UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II












YEAR I- SE MESTER II
THEORY/PRACTICAL
Version 1: December 2008

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY


BUILDING CONSTRUCTION II

COURSE CODE: BLD 104

TABLE OF CONTENTS

WEEK1: FLOORS
1.1 Functions of floors
1.2 Types of ground floors
1.3/1.4 Method of constructing ground floors

WEEK2: SUSPENDED FLOORS
1.4/1.5 Suspended timber ground floor
1.6 Types of upper floors
Function of upper floors
1.7 Method of construction of upper floors
Suspended timber upper floor
Functions of suspended timber floor

WEEK3: UPPER FLOORS (CONTINUED)
1.8/1.9 Types of concrete upper floors
Reinforced concrete upper floors
Hollow pot floor
Hollow beam floor units
Precast solid beam floor unit
Terracotta blocks (red earth) floor

WEEK4: UPPER FLOORS (CONTINUED)
1.8 Types of suspended upper floors

WEEK5: WALLS
Wall
2.1 Functions of walls
2.2 Wall classification
2.3 Methods of construction walls

WEEK 6: WALLS
2.4 Materials used in wall construction
2.5 Types of block wall construction
o Concrete block , block walls
o Construction of walls
o Bonding in walls
WEEK7: PARTITION WALLS
2.6 Partition wall
2.7 Functions of partition walls
2.8/2.9 Types of partition walls


WEEK8: PARTITION WALLS (CONTINUED)
2.10 Timber stud partition

WEEK 9: STAIRCASE
3.1 Stair case
Functional requirements of staircase
Safety layout
Staircase layout
3.2/3.4 Types of staircase
3.3. Terminologies of a staircase

WEEK10: STAIRCASE (CONTINUED)
3.2/3.4 Types of staircase
3.5 Formula for calculating stair dimension

WEEK11: STAIRCASE (CONTINUED)
Construction of staircase
Timber stair case
Reinforce concrete stair case

WEEK 12: ROOF CONSTRUCTION
Functional requirements of roof
Classification of roof
Types of roof
Pitch roof
Flat roof
Properties and details of roof covering
Water system of roof

WEEK 13 ROOF (CONTINUED)
Steel roofs
Timber flat roof
Reinforced concrete roofs
WEEK 14: TYPES OF CEILINGS
Types of ceiling
Functions of ceilings
Factors affecting the choice of ceiling construction
Suspended ceiling
Classification of suspended ceiling
Non-suspended ceiling
Disadvantages of ceiling

WEEK15: METHODS OF CEILING CONSTRUCTION
Methods of ceiling construction
Functional requirements of ceiling finishes
Factors to be considered when selecting materials for ceiling
Materials used for ceiling.











































WEEK 1: FLOORS

(1.1) Functions of Floors
Thermal insulation - it should be design to resist heat penetration.
Resistance to moisture passage - it should be able to resist the passage of moisture into the
building.
Resistance to sound transmission e.g. by the use of rug or carpet.
Fire resistance it should be able to resist the penetration of fire in case of its outbreak for at
least one hour.
Stability it should be stable enough to carry its own self weight and live load
Durability it should be design durable to achieve the expected life span.

(1.2) Types of Ground Floor
solid concrete ground floor
suspended timber ground floor

(1.3)/(1.4) Method of Constructing Ground Floors
Solid Concrete Ground Floor
This is a continuous layer of concrete of at least 150mm thick spread over the sides of all
buildings within the external walls and is known as over site concrete.
The layer of 150mm thick concrete is laid on 100 150mm thick of hardcore. The mix for the
concrete is either 1: 2: 4 or 1: 3: 6, i.e. (cement sand aggregate).
Depending on the nature of the soil the hardcore ranges between 100mm 300mm.
The damp proof course is provided to prevent the moisture from penetrating into the walls, and
the Damp proof membrane is laid in between the two halves of the concrete floor, that is it is
sandwiched in the concrete to prevent damp rising and keep the top of the concrete dry.























Fig. 1.1 Solid Concrete Ground Floor


Test Questions
1. Discuss five functions of floors
2. List and discuss two types of ground floor




















WEEK 2: SUSPENDED FLOORS

(1.4)/(1.5) Suspended Timber Ground Floor
This is a ground floor that does not lie directly on the ground surface, but spans from wall to
wall. It is constructed by first laying concrete bed of not less than 100mm thick of 1: 3: 6 mix.
A dwarf wall otherwise known as sleeper wall is the constructed in a honey comb manner on the
concrete bed. To provide adequate ventilation, air bricks are inserted in the external walls. The
wall plates are then laid on the sleeper walls.
Floor joist are later crossed on the wall plates, and the floor is finished with floor boards. The
boards are arranged and fixed to one another in a systematic manner to avoid the appearance of
rough surface on the finished floor.
Strutting is used in timber suspended floors to restrict the movement due to twisting and
vibration which could damage ceiling finishes, strutting should be included in construction of
timber floors if the spans of the floor joist exceed 2.50m centres and is positioned on the centre
line of the span.



















Fig. 1.2 Suspended timber ground floor


(1.6) Types of Upper Floors
Depending on the materials from which they are made, upper floors can be divided into
Timber upper floors
Concrete upper floors.

Floors made from concrete have a better resistance to damage by fire and can safely support
greater amount of super imposed load than timber floor.

Functions of Upper Floors
To reduce heat loss from lower floors as required
To provide required degree of sound insulation
To provide required degree of fire resistance
It provides a level surface with sufficient strength to support the imposed loads of people and
furniture.
To provide space for rooms on upper floor
(1.7) Methods of Construction of Upper Floors
Suspended Timber Upper Floor
A timber suspended upper floor consist of a series of beams or joists supported by load bearing
walls which are sized and spaced to carry all the dead and imposed loads. The cost of timber
floor is half the cost of reinforce concrete floor. The resistance to fire is very low hence it is not
much in use today, instead reinforced concrete is used.

The floor is framed with soft timber joist which are usually 50mm thick and 250mm or more in
depth. The depth of the joists depends on the span. The rough method of determining the depth
of joist required is to divide the span by 24 and add 50 to get the depth of the joist. The spacing
of joist ranges between 375mm and 400mm. the maximum economical span of timber joist is
between 3.6 m to 4.0 m for greater spans. It is economical to reduce the span of joist by the use
of steel beams. The typical arrangement of the joists in timber upper floor is as shown in figure
2.1



Fig 2.1 Suspended timber upper floors

Functions of suspended timber floor
To provide a level surface with sufficient strength to support the imposed loads of people and
furniture.
To exchange the passage of water and water vapour to the interior of buildings.
It provides resistance to unacceptable heat loss through the floor.




Test questions
1. State the purposes of constructing suspended timber ground floor
2. List three functions of upper floor
3. Draw a typical timber upper floor and label the parts.




WEEK 3: UPPER FLOORS CONTINUED

(1.8)/(1.9) Types of Concrete Upper Floors
Reinforced concrete upper floor
Hollow beam floor unit
Precast solid beam floor unit
Solid precast T Beam
Terracotta blocks with centering

Reinforced Concrete Upper Floors
These floors have a better resistance to damage by fire and can safely support greater super
imposed loads than timber of similar depth. Monolithic reinforced concrete floor implies to solid
mass of concrete as the thickness ranges from 100 300mm cast in situ and are reinforced with
steel reinforcing bars. Temporary centering have to be used to support the concrete while it is
still wet and flexible.
The concrete ends should be built into the block work, with the main reinforcement spanning
across the floor between the walls supporting the floor, and the usual size of bar used is 12mm
bar is used. The spacing ranges between 120mm to 225mm. the components and method of
construction of this type of floor is as shown in figure 3.1.






















Fig 3.1 Suspended Reinforced Concrete Upper Floor

Hollow Pot Floor
These are floors with permanent formwork in the form or hollow clay or concrete pots. The main
advantage of this type of cast in situ floor is that it has a flat soffit which is suitable for the direct
application of a plaster.

The hollow ports are arranged on the formwork side by side as shown in figure 3.2. Reinforcing
bars are placed between the hollow pots. The floor construction process is completed by placing
a constructional concrete topping of at least 50 mm. This is to provide a leveled surface for the
floor.





















Fig 3.2 Hollow Pot Floor


Hollow beam floor units
This is regular in section and is precast with side indent for key to concrete. The depth of the
beam varies with the super imposed load and span. These beams are not suitable for floors
carrying heavy loads such as floors for ware houses. The method of construction is similar to that
of the hollow pot floor system and is as in figure 3.3.






















Fig3.3 Hollow beam floor units

Precast Solid Beam Floor Unit
This system is the same with the hollow beam floor unit, the only difference is that the former
cannot carry heavy load and is lighter than the later. This is constructed by placing precast
reinforced concrete beam side and the space in between filled with precast lightweight blocks
shown in figure 3.4. Because it can carry heavy loads it can be used for a warehouse. The floor
arrangement after construction is as shown in figure 3.5.









Fig. 3.4 Precast solid beam floor units














Fig. 3.5 Precast solid beam floor system



Terracotta Blocks (red earth) Floor
In situ cast reinforced concrete and terracotta or Ackerman blocks are types of floors that need
centering. These floors are built into the block work as in the case of upper floors. The span is up
to 5.0m and the depth of the floor, the size and the number of reinforcing bars depends on super
imposed loads and span. The construction is shown in figure 3.5.

















Fig3.4 Terracotta blocks (red earth)


Fig. 3.6 Terracotta blocks floor system

Test Questions
1. List four other methods of upper floor a part from upper timber floor











WEEK 4 UPPER FLOORS (CONTINUED)

(1.8) Types of Suspended Upper Floor
Hollow beam floor units
This is regular in section and is precast with side indent for key to concrete. The depth of the
beam varies with the super imposed load and span. These beams are not suitable for floors
carrying heavy loads such as floors for ware houses. The method of construction is similar to that
of the hollow pot floor system and is as in figure 4.1.















Fig4.1 Hollow beam floor units

Precast Solid Beam Floor Unit
This system is the same with the hollow beam floor unit, the only difference is that the former
cannot carry heavy load and is lighter than the later. This is constructed by placing precast
reinforced concrete beam side and the space in between filled with precast lightweight blocks
shown in figure 3.4. Because it can carry heavy loads it can be used for a warehouse. The floor
arrangement after construction is as shown in figure 3.5.



Fig. 4.2 Precast solid beam floor units














Fig. 4.3 Precast solid beam floor system



Terracotta Blocks (red earth) Floor
In situ cast reinforced concrete and terracotta or Ackerman blocks are types of floors that need
centering. These floors are built into the block work as in the case of upper floors. The span is up
to 5.0m and the depth of the floor, the size and the number of reinforcing bars depends on super
imposed loads and span. The construction is shown in figure 3.5.

















Fig3.4 Terracotta blocks (red earth)


Fig. 4.4 Terracotta blocks floor system

Test Questions
1. Draw a typical terracotta floor works.
2. Use drawing to distinguish between tee precast floor and a convention cost insulin for
monolithic floor








WEEK 5: WALLS

Walls
Walls are any continuous vertical members whose length and height are both much larger than
the thickness. Wall subjected to no loads other than their own weight such as panel or enclosure
walls are called non-load bearing walls. Walls with a primary function of resisting horizontal
loads are called shear walls. They may also serve as bearing walls.


(2.1) Functions of Walls
It provides necessary resistance to rain penetration
It is capable of resisting both positive and negative wind pressure
It gives required degree of thermal insulation
It provides the required degree of sound insulation to suit the building type
It provides sufficient openings for the admittance of natural daylight and ventilation

(2.2) Walls Classification

Walls can be classified into the following
Load-bearing walls
Non-load-bearing walls

(2.3) Methods of Constructing Walls
Load-bearing external walls: These walls are normally used for domestic buildings or other
small structures that are one or two storeys high. The weight of the roof and any upper floors is
supported by load-bearing masonry of brick, block or stone construction. Load-bearing walls are
constructed to rest on foundations which are usually strip foundations.

Non-load-bearing external walls: These walls are often built from corrugated sheets cladding
that is attached to a framework of steel rails and columns. The cladding sheets, does not support
the structure of the building. Support is provided by the framework. The cladding sheets must be
wind-resistant.

Load-bearing internal walls: Internal walls are load-bearing if additional support is needed for
the roof or floors.














Fig 4.1 Load bearing external wall

Load Bearing and Non-load bearing external wall of a building provide weather resistance and
must be durable, fire resistant even if it not built from load-bearing materials such as brick, block
and stone. Corrugated iron sheet or timber cladding is classified as non-load bearing wall.

Test Question
1. List five functions of walls.
2. Discuss two classification of wall









WEEK 6: WALLS (CONTINUED)

(2.4) Materials Used in Wall Construction

Walls are made from many materials. The most common among them are as follows
Sandcrete blocks
Concrete blocks
Bricks
Reinforced concrete
Stones
Timber

(2.5) Types of Block Wall Construction

Concrete Block Walls
Lightweight concrete blocks reduce the dead weight on suspended floors. Their use makes the
building work quick, easy and relatively low cost. One of the main priorities in the construction
of internal walls is to make them stable. The figure shows you how to place the partitions for
maximum stability. This can be done by:
1. Placing partitions so that they meet at right angles-,
2. Making offsets or recesses for the length of a partition;
3. Attaching the top of the partition to the main structure. This can be done by forcing dry-
mixed mortar into joints between the block work and a concrete .slab.
4. Nailing noggins, which are short limber pieces, to joists and the head of the partition; placing
the partitions .so that they run the same direction us the joists;
6. If the partitions run at right angles to the joists, then building up the gap between the angles.

Construction of Walls
The method of constructing a wall with sandcrete blocks is the same with that used of bricks
masonry. First, the corners or end of the wall are constructed with few courses of blocks, mortar
is applied to the bottom of block, mortar is applied to the bottom of the block on the horizontal
face members,
The straight walls are then constructed using the corner or end block to make a reference line.
Note
Before used it should be ensured that the block are well cured and dry.
Blocks of successive coarse should be laid so that vertical joint are staggered.
The joints should be 5mm thick and should be made uniform.

Bonding in Walls
In building a wall of brick or block, it is used to lay the bricks in some regular pattern such that
each brick or block bears partly upon two or more bricks below itself. The bricks are said to be
bonded, meaning that they bind together by being laid across each other with mortar.
The reason for binding them together is due to its instability when stack high. Brick that over lap
one another by use of mortar are laid to be in bond.
A condition vertical construction in bricks or block is a sign of weakness, while the overlapping
blocks show sign of strong construction.

Types of bonding include:
Stretcher bond: A wall of 102.5mm thick is usually built with brick overlapping or bonded
showing a stretcher face. The bricks are laid on bed with every brick showing a stretcher or the
longer face on each side of the wall, hence we have a stretcher bond. If it happens that we have a
header face showing on the course then it is known as header bond.









Fig 6.1 Stretcher bond
English bond: In English bond the header face is centrally above and below the stretcher face
i.e. the bricks in one coarse or layer shows their header faces in the coarses below or above their
stretcher face.


















Fig 6.2English bond


Flemish bond: In Flemish bond every coarse have alternately header and stretcher face as shown
in figure 6.3.


























Fig 6.3 Flemish bond

Test Question
1. List other materials for constructing walls apart form clay.
2. Draw the following to illustrate their bonding pattern.
a. English bond
b. Flemish bond
c. Stretcher bond









WEEK 7: PARTITION WALLS

(2.6) Partition wall

It is an internal wall which is constructed to divide the spaces in an enclosed building into rooms
or areas. It can be constructed using bricks, sandcrete blocks, timber, metal, glass or plastics.

(2.7) Functions of Partition Walls

Partition walls perform the following functions
Divide the inside of a building into rooms and spaces
Divide a building into separate occupancies
Separate adjoining properties
Sometimes help to support loads if it is so designed.

(2.8)/(2.9) Types of Partition Walls

Party walls: is a wall separating adjoining building belonging to different owners or occupied by
different persons.

Separating walls: is a wall separating different occupancies within the same building.

Curtain wall: Is the self supporting wall carrying no other vertical wall load, but subjected to
lateral forces. This type of wall is illustrated in figure 4.3.





















Fig4.3 Curtain wall


Test Question
1. Under which wall classification will you classify partition wall?
2. Write brief notes on the following:
a. Partly wall
b. Curtain wall
c. Separating wall










WEEK 8: PARTITION WALLS (CONTINUED)

(2.10) Timber stud partition
Timber stud partitions are used in upper floors of domestic buildings and they are generally
constructed of 100mm x 75mm head and sill with vertical members called stud ranging from
75mm x 38mm, 100 x 50mm frame between them at about 400mm centre to centre
The horizontal member known as Noggin piece are usually inserted between studs to stiffen the
partition plaster board. It is generally nailed to either sides and finished with rose headed
galvanized nails, stud partition of upper floors are usually supported by floor joist.














Fig 6.1Timber stud partitions






















Fig 6.2 Method of jointing in Timber stud partitions

Advantages of timber partition walls
Light weight in construction
Ease of erection and dismantling
Ease of alteration of space if need arises

Test Question
1. Use typical sectional elevation drawing to explain partition wall and label the parts
2. State three advantage of inner partition wall







WEEK 9: STAIRCASE
(3.1) Staircase
The most common form of vertical circulation in upstairs and access to the upper floors is the
stairway.
One can define stair as a number of steps leading from one level to another, and its function is to
provide means of movement between floor to floor in storey building, and as well serves, as
means of escape from upper floors in case of fire accident.

Functional requirements of stair case
Stability
Fire resistance
Sound insulation
Strength

Safety requirements of staircase
Durability
Headroom
Balustrades
Ventilation and light window
Handrail
Uniform steps

Staircase Layout
A straight flight of stairs is the simplest layout. If the flight changes direction between levels,
then you need to provide a landing. The degree of change in direction determines the size of the
landing:
Straight flight of stairs 90 turn with a quarter landing; Tapered stair case with no landing.

(3.2)/(3.4) Types of Staircase
Straight flight (not more than 15 steps)
This is kind of stair that has only one or more flight in straights order and it has not more
than fifteen steps before landing. This is most suitable where space is limited and can not
accommodate other types of stairs.











Fig7. 1 Straight flights




Open well stair (with 2/4 space landing)
This is a kind of stair which has two quarter space of landing and space in between the two
flight.











Fig 7.1 Open well stair

Two quarter space
landing
Open well
Quarter turn stair case
This is a kind of stair that one needs to turn through a quarter of circle from the first flight to
the second flight.








Figs 7.2 Quarter turn stair case
Dogleg stair case (with space landing)
This is a kind of stair that has have space landing with no space in between the first and the
second flight, this means one ascending will have to turn half of a circle to be on the second
flight.










Fig 7.3 Dogleg stair case

Spiral staircase: This is a kind of stair that one ascending will have to turn to complete
circle before he could reach the floor above.




Quarter space
landing












Fig8.5 Spiral staircase

(3.3)Terminologies of a Staircase
Balusters: It is a series of some bars or columns between the outer strings of the rail.
Newel Post: Is the post at the end of the flight that carries the end of handrail and strings
Carriage Piece: A rough carriage of about 100mm x 75mm spacing floor to landing inserted
under the stair to give support to treads and risers. They may be required to give additional
support to the treads and risers in wide stairs.
Pitch: This is the angle of a staircase measured between the pitch line and the horizontal
Balustrades: The individual balustrade Consist of newel post, handrail and timber balusters.
The newel post of half turn landing and that at landing on the floor level are housed and
bolted to trimmers.

Test Question
1. State four functional requirement of a staircase
2. List five safety requirements f a stair case




WEEK 10 STAIRCASE (CONTINUED)

(3.2)/(3.4) Types of Staircase
Straight flight (not more than 15 steps)
This is kind of stair that has only one or more flight in straights order and it has not more
than fifteen steps before landing. This is most suitable where space is limited and can not
accommodate other types of stairs.









Fig7. 1 Straight flights

Open well stair (with 2/4 space landing)
This is a kind of stair which has two quarter space of landing and space in between the two
flight.










Fig 7.1 Open well stair

Two quarter space
landing
Open well
Quarter turn stair case
This is a kind of stair that one needs to turn through a quarter of circle from the first flight to
the second flight.








Figs 7.2 Quarter turn stair case





Dogleg stair case (with space landing)
This is a kind of stair that has have space landing with no space in between the first and the
second flight, this means one ascending will have to turn half of a circle to be on the second
flight.











Fig 7.3 Dogleg stair case
Quarter space
landing

Spiral staircase: This is a kind of stair that one ascending will have to turn to complete
circle before he could reach the floor above.














Fig8.5 Spiral staircase

(3.5) Formula for Calculating Stair Dimension
The going plus the height of two times the riser must be:
Maximum of 700 mm;
Minimum of 550 mm;
i.e G + 2R 700 mm or 550 mm
To ensure that stairs are not steeper than 42
0
the relationship between riser and the going must be
based on the measurements in table below
Riser (mm) Going (mm)
155-220 245-260
165-200 220-305
Each riser in a flight of stairs must be the same height.
Each tread must be the same length. The total number of riser depends on the vertical height or
rise of each flight.

Test Question
1. Draw the following types of stair case
a. Straight flight
b. Open well
c. Quarter turn
d. Dog leg























WEEK 11 STAIRCASE (CONTINUED)

Construction of timber staircases
Timber staircases are light in weight and easy to construct and maintain. They may be used for
residential buildings, where the fire resistance of the structure does not carry much importance.
Timber stairs can be made sufficiently fire resistant by using hard wood like teak, mahogany and
oak, and also by adopting comparatively thick timber members. Details of timber stair case is as
shown in figure 11.1


















Fig 11.1. Details of a Timber Staircase

























Fig 11.2 Terms used in timber stairs


Construction of Reinforced Concrete Stairs
Stairs constructed using timber is combustible and can contribute to the spread of fire during a
fire outbreak. Reinforced concrete stairs are non-combustible, strong and hard wearing. They
may be constructed in-situ or precast in sections ready for immediate installation and use when
delivered to site.

The concrete specification should be very strong of 25-30 N/mm
2
compressive strength.
Concrete cover the reinforcement should not be less than 15mm or the bar diameter whichever
one is greater. The thickness of the concrete required depends on the loading and the span of the
staircase. This should not be less than 100 mm measured across the waist which is the distance
from the soffit and the intersection of the tread and riser.
Steel is usually provided as the reinforcement, the bars being lapped to starter bars at the ground
floor and taken into the landing or floor support slab. The number, diameter and spacing of the
main and distribution bars must be calculated for each stairway.

Many types of finishes can be applied to the tread of stairs.



Test Question
Describe the construction of a timber stair case




















WEEK 12: ROOF COSTRUCTION
The roof is perhaps the most important part of structures. It shed water more quickly without
linking, it beeps out grit and dust, it also provide shade and sometimes light, and insulate against
heat and wise. It may also be used for re-creational purposes and for additional living space.
Roof design involves a number of factors some of which are overhang, wind insulation,
ventilation, and lighting, movement of pest and disposal of water

Functional requirements of roof
Stability : Support dead load (i.e. roof structure, covering insulation and internal finishes)
live load/snow and wind) without undue deflection or distortion
Strength: Depends on the characteristic of material and workshop
Exclusion/ Wind and rain: The roof excludes wind or rain through the material of which it is
covered.
Durability: Depends largely on the ability of the roof covering material to exclude rain
Fire resistance: The roof covering and the material should have adequate resistance due to
fire and against spread of flame.
Thermal properties: Roof structure and covering materials are generally poor insulators.
Pitched roofs are insulated air ceiling level by fixing or laying of some insulation materials
between or across the ceiling joist.
Vapour Barrier: Insulating material are effective against transfer of heat to the extent that
they maintain stagnant air within fibres, in granules or in minutes spaces. When these
materials absorb water they loose there insulating properties. The vapour barriers take the
form of a sheet of bitumen, polythene or Aluminum, that is inpermeable to moisture.

Classification of roof
Roof can be classified in three ways
According to plan of outer surface (space)
According to structural principal on which there design is based
According to span- if the pitch of a roof is more than 10 is called flat roof.
According to structural principle on which there design is based. 2 dimension
According to span small-short span up to 70m generally of traditional timber construction with
a flat or pitch profile.
Medium span 7.0m to 24m span except where R.C is used; the usual wood structure for a
medium span in truss or lattice of a standard section large or long span.
Over 24m: These roofs are generally design by specialist using ginger, space deck or vaulting
techniques.

TYPES OF ROOF
Pitch roof
A pitch roof has one or more roof slopes at a pitch or slop of more than 10 to horizontal. The
most common roof shape is the symmetrical pitch roof, pitched to central ridge with equal slope.
A mono pitched roof has only one slope free standing vision lean to roof.
A pitched roof is stable in most weather and its slope disposes of rainwater quickly. The main
supporting structure is timber, which is easy to work and transport.

Pitched roof construction
This can be built in different ways depending on the loads and sizes. Below are the list of
pitched roof that use different methods of construction.

Types of pitch roofs
Lean-to roof
Couple roof
Closed couple roof
Collar roof
Trussed rafters roof











Lean-to roof
It is a mono pitched roof that leans on a wall of an existing structure. It can span up to 1-3m. The
slope should be greater than 10.










Fig 10.1 Lean-to roof

Couple Roof
This is the smallest form of pitched roof. The span or the horizontal distance between wall to
spread and overturn walls
Disadvantage of this type of roof is that is that the load from roof covering tends to spread to the
feet of rafter and overturning to supporting wall. Thus a ties member can be fixed across the feet
of the rafters.









Fig 10.2 Couple Roof


Flat Roof
A flat roof is basically a low-pitched roof and is defined as a pitch of 10 or less to the
horizontal. The angle of pitch is governed by the type of finish which is to be applied to the roof.
Flat roofs can be timber or reinforced concrete and are popular forms of roofing for houses.
Points to consider when constructing a flat roof:
1. It requires a deck or slab
2. it must have some insulation
3. a method of disposing rainwater etc

Properties and fixing details of roof coverings
1. Tile covering
Roof tiles are usually made from clay or concrete that is moulded into suitable shapes.
The tiles are overlapped so that the rainwater flows down the slope of the roof and the
roof structure underneath remains dry.

Fixing details of tile covering
1. fix the battens to the correct gauge position
2. begin laying tiles at the eaves
3. make sure that each tile interlocks with the tile next to it
4. Finish laying the tiles at the ridge.



























Figure 12.0 Fixing details of tile covering

2. Roof sheets covering
This is covering the roof with sheeting materials like corrugated fibre cement and
corrugated galvanized steel.

Fixing detail
1. position the first sheet in the bottom corner of the roof framework
2. Drill through a sheet on top of the corrugations.
3. fix it to the purlins with galvanized iron drive screws and supped washers
4. lay the next sheet so that it overlaps the first sheet by one corrugation
5. Fix a special ridge member that is in two parts.

Water proofing system of roof
1. Bituminous felt which is a sheet material with a fibrous base
soaked in bitumen. Felt is usually laid on timber roofs
2. Mastic Asphalt: This is material containing bitumen that is laid as a hot elastic
covering. As it cools it hardens to form a jointless cover that is usually put on
concrete roofs.

Test Question
1. State and discuss five functional requirement of roofs


























WEEK 13 ROOF (CONTINUED)

Steel Roofs
A steel roof truss is a plane frame consisting of a series of rigid triangles composed of
compressor and tension members. The compression member are called rafters and struts, while
the tension members are termed tie steel trusses are used mainly for short and medium span
single storey building intended for industrial or recreational purposes.
Standard mild steel angle complying with recommendation of B.S 4 are usually employed as the
structural member, and these are connected together where the centre lines coverage with flat
shape plate called gussets. They can be riveted, bolted or welded together to form a rigid
triangular truss. The internal arrangement of the strut and tie will be governed by the span. The
principal rafter divided into equal division which locates the intersection point for the centre line
of the internal strut or tie.















Fig13.1 Steel Roofs




Timber Flat Roof
The construction of a timber flat roof is just like the construction of timber upper floors. Soft
wood timber joist 38mm-50mm thick and from 75mm-225mm deep are placed on edge from
400mm to 600mm apart with the ends of the joist built into or against bride walls and partition.

If there is a parapet wall around the roof, the end of the roof joist may be built into the wall or
support in metal hangers. The joist can bear on a timber or metal wall plate.
The ends of roof joist built into solid brick walls should be given some protection against
dampness by treating them will a preservative.
Flat roofs most be provided with a fall to remove the rainwater as quickly as possible. The
direction of the fall will be determined by the position of the roof in relation to other building or
by the shape or size. Roof boarding should be 19mm to 25mm thick and be tongued and
grooved, and should if possible be laid with fall. But where thin is not possible, the boarding
should be laid diagonally.
A timber flat roof provides poor insulation used in the construction of modern building is poor
insulation and same materials have to be built into or onto the roof to improve its insulation
against transfer of heat. Insulating materials are manufactured in the form of boards, slabs, quilts
or loose fill and when used with timber roof, the boards and slabs are fixed on the joist under the
boarding or on the underside of the joist.











Fig13.2 Timber flat roof


Reinforced Concrete Roofs
This is the same thing in construction as the construction of reinforced concrete floors, but loads
on roofs are less than floors. Thickness of reinforced concrete roof is less than floor of similar
span. If the surface is to be laid to a fall, the concrete roof will be finished with a screed of cut
and sand with the top surface of the screed finished to the fall required. The least thickness of the
screed will be from 20-25mm. A reinforced concrete roof will usually span the least width
between the external wall or internal load bearing well. A reinforced concrete roof provide poor
insulation against less or gain thermal insulation should be incorporated in the construction of the
roof or a lightweight concrete slab construction be used.
Lightweight aggregate (e.g.-formed slag, pumice and vermiculite) can be used in place of san.
These three minerals are all porous and it is the air trapped in the minutes pores of the materials
which at once make them light in weight and good thermal insulators.
















Fig 13.3 Reinforced concrete roofs

Test Question
1. Draw and label the parts of steel roof
2. Draw and label a typical that roof and label the parts
WEEK 14 TYPES OF CEILINGS

TYPES OF CEILINGS
Ceilings are generally classified into two major types i.e. the suspended and the non-suspended
ceiling.

Functions of ceilings
Define the limit height of the room: the ceiling gives a definite demarcation of the room from
the top.
Support to fittings: The ceiling provides support to lighting fittings and ceiling fans.
Housing of services: The ceiling helps conceal services pipes, heating and cooling systems,
which are regarded as unsightly features.
Fire resistance: The ceiling reduces the amount of heat transmission from the interior of the
building (in case of fire) to the timber and /or steel roof members or suspended slab and
beams.
Thermal insulation: The void created by the ceiling helps to regulate the transmission of heat
from weather to the interior of the building.
Dust proof: The ceiling prevents the effect of dust penetrating through roofing sheet laps and
other into the building.
Sound insulation: Depending on the type of materials used as the final finishing ceiling act as
an insulator for sound in the room.
Reducing in heating or cooling cost: By defining the limit of the room thus reducing the
volume of air in room, the ceiling helps in reducing the cost of heating or cooling room when
the need so arise.
Appearance: The ceilings help in adding to the aesthetic of the interior of the room thus
making the room comfortably habitable.
Rain effect: In case of leakages on roof covering, the ceiling prevents the effect of direct
dropping of rainwater into the room.





Factors affecting the choice of ceiling construction
It is an indisputable fact that the type of ceiling finish affects the construction and the factors that
affect the choice of ceiling construction include the following:
Activities to be carried out in the building: The activities to be carried out in the building do
affect the choice of ceiling thus affecting the construction. (e.g. a room which is meant to be
used as conference room or music recording studio, where reverberation of sound produce
will be detrimental to the activities being carried out in the room, ceiling with hard surface
such as concrete finished carried out in the room, ceilings with hard surfaces surface such as
concrete finished must be used, acoustic will be advisable). An additional example is the use
asbeatos in rooms that are prone to fire and POP (Plaster Of Paris) for functions same as the,
and beauty.
Availability of fund: It is only he that has money that thinks of the procedures of owning on
whether there is available fund to select what ever type which consequently affect the
construction.

Suspended Ceiling
The suspended ceiling can be defined as ceiling fixed to a frame work suspended form the main
structure either by means of timber, aluminium or steel members, thus forming a void between
the tow components. The choice of this type of ceiling depends on the aforementioned factors,
through there are some situations where if ceiling must be constructed to a building, then it has to
be suspended ( i.e. when the frame structure is of timber roof members)

Below are some notes that have to be carefully observed while construction a suspended ceiling
i. They should be easy to construct, repair, maintain and clean.
ii. Should designed in a form that an adequate means of access is provide to the void space
for the maintenance of the suspension system and concealed services
iii. Conform with the minimum requirement set out in the building regulations and in
particular the regulations governing the restriction of spread of flame over surface of
ceilings and the exceptions permitting the use of certain plastic materials.




Classification of suspended ceiling
There is no standard method of classification since some are classified by their function such as
illuminated and acoustic suspended ceiling; others are classified by materials used. However,
classification by method of construction is also very popular. This method is simple since most
suspended ceiling types can be place in one of the following groups:
a. Jointless suspended ceiling
b. Panelled suspended ceiling
c. Decorative and open suspended ceiling

Jointless suspended ceiling
Jointless suspended ceiling are made with plaster of various sorts and sprayed asbestos,
applied to a backing of expanded metal of 6mm size of the short way of the mesh, either
galvanized steel or steel painted with asphalt, example of these materials are as shown of fig.
below
















Fig14.1. Jointless suspended ceiling


Ceiling finish Abutment wall
The lathing is wired to a suspended frame work of flat steel bars placed on edge, for example, 40
x 6mm at 600mm centres, span 1.8m, and these are suspended by straps of rods ( 6mm diameter
rods will carry 1.5m
2
of ceiling) Plastering is done in three coats, there are several mixes and one
of the best, which is relatively quick, is metal lathing gypsum plaster, the first two coast consist
of 1 volume of plaster to 1 volume of sand and have goat or cow hair with them to the extent of
5kg of hair to 1m
3
of mixed plaster. The first coat is well pressed into the mesh to a thickness of
9mm allowed to set and then scratched to form a key for the second coat. The final coat is about
5mm thick and is of neat gypsum. Vermiculite can be used considerable saving of weight.

Panelled suspended ceiling
This can be made with dry materials; consequently they are more quickly completed than the
jointless types. The panels are pre-formed, made of fibreboard, plaster, asbestos materials, metal
trays, cork, wood-wool and strawboard. The board is obtainable in thickness from 5 to 50mm
and in sizes from 305mm square 1.2 x 4.2, panels 610mm square or 610 x 1200mm are
commonly used. Some boards are perforated to within a short distance with small holes to
improve sound absorption. Light gauge rustproof steel or aluminium channels, timber members
or tee sections are used to support the sagging to the ceiling. The sections can be exposed or
concealed and the panels should rest on flanges at least 16mm wide to allow for possible
movement. Tees are often used supports, the main ones at 610mm centres with cross tees
(noggin) at the end of the panel. Ideally 610mm square a panel gives the best result. The finished
ceiling weighs from 10 to 12kg/m
2


























Fig14.2 Support details for panelled suspended ceiling

Non-Suspended Ceiling
Non suspended ceiling: These are attached or fixed directly to the roof framework eliminating
voids, open spaces and working spaces in the ceiling. The ceiling is fixed directly to the noggins
at specified centre spacing usually ranging from 300- 1200mm as may be required.

The non-suspended ceiling in most cases occurs in concrete suspended slab; in this case the
ceiling could be referred as concrete ceiling. In some cases the construction of such type of
ceiling is simply the process of applying 12mm thick of cement and sand (1:4) to soffit of
suspended slab before any finishing like painting/decoration or paper is applied. Though
suspended ceiling could be structure if so desired by mean of screwing hangers to the soffit.

There are situations where rendering may not be needed i.e. where a steel formwork is used to
cast the suspended slab. In this case one may not be wrong to say the element is bi-functional in
as much as it is acting as both ceiling and suspended slab (either floor roof).

There are other situations where the finishing to soffit for such ceiling are designed to be tiled
facing slips or others, all in the name of achieving an aesthetical goal. In such case the tiles will
be laid face down in the formwork for the suspended slab in a pattern so desired, before the wet
concrete is place. After setting and formwork removed, the tiles will stick to the soffit and the
desired ceiling is achieved.


Disadvantages of Ceiling Generally
Despite the advantages/functions of ceiling there are some attributes of ceiling which could be
regarded as detrimental to the occupants of the building:
It conceals a gradual or incidental outbreak of fire erupting from electrical fault in the
services so concealed in the ceiling and this may cause lost of lives and property.
It house rodent, which are likely to damage food items and likely transmit diseases.


Test Question
1. List five function of ceiling
2. Discuss two factors that can affect ceiling
















WEEK 15 CEILING FINISHES
Functional requirement of ceiling finishes
Provide a good thermal insulation
Provide a good resistance to sound movement
In suspended ceiling, provide and adequate means of access for maintenance of
concealed services or light fittings
Accommodate services an also distribute lightning, heating and ventilation.
It define the limit of the room
Great awareness in event of roof leakage
Minimize the effect of direct rainwater in event of roof leakage.
Factors to be considered when selecting materials to be used for ceiling finish
Appearance (aesthetic)
Light reflection
Fire resistance
Sound absorption
Maintenance
Cost of installation
Ease of installation
Weather condition
Function of the building

The various types of materials for ceiling finishes include:
Fibre board tiles
Plaster board tile
Gypsum-base board
Cellotex ceiling board
Timber panels
Perforated asbestos
Acoustic
Laminated plastic sheets
Particle board
Concreted slab
Block board
Paint

The above materials can be applied on either suspended by or non-suspended. The material
determined the method of application and some methods are applicable to more than material.

Fibre board tiles
These are made from wood and plant tissue mechanically compressed into boards. They are
constructed with tongue and groove and stapling flange for fixing. The thickness ranges from 9.5
to 12mm and size of 300 x 300m.
They are fixed with furring strips attached to the ceiling joist upon which the fibreboard are
stapled. The furrings are placed bat 300mm centres and the fibreboard is connected to each other
by the tongue and groove joints provided. It is fixed on concrete slab by using adhesive. And it is
used only internally. This method is known as stapling method.

The use of fibreboard requires unpacking the tiles at least 24hrs before fixing to allow the tiles
adjust to room temperature and humidity. the fibreboard has the merit of being used for both
new and old ceiling, it is factory finished and ease of installation. And have the demerit of not
durable, relatively expensive and it is mainly used internally.

Gypsum base plaster board finish
This is a rigid made with a core of gypsum sandwiched between facing sheets of strong and
durable papers it comes in standard size of 600 x 600 x 12.5mm thickness. The fixing requires
accurately spaced timber noggins at 600 to 1200mm centres to receive plaster board and joints
are sealed with adhesive metalized tape. The sealing of the joints gives the plasterboard an
attractive out look and also prevents existence to tiny rodents in the ceiling joints, wailings are
provided at 150mm centres it also internally only. This method is known as the cementing
method.

It has the merit of beautiful appearance when view and the demerit of not withstanding external
weather condition and is brittle.


Celotex ceiling board
These are made from cellulose materials of wood and plant compressed into sheets of unfinished
surface that require painting of the surfaces. The sizes of cellotex ceiling board is 2400 x 1200m
and a thickness of 3mm. The method of fixing requires spaced timber noggins at 600, 900 or
1200mm depending on the area required to be covered. Nails are driven in at 150mm centres and
the joints are covered with battens. The ceiling surface requires painting to give the ceiling a neat
and attractive appearance. This method is known as wooden noggin. It is used in auditorium and
studio to prevent external noise it is also used in broadcasting rooms or theater, used both
internal and external ceiling finishes. Celotex ceiling have the merit of being readily available,
relatively cheap and it absorb sound. And has the demerits methods of difficulty in fixing
compared to fibreboard and acoustic, poor fire resistance and requires painting.

Perforated asbestos tile
Perforated Asbestos tile are made up of a mixture of cement, lime mortar and fibre board straws
for strengthening of mixture. The mixture is allowed to solidify on lined with polythene in sizes
of 1200 x 1200mm and a thickness of 3mm with a perforated finished surface. The method of
fixing is the same as that of Celotex board except that the asbestos ceiling sheet requires great
care as little breakage of tiles renders the sheet wastage.
It has the merit of high fire resistance and it comes in finished form. And has the demerit of
difficulty in installation, expensive, not readily available and brittle.

Plain Asbestos
The asbestos is similar to the perforated asbestos. Unlike the perforated it is common and it
comes in an unfinished form. The method of fixing is same as the perforated one.

Timber panel
These are timber materials used for ceiling finish the surfaces are well planed and polished or
spray and they are fixed into metal track systems, which are nailed to old ceiling joist at 300mm
intervals. The track systems use clips to hold the timber panels. The timber panel comes in length
of 3.50meters and width of 450mm with thickness of 12mm it can be used both internally and
externally. This is method is known as the track system.
It has the merits of resisting weather effect and it is very attractive. It has the demerits of poor
resistance to fire and the method of fixing is time consuming.
Plywood ceiling sheet
These are sheet made from three or more numbers of thin layers of wood veneers. It consist of a
back, a face which is usually sprayed after placing and core or center made of veneer with a
lesser density e.g. the 3-ply has a thickness of 3mm and 5 ply a thickness of 5mm. the sizes are
cut to 2400 x 1200mm and the method of fixing is same as the coletex and asbestos that the
finish for the plywood is by spraying and is used both internally and externally.
It has the merit of resisting weather effect and it is very attractive and demerits of poor fire
resistance and relatively expensive.

Block board or laminated board ceiling sheet
These are built form strips of solid wood compressed together and the thickness ranges from
8mm to 25mm. the sizes usually range from 2600 x 75mm. it is used internal and external
finishes. The method of fixing is same as the celotex.

Particle board
These are composed of flakes of chips of wood glued together most usually 3-20mm thickness
an size of 2400 x 1200mm. the method of fixing is just the same as that of the celotex ceiling
sheet.

Acoustic ceiling board
Acoustic ceiling board comes in finished form and size of 600 x 600 x 12mm thickness with a
perforated finished surface for sound absorption. The method of fixing requires the use of grid
runners. It is mostly used in suspended ceiling. The grid runners are attached to the ceiling joist
and the plastic lining battens are attached or fixed to the grids. The acoustic ceiling tiles are then
tilted and slipped through the framework and lowered into place. It is used only internally.

Decorative laminated plastic sheets.
These are industrially manufactured from layers resin or fibre bonded under heat or pressure
into thin sheets of uniform thickness. They come in sizes of 2400 x 1200mm and a thickness of
3mm. the surface do not require any finish and the method of fixing is the same as that of the
acoustic type it is used for only for internal finishes.


Painting
Painting can generally be used as finishing materials to concrete slab surface after smoothly
rendered. Emulsion pain of 2 coats minimum is required. It can also be used as finish to various
form of ceiling finishes such as Celotex, plain asbestos etc due to the unfinished of these
materials.

Test Question
1. State five functional requirements of ceiling timbering
2. List four factors to be considered when selecting materials for ceiling finish.