22 percent of husk. Of all the plant residues, the ash of rice husk contains the
highest proportion of silica. It is estimated that every tonne of paddy produces about 0.20
tonnes of husk and every tonne of husk produces about 0.18 to 0.20 tonnes of ash,
depending on the variety, climatic conditions and geographical location. The total global
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ash production could be as high as about 23 million tonnes per year.pressure as high as 8
kg/cm2/ to 10 kg/cm2. Average Plasticity Index of black cotton soil was found as 60 %
As such Black cotton soil (BC soil) has very low bearing capacity and high
swelling and shrinkage characteristics. Due to its peculiar characteristics, it forms a very
poor foundation material for road construction. Soaked laboratory CBR values of Black
Cotton soils are generally found in the range of 2 to 4%. Due to very low CBR values of
Black cotton soil (BC soil), excessive pavement thickness is required for designing for
flexible pavement.
3.3.1 Properties of Rice Husk
Rice husk is a potential material, which is amenable for value addition. The usage
of rice husk either in its raw form or in ash form is many. Most of the husk from the
milling is either burnt or dumped as waste in open fields and a small amount is used as
fuel for boilers, electricity generation, bulking agents for composting of animal manure,
etc.
The exterior of rice husk are composed of dentate rectangular elements, which
themselves are composed mostly of silica coated with a thick cuticle and surface hairs.
The mid region and inner epidermis contain little silica. confirmed that the presence of
amorphous silica is concentrated at the surfaces of the rice husk and not within the husk
itself.
The chemical composition of rice husk is similar to that of many common organic
fibers and it contains of cellulose 40-50 percent, lignin 25-30 percent, ash 15-20 percent
and moisture 8- 15 percent. After burning, most evaporable components are slowly lost
and the silicates are left. The typical properties of rice husk are indicated in other plant
except paddy husk is able to retain such a huge proportion of silica in it. Plants absorb
various minerals and silicates from earth into their body. Inorganic materials, especially
silicates are found in higher proportions in annually grown plants, such as rice, wheat,
sunflower, etc, than in long-lived trees. Inorganic materials are found in the form of free
salts and particles of cationic groups combined with the anionic groups of fibres into the
plants. A combined study using back scattered electron and X-ray images of the husk
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showed that the silica is distributed mostly under the husks outer surface. This Confirms
the general concept of a soluble form of silica transported through the plant, and
concentrated at the outer surface of straw and husk through evaporation, whereupon it
polymerizes into an opaline cellulose-silica.
3.3.2 Thermal Decomposition Of Rice Husk
There are two distinct stages in the decomposition of rice husk - carbonization
and decarbonation. Carbonization is the decomposition of volatile matter in rice husk at
temperature greater than 300C and releases combustible gas and tar. Decarbonation is
the combustion of fixed carbon in the rice husk char at higher temperature in the presence
of oxygen. The melting temperature of RHA is estimated as 1440C, that is, the
temperature at which silica melts .
3.3.3 Forms of Silica in Rice Husk Ash
Rice husk ash contains 87-97 percent of silica with small amount of alkalis and
other trace elements. Based on temperature range and duration of burning of the husk,
crystalline and amorphous forms of silica are obtained. The crystalline and amorphous
forms of silica have different properties and it is important to produce ash with correct
specifications for specific end use. Generally, the amorphous forms of silica are
composed of silica tetrahedral arranged in a random three-dimensional network without
regular lattice structures. Due to disordered arrangement, the structure is open with holes
in the network where electrical neutrality is not satisfied and the specific surface area is
also large. This helps to increase the reactivity, since large area is available for reaction to
take place. The structure of crystalline silica is built by repetition of a basic unitthe
silicon tetrahedron in an oriented three-dimensional framework. In framework type
structure, the silicon tetrahedrons are joined through the vertices by oxygen, each of
which is linked to two silicon atoms. The oxygen to silicon ratio equals to 2:1, thus
electrical neutrality is attained.
The silica occurs in several forms within the rice husks are at the molecular level
and it is associated with water. In nature, the polymorphs of silica are quartz, cristobalite,
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tridymite, coestite, stishovite, lechatelerite and silica gel. It is this silica concentrated in
husk by burning which makes the ash so valuable.
3.3.4 Applications of Rice Husk Ash
RHA has got numerous applications in silicon based industries. Substantial
research has been carried out on the use of RHA as a mineral admixture in the
manufacture of concrete. RHA in amorphous form can be used as a partial substitute for
Portland cement and as an admixture in high strength and high performance concretes. A
review on the use of RHA by the construction industry, in particular on concrete
production has been separately dealt in Chapter-5. Apart from this specific use, it has
many other usages as given below
Due to its refractory properties, crystalline RHA is the most wanted material for
steel industries, ceramic industry and for the manufacture of refractory bricks.Examined
the possibilities of improving residual soil properties by mixing RHA and cement in
suitable proportions as stabilizing agent.
Indian Space Research Organization has successfully developed a technology for
producing high purity silica from RHA that can be used in silicon chip manufacture
Naito (1999) introduced a low cost technology for controlling insect pests in Soya beans
by using RHA. The insects are irritated by the high levels of silicon and the needle like
particles.
Attempts have been made to utilize RHA in vulcanizing rubber. RHA has been
shown to offer advantages over silica as a vulcanising agent for ethylenepropylene- diene
terpolymer (EPDM), and is recommended as diluents filler for EPDM rubber

Rice husk burnt for prolonged periods have been successfully used as oil
absorbent. RHA produced by maintaining temperatures 350-450C for extended period of
time will be highly amorphous and porous. High porosity of RHA is essential to absorb
oil .