Wheres Evil Come From?

Lecture Notes on Augustines On Free Choice of Will, Book I

Culture & Belief 3
!effre" #c$onough
0. Opening Quotation
In the me%ntime cu&i'it" c%rries out % reign of terror, (uffeting the )hole hum%n soul %n'
life )ith storms coming from ever" 'irection* Fe%r %tt%cks from one si'e %n' 'esire from
the other+ from one si'e %n,iet"+ from the other, %n em&t" %n' 'ece&tive h%&&iness+ from
one si'e, the %gon" of losing )h%t one love'+ from the other, the &%ssion to %c-uire )h%t
one 'i' not h%ve+ from one si'e, the &%in of %n in.ur" receive'+ from the other, the
(urning 'esire to %venge it* Wherever "ou turn, %v%rice c%n &inch, e,tr%v%g%nce
s-u%n'er, %m(ition 'estro", &ri'e s)ell, env" torment, %&%th" crush, o(stin%c" incite,
o&&ression ch%fe, %n' countless other evils cro)' the re%lm of inor'in%te 'esire %n' run
riot* In short, c%n )e consi'er this &unishment trivi%l / % &unishment th%t, %s "ou re%li0e,
%ll )ho 'o not cle%ve to )is'om must suffer? 123

1. The Setting
** Life %n' Works4 Augustine )%s (orn in 356 CE in % &rovinci%l to)n in North Afric%
to % &%g%n f%ther %n' % 'evote'l" Christi%n mother #onic%* Aroun' the %ge of 5 he
move' to C%rth%ge to continue his schooling* 7here he stu'ie' rhetoric, live' % self8
'escri(e' life of sin, %n' took u& % mistress )ho (ore him % son, )hom the" n%me'
9A'eo'%tus*:
While in C%rth%ge, Augustine (ec%me % novice of % sect kno)n %s the
#%niche%ns )ho (elieve' in % met%&h"sic%l 'u%lism %ccor'ing to )hich there %re t)o
fun'%ment%l &rinci&les, one goo' %n' one evil )hich %re in etern%l conflict* ;%rt of the
%ttr%ction of the #%niche%n vie) for e%rl" Augustine l%" in its commitment to
m%teri%lism %n' its str%ightfor)%r' %ccount of the &resence of evil in the )orl'*
After %(out ten "e%rs of te%ching rhetoric in C%rth%ge 1%n' one "e%r in <ome3,
Augustine took % te%ching &osition in #il%n* 7here, un'er the influence of =t* Am(rose,
he rene)e' his interest in Christi%nit" %n' (roke )ith the #%niche%ns* After % s&iritu%l
crisis, f%mousl" &resente' in his Confessions, he converte' to Christi%nit" in 32> CE*
=hortl" %fter)%r's, he (eg%n )orking on the 'i%logue th%t )e )ill (e re%'ing for cl%ss,
On Free Choice of Will*
Augustine )oul' l%ter (ecome Bisho& of ?i&&o %n' %uthor over @@ (ooks %n'
tre%tises, 5@@ sermons, %n' A5@ letters* 7hese )orks inclu'e The Confessions 1&u(lishe'
6@@ CE3 %n' The City of God 1com&lete' 6A> CE3* ?e 'ie' in 63@ CE*
*A* Bnlike some of his other 'i%logues, On Free Choice of Will cont%ins little (" )%" of
st%ge setting %n' inclu'es onl" t)o m%in ch%r%cters, Augustine %n' his longtime frien'

Bnless other)ise in'ic%te', %ll cit%tions in this lecture %re from Augustine, On Free
Choice of the Will, tr%nsl%te' (" 7hom%s Willi%ms 1In'i%n%&olis, In'i%n%4 ?%ckett
;u(lishing Com&%n", CC33*

Evo'ius* 7he 'i%logue %ccor'ingl" &resents % 'iscussion (et)een t)o e%rnestl"

in-uisitive frien's %n' not % (%ttle of o&&osing vie)&oints* It %&&e%rs to t%ke &l%ce
shortl" %fter Augustines conversion to Christi%nit" %n' %''resses most centr%ll" the ver"
&ro(lem th%t h%' long ke&t him from em(r%cing his mothers f%ith, n%mel", the %&&%rent
e,istence of evil in the )orl'*
2. What is the cause of evil?
A** 7he 'i%logue o&ens )ith Evo'ius unceremoniousl" %sking 9DIEsnt Fo' the c%use of
evil?: Augustine suggests th%t the -uestion c%nt (e %ns)ere' (efore % 'istinction is
m%'e (et)een doing evil %n' suffering evil* We must (elieve, Augustine tells us, th%t
Fo' 'oesnt 'o %n"thing evil, %lthough he 'oes c%use others to suffer evil* 7hese cl%ims
c%n (e consistent (ec%use Fo' might .ustl" &unish those )ho 'o evil (" c%using them to
suffer evil* Evil %ccor'ing to Augustine is thus intro'uce' into the )orl' through sinful
%gents other th%n Fo'* Im&ort%ntl", Augustine t%kes it for gr%nte' th%t for sinful %gents
to (e .ustl" &unishe' (" Fo' their evil 'ee's must (e &erforme' freel"*
A*A* Augustines initi%l res&onse to the &ro(lem of evil, ho)ever, %s he notes, might (e
thought to onl" &ush the &ro(lem (%ck % ste&4
We (elieve th%t ever"thing th%t e,ists comes from the one Fo', %n' "et )e
(elieve th%t Fo' is not the c%use of sins* Wh%t is trou(ling is th%t if "ou %'mit
th%t sins come from the souls th%t Fo' cre%te', %n' those souls come from Fo',
&rett" soon "oull (e tr%cing those sins (%ck to Fo'* 133
A*3* Augustine m%int%ins th%t )e must (elieve %s % m%tter of f%ith th%t evil 'oesnt come
from Fo'* ?e %ckno)le'ges, ho)ever, th%t )e m%" nonetheless )ish to un'erst%n' ho)
evil 'oesnt come from Fo'* ?ere )e get % first t%ste of Augustines f%mous 'octrine
th%t one must h%ve f%ith in or'er to un'erst%n', i*e* th%t f%ith is in some sense &rior to,
%n' necess%r" for, un'erst%n'ing*
3. What is evil doing?
3** As % first ste& to)%r's 'iscovering the source of our evil 'oing, Augustine first tries
to cl%rif" )h%t evil'oing is* 7hree vie)s %re r%ise' %n' -uickl" 'ismisse'4 1i3 evil is
viol%ting civil l%) 1this gets the or'er of 'e&en'ence the )rong )%" %roun'3 1ii3 evil is
'oing to %nother )h%t "ou )oul' not )%nt 'one to oneself 1)h%t if some &eo&le )%nt
immor%l things 'one to them?3 1iii3 evil is )h%t is con'emne' (" m%n" 1(ut even %
m%.orit" might (e mor%ll" )rong / the A&ostles themselves, for e,%m&le, )ere
con'emne' (" % m%.orit"3* 7his &rocess of cl%rific%tion shoul', of course, remin' us of
the 'evelo&ment of the Euthyphro*
3*A* Augustine ne,t suggests th%t evil is inor'in%te 'esire* Wh%t e,%ctl" Augustine
me%ns (" 9inor'in%te 'esire: (ecomes cle%rer %s )e go on* #ost (%sic%ll", it me%ns th%t
one h%s v%lue' lo)er goo's over higher goo's* 1Inor'in%te 'esires %re 'esires th%t %re
liter%ll" out of or'er*3 7his %ccount of inor'in%te 'esire t%kes for gr%nte' % gener%l
(%ckgroun' r%nking of goo's not uncommon in Christi%n ;l%tonism4 things %ssoci%te'
A
)ith Fo' %n' the re%lm of the etern%l %re %ssigne' % high v%lue )hile things (elonging to
the corru&ti(le &h"sic%l )orl' %re %ssigne' % lo) v%lue* Augustine &uts %n interesting
s&in on this vie) (" suggesting th%t higher goo's %re 9those things th%t one c%nnot lose
%g%inst ones )ill: 123*
3*3* Augustine t%kes u& % &otenti%l countere,%m&le to his cl%im th%t evil is %l)%"s linke'
)ith inor'in%te desire* Isnt evil sometimes c%use' (" fe%r 1%s o&&ose' to 'esire3?
Augustine re&lies th%t sin is not re%ll" c%use' (" fe%r per se, (ut it is r%ther the c%se th%t
fe%r often %ccom&%nies %n inor'in%te 'esire / for e,%m&le, % 'esire to kee& ones )orl'l"
&ossessions* 1Augustines sl%ve e,%m&le is &otenti%ll" misle%'ing to contem&or%r"
re%'ers since he t%kes it for gr%nte' 1%s )e )oul' not3 th%t there is something mor%ll"
)rong / no m%tter )h%t the circumst%nces / in % sl%ves killing his m%ster* =o, in the
e,%m&le, Augustine is looking for %n inor'in%te 'esire th%t 'rives the sl%ve to %n immor%l
%ct, %n' he fin's it in the sl%ves 'esire for tem&or%l goo's*3
3*6* Note there is something -uite r%'ic%l (uilt into the ver" foun'%tions of Augustines
s"stem %s % result of the structure of his hier%rch" of goo's* For Augustine there is %n
un(ri'ge%(le g%& (et)een )orl'l" goo's %n' he%venl" goo's* No )orl'l" goo' c%n
&ossi(l" hol' % c%n'le to % he%venl" goo'* As % result, for Augustine, there is never %n"
re%son to s%crifice % he%venl" goo' for % )orl'l" goo' / no m%tter ho) %&&%rentl" trivi%l
the he%venl" goo' or ho) gr%n' the )orl'l" goo'*
3*5* A sense of ho) uncom&romising Augustines vie) is st%rts to come out in his
consi'er%tion of self8'efense* A(str%cting from the (%ck %n' forth, Augustines vie)
seems to (e %s follo)s4 1i3 the tem&or%l or civil l%) %llo)ing killing in self8'efense is
.ust (ec%use it &ermits % lesser evil 1the 'e%th of %n %tt%cker3 over % gre%ter evil 1the 'e%th
of % victim3+ 1ii3 nonetheless one )ho kills in self8'efense still sins (ec%use he %cts out of
inor'in%te 'esire for )orl'l" goo's+ %n' 1iii3 so killing in self8'efense is always
for(i''en (" the etern%l or 'ivine l%)* Although this vie) might seem to fl" in the f%ce
of our contem&or%r" commonsense intuitions concerning ones right to 'efen' oneself,
one c%n %t le%st recogni0e the coherence of Augustines line of thought*
4. The Well-Ordered erson
6** If sinfulness is to (e un'erstoo' in terms of 'isor'er, )e might )%nt to kno)4 Wh%t
it is for % hum%n (eing to (e not8'isor'ere', th%t is, to (e )ell8or'ere'? In %ns)ering this
-uestion, Augustine &rocee's through three m%in ste&s* First, he %rgues th%t the
cro)ning virtue of hum%ns is their re%son* ?e 'oes this, in &%rt, (" %rguing th%t )e
sur&%ss (e%sts in virtue of our re%son, %n' this is )itnesse' (" the f%ct th%t )e %re %(le to
t%me %n' su('ue %nim%ls, %lthough the" %re not %(le to t%me %n' su('ue hum%ns*
6*A* =econ', Augustine suggests th%t in % )ell8or'ere' &erson re%son rules the (%ser
instincts %n' &%ssions* Conversel" he suggests th%t % &erson not rule' (" re%son is % fool*
In these ch%r%cteri0%tions, Augustine echoes % common ;l%tonic theme, %n' it m%"
remin' some of "ou of ;l%tos Republic, in )hich ;l%to %rgues th%t % )ell8or'ere' cit" /
3
rule' (" &hiloso&hers of courseG /mirrors % )ell8or'ere' &erson rule' (" her f%cult" of
re%son*
6*3* 7hir', Augustine m%int%ins th%t )h%t is lo)er c%n never of its o)n %ccor' control
)h%t is higher, %n' in &%rticul%r th%t no 'esire or m%teri%l o(.ect is more &o)erful th%n
re%son* Nor, he %rgues, coul' % .ust min' force %nother .ust min' to inor'in%tel" 'esire
something, since it )oul', ipso facto, not (e % .ust min', %n' thus )oul' (e inherentl"
)e%ker th%n the .ust min' it seeks to corru&t* Augustine 'r%)s the conclusion th%t
nothing c%n m%ke % .ust / % )ell8or'ere' / min' su(.ect to vice or sin4
7he conclusions th%t )e h%ve re%che' thus f%r in'ic%te th%t % min' th%t is in
control, one th%t &ossesses virtue, c%nnot (e m%'e % sl%ve to inor'in%te 'esire ("
%n"thing e-u%l or su&erior to it, (ec%use such % thing )oul' (e .ust, or ("
%n"thing inferior to it, (ec%use such % thing )oul' (e too )e%k* !ust one
&ossi(ilit" rem%ins4 onl" its o)n )ill %n' free choice c%n m%ke the min' %
com&%nion of cu&i'it"* 1H3
6*6* =o )e %re left )ith % first8&%ss &icture of )h%t Augustine t%kes to (e % goo' &erson
%n' )h%t he sees %s the goo' life* A goo' &erson is % &erson )ho lives in %ccor'%nce
)ith re%son %n' )ho or'ers her 'esires r%tion%ll"* 7his first8&%ss vie) is ver" much in
kee&ing )ith the r%tion%list tr%'ition of ;l%to, (ut 'iffers some)h%t )ith religious vie)s
th%t em&h%si0e the im&ort%nce of emotion %n' love* <el%te'l", the goo' life, for
Augustine, is % mo'er%te life 'omin%te' (" r%tion%l reflection* Ag%in this is ver" much in
kee&ing )ith the &l%tonic tr%'ition, (ut might (e thought to .i(e less )ell )ith religious
vie)s th%t t%ke com&%ssion %n' goo' 'ee's to (e the foun'%tion of % goo' life*
!. Sin and "gnorance
5** With % tight connection (et)een )is'om %n' virtue est%(lishe', Augustine confronts
%nother ch%llenge* No one )%nts to (e % fool, so if )e %re fools, it seems, )e must (e
fools %g%inst our )ill* But if )e %re fools %g%inst our )ill, then it seems th%t )e might
not re%ll" (e res&onsi(le for our sins, )hich, %fter %ll, %re 'ue to ignor%nce %ccor'ing to
Augustine* Augustine himself s&ots the )orr" in the follo)ing &%r%gr%&h4
7he -uestion th%t trou(les me most is this4 We %re cert%inl" fools %n' h%ve never
(een )ise* An' "et )e %re s%i' to suffer such (itter &en%lties 'eserve'l" (ec%use
)e %(%n'one' the stronghol' of virtue %n' chose to (e sl%ves to inor'in%te 'esire*
?o) c%n this (e? 123
5*A* In res&on'ing to this %&&%rent 'ifficult", Augustine first %rgues th%t even % fool c%n
recogni0e th%t % goo' )ill is f%r more v%lu%(le th%n %n" e%rthl" goo', %n' th%t %ll th%t is
re-uire' to h%ve % goo' )ill is to v%lue it %(ove %n" e%rthl" goo'* ;ut % (it cru'el", it
might (e nice to (e rich, (ut no one )%nts to (e % rich .erk+ %n' )hile not ever"one c%n
m%ke % million 'oll%rs, ever"one c%n (e honest, sincere, %n' &ious* In this )%",
Augustine m%int%ins th%t even % fool is res&onsi(le for not h%ving % goo' )ill 1since even
% fool must kno) th%t % goo' )ill is the (est thing to o(t%in, %n' even % fool is c%&%(le of
o(t%ining it34
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I7o h%ve % goo' )ill is to h%ve something f%r more v%lu%(le th%n %ll e%rthl"
king'oms %n' &le%sures+ to l%ck it is to l%ck something th%t onl" the )ill itself c%n
give, something th%t is (etter th%n %ll the goo's th%t %re not in our &o)er* =ome
&eo&le consi'er themselves utterl" miser%(le if the" 'o not %chieve % s&len'i'
re&ut%tion, gre%t )e%lth, %n' v%rious goo's of the (o'"* But 'ont "ou consi'er
them utterl" miser%(le, even if the" h%ve %ll these things )hen the" cle%ve to
things th%t the" c%n -uite e%sil" lose, things th%t the" 'o not h%ve sim&l" in virtue
of )illing them, )hile the" l%ck % goo' )ill, )hich is incom&%r%(l" (etter th%n
those things %n' "et, even though it is such % gre%t goo', c%n (e theirs if onl" the"
)ill to h%ve it?
E4 I cert%inl" 'o*
A4 7hen fools, even if the" )ere never )ise * * * %re .ustl" %n' 'eserve'l"
%fflicte' )ith such miser"* 1A@3J
5*3* Ne,t, Augustine %rgues th%t the &erson )ho h%s goo' )ill %lso h%s %ll other virtues*
In or'er to 'o this, he 'r%)s u&on %n %ncient 'octrine sometimes referre' to %s the 9unit"
of the virtues*: Accor'ing to th%t 'octrine, % &erson is not %(le to trul" &ossess one virtue
)ithout &ossessing %ll other virtues* =o, for e,%m&le, it )%s hel' th%t )hile % thief might
(e clever is some res&ects, she coul'nt re%ll" (e )ise, generous, or &ru'ent* With the
unit" of the virtues in the (%ckgroun', Augustine %rgues th%t if one h%s % goo' )ill then
one must %lso h%ve the virtues of &ru'ence, fortitu'e, tem&er%nce, %n' .ustice* 7hus even
the fool h%s it in her &o)er to g%in %ll the virtues, since even she c%n recogni0e the v%lue
of % goo' )ill, %n' it is )ithin ever"ones &o)er to h%ve % goo' )ill, %n' h%ving % goo'
)ill must (ring )ith it %ll other virtues*
5*6* Ne,t, Augustine links h%ving % goo' )ill %n' the virtues )ith the goo' life %rguing
th%t 9it is est%(lishe' th%t &eo&le %re h%&&" )hen the" love their o)n goo' )ill, in
com&%rison )ith )hich the" scorn ever"thing th%t is c%lle' goo' (ut c%n (e lost even
though one )ills to ret%in it: 1AA3*
Augustine4 =o if (" our goo' )ill )e love %n' em(r%ce th%t )ill, %n' &refer it to
ever"thing th%t )e c%nnot ret%in sim&l" (" )illing to ret%in it, then * * * )e )ill
&ossess those ver" virtues th%t constitute %n u&right %n' honor%(le life* From this
it follo)s th%t %ll )ho )ill to live u&right %n' honor%(le lives, if the" )ill this
more th%n the" )ill tr%nsitor" goo's, %tt%in such % gre%t goo' so e%sil" th%t the"
h%ve it (" the ver" %ct of )illing to h%ve it*
Evo'ius4 I c%n h%r'l" kee& m"self from shouting for .o" th%t such % gre%t %n'
e%sil" %tt%in%(le goo' h%s su''enl" s&rung u& )ithin me*
Augustine4 An' )hen th%t ver" .o", (orn of the %tt%inment of this goo', c%lml",
-uietl", %n' ste%'il" (e%rs u& the soul, this is c%lle' the h%&&" life* For 'oesnt %
h%&&" life consist &recisel" in the en.o"ment of true %n' unsh%k%(le goo's?
IEvo'ius4 In'ee' it 'oes*J 1AA3
#. $n O%&ection and T'o (onclusions
5
>** Augustine h%s thus effectivel" %rgue' th%t )e %ll h%ve it in our &o)er to recogni0e
the im&ort%nce of h%ving % goo' )ill, to there(" h%ve %ll the virtues necess%r" in or'er to
le%' % goo' life, %n' to there(" to (e h%&&"* But no) )e might )orr" once %g%in th%t
Augustines %rguments might &rove too much* As he &uts the &ro(lem4
I?o) c%n %n"one suffer %n unh%&&" life (" the )ill, )hen %(solutel" no one
)ills to (e unh%&&"? Kr to &ut it %nother )%", ho) c%n )e cl%im th%t it is (" the
)ill th%t hum%n (eings %chieve % h%&&" life, )hen so m%n" %re unh%&&" 'es&ite
the f%ct th%t ever"one )ills to (e h%&&"? 1A33J
Augustine res&on's (" 'r%)ing % 'istinction4 he suggests th%t )hile ever"one )ills to (e
h%&&" not ever"one )ills to (e h%&&" in virtue of living % goo' life* 7he scoun'rel %n'
the s%int %re simil%r in (oth )%nting to (e h%&&", (ut the" 'iffer in th%t the scoun'rel
)%nts to (e h%&&" (" le%'ing % sinful life )hile the s%int )%nts to (e h%&&" (" le%'ing %
&ious life* 7o le%' the goo' life, one must thus not onl" )ill to (e h%&&", (ut )ill to (e
h%&&" in the right )%" 1A63*
>*A* We no) fin%ll" %rrive %t Augustines %ns)er to his secon' -uestion, n%mel", 9Wh%t
is evil 'oing?:4
We set out to 'iscover )h%t evil'oing is* 7he )hole 'iscussion )%s %ime' %t
%ns)ering th%t -uestion* =o )e %re no) in % &osition to %sk )hether evil'oing is
%n"thing other th%n neglecting etern%l things, )hich the min' &erceives %n'
en.o"s (" me%ns of itself %n' )hich it c%nnot lose if it loves them+ %n' inste%'
&ursuing tem&or%l things / )hich %re &erceive' (" me%ns of the (o'", the le%st
v%lu%(le &%rt of % hum%n (eing, %n' )hich c%n never (e cert%in / %s if the" )ere
gre%t %n' m%rvelous things* It seems to (e th%t %ll evil 'ee's / th%t is, %ll sins /
f%ll into this one c%tegor"* 1AH3
?ere )e get %n interesting ch%r%cteri0%tion of evil 'oing4 neglecting immut%(le, etern%l
things in f%vor of mut%(le, tr%nsient things* 7his ch%r%cteri0%tion furthermore highlights
some fe%tures of (oth cl%sses of o(.ects th%t Augustine t%kes to (e relev%nt to their v%lue*
Etern%l things c%n (e kno)n )ith cert%int" %n' through the intellect )here%s )orl'l"
things c%n never (e kno)n )ith cert%int" %n' must (e &erceive' through (o'il" senses*
<el%te'l", for Augustine, our %c-u%int%nce )ith etern%l things is )holl" un'er our
control, %n' thus the (enefits )e en.o" from them %re )holl" un'er our control, )hile our
&ossession of e%rthl" goo' is %l)%"s su(.ect to f%te %n' fortune, %n' our en.o"ment of
them c%n never (e full" un'er our control*
>*3* An' fin%ll", )e %lso get Augustines %ns)er to the first -uestion he &ose', n%mel",
9Wh%t is the source of our evil'oing?: In summ%ri0ing Augustines %ns)er, ho)ever,
Evo'ius r%ises % further -uestion th%t )ill serve %s the st%rting &oint for Book II4
An' I think th%t )e h%ve %ns)ere' %nother -uestion* After )e %ske' )h%t
evil'oing is, )e set out to 'iscover the source of our evil'oing* No) unless I %m
mist%ken, our %rgument sho)e' th%t )e 'o evil (" the free choice of the )ill* But
I h%ve % further -uestion* =ince, %s )e h%ve foun', free choice gives us the %(ilit"
to sin, shoul' it h%ve (een given to us (" the one )ho cre%te' us? It )oul' seem
th%t )e )oul' not h%ve sinne' if )e h%' l%cke' free choice, so there is still the
'%nger th%t Fo' might turn out to (e the c%use of our evil 'ee's* 1A23
>
In the ne,t lecture, )e )ill follo) Augustines le%', %n' turn our %ttention to the -uestion
9Wh" might Fo' give us free )ill kno)ing th%t it )ill le%' to sin?:
H