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PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

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Study Material

PE 505 NATURAL GAS
ENGINEERING

By
J.VENI
Assistant Professor
Department of Petroleum Engineering









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UNIT I
Formation of Crude Oil and Natural Gas
- Its derived from microscopic, photosynthetic organisms known as phytoplankton that live at or near the
surface of lakes and oceans.
- Associated with the phytoplankton are their microscopic predators known as zooplankton, together with land
vegetation washed into lake or near shore marine sediments, accumulate over a period of millions of years.
- Sediment is deposited; the organic matter is buried so that its complete destruction by bacterial activity is
prevented. During burial, a number of changes (termed diagenesis) begin quickly under the influence of
bacteria. The most notable process is the conversion of major biological building blocks, or biopolymers
(proteins, cellulose, and lipids), into their individual components biomonomers (amino acids, sugars, and fatty
acids).
- These accumulate in the sediments, which, as they settle due to overburden, begin to be heated by the earth's
geothermal gradient, which averages about 1.2F per 100 feet of burial. Hence, sediment buried to 10,000 feet
would have a temperature increase of 120F over its ambient temperature at the surface.
- During this process, the bio-monomers begin to react among themselves, growing into a complex two-
dimensional refractory organic structure known as Kerogens.
- Under further thermal stress and over millions of years of burial, slow reactions occur, removing oxygen as
carbon dioxide and water and transforming the Kerogens to crude oil.
- When burial is great, resulting in temperature elevations to above about 150 to 200F, the source rock becomes
over-mature and crude oil can be transformed to hydrocarbon gases.
- At very high temperatures (exceeding 200F), most of the crude oil and natural gas is converted to methane,
known in the industry as dry gas. Following the formation of oil and gas, the fluids are mobilized into
reservoirs.
- Both time and elevated heating are thus responsible for transforming organic matter derived from decaying
organisms to petroleum and gas.
- The original chemistry of the organic matter, the environment of deposition, and the time and heat imposed on
the organic matter dictate the type of crude oil or gas formed. The chemistry of the oil and gas can often help to
reconstruct the source of the original organic matter and temperature of hydrocarbon generation.
- Crude oil formed during this long and complex process is composed of a mixture of many substances, from
which various refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil, and lubricating oil) are
manufactured. These substances are mainly composed of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H), and are therefore called
hydrocarbons.
- Other elements, such as oxygen (O), sulfur (S), and nitrogen (N), may also be present in relatively smaller
quantities, together with traces of phosphorus (P) and heavy metals like vanadium (V) and nickel (Ni).
Inorganic Hypothesis:
There are two theories of origin: Organic (bionic) or Inorganic (abionic). Early theories postulated an inorganic origin
when it became apparent that there were widespread deposits of petroleum throughout the world.
- Dmitri Mendeleev (1877), a Russian and the father of the periodic table of elements, reasoned that metallic
carbides deep within Earth reacted with water at high temperatures to form acetylene (C
2
H
2
) which
subsequently condensed to form heavier hydrocarbons. This reaction is readily reproduced in the laboratory.
- Berthelot (1860) Mendeleev (1902), were a modification of the acetylene theory. They theorized that
the mantle contained iron carbide which would react with percolating water to form methane:
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FeC
2
+ 2H
2
O = CH
4
+ FeO
2
The problem was and still is the lack of evidence for the existence of iron carbide
in the mantle. These theories are referred to as the deep-seated terrestrial hypothesis.
- Sokoloff (1890) who proposed a cosmic origin. His theory was one of hydrocarbons precipitated as rain from
original nebular matter from which the solar system was formed and then ejected from earth's interior onto
surface rocks. This theory and others like it are referred to as the extraterrestrial hypothesis.
There are problems however, with the inorganic hypotheses.
- First, there is no direct evidence that will show whether the source of the organic material in the chondritic
meteorites is the result of a truly inorganic origin or was in an original parent material which was organically
created. Similar reasoning applies to other celestial bodies.
- Second, there is no field evidence that inorganic processes have occurred in nature, yet there is mounting
evidence for an organic origin.
- Third, there should be large amounts of hydrocarbons emitted from volcanoes, congealed magma, and other
igneous rocks if an inorganic origin is the primary methodology for the creation of hydrocarbons.
Organic Hypothesis:
- Organic theory holds that the carbon and hydrogen necessary for the formation of oil and gas were derived
from early marine life forms living on the Earth during the geologic past -- primarily marine plankton.
Although plankton is microscopic, the ocean contains so many of them that over 95% of living matter in the
ocean are plankton.
- Chemistry of the hydrocarbons found in the end product (oil, gas) differs somewhat from those we find in
living things. Thus changes, transformation, take place between the deposition of the organic remains and the
creation of the end product.
- The basic formula for the creation of petroleum (oil, gas) is:
Petroleum End Product = ([Raw Material + Accumulation +Transformation + Migration] + Geologic Time)
The Origin of LPG
- LPG processing involves separation and collection of the gas from its petroleum base.
- LPG is isolated from the petrochemical mixtures in one of two ways: by separation from natural gas or by the
refining of crude oil. Both processes begin by drilling oil wells.
- The gas/oil mixture is piped out of the well and into a gas trap, which separates the stream into crude oil and
"wet" gas, which contains natural gasoline, LPG and natural gas.
- The heavier crude oil sinks to the bottom of the trap and is then pumped into an oil storage tank for refining.
- Crude oil undergoes a variety of refining processes, including catalytic cracking, crude distillation, and others.
One of the refined products is LPG.
There are seven steps to the LPG supply chain:
- Production - The production process starts with oil and gas wells.
- Upstream Transportation - The mass quantities are transported by ship, rail and pipeline.
- Refining & Storage - The refining of the LPG, from oil, takes place at oil refineries.
- Downstream Transportation - The fully processed LPG is transported to market by ship, rail, truck and
pipeline.
- Bottling & Storage - The LPG is either used to fill LPG gas bottles or is stored in bulk LPG depots.
- Distribution - LPG cylinder delivery trucks and bulk LPG tankers are used to get the LPG to the end users.
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- LPG End Users - There are many types of LPG end users including residential, commercial, agriculture, and
auto gas and petchem customers.
The "wet" gas, off the top of the gas trap, is processed to separate the gasoline (petrol) from the natural gas and
LPG. The natural gas, which is mostly methane, is piped to towns and cities for distribution by gas utility
companies. The petrol is shipped to service stations.
Some people still think that LPG is a by-product. This is simply not the case. It is actually an extremely
versatile and valuable co-product, just like the gasoline and natural gas produced in the same process stream.
This LPG component, which is about 10% of total gas mixture, can be used as a mixture or further separated
into its three primary parts: propane, butane and iso-butane. Propane (LPG in Australia) is about 5% of the
total gas mixture. Best of all, it can be compressed into a liquid for transport virtually anywhere.
Condensate:
Natural-gas condensate
- It is a low-density mixture of hydrocarbon liquids that are present as gaseous components in the raw natural
gas produced from many natural gas fields.
- It condenses out of the raw gas if the temperature is reduced to below the hydrocarbon dew point temperature
of the raw gas.
- The natural gas condensate is also referred to as simply condensate, or gas condensate, or sometimes natural
gasoline because it contains hydrocarbons within the gasoline boiling range.
Raw natural gas may come from any one of three types of gas wells:
- Crude oil wellsRaw natural gas that comes from crude oil wells is called associated gas. This gas can exist
separate from the crude oil in the underground formation, or dissolved in the crude oil.
- Dry gas wellsThese wells typically produce only raw natural gas that does not contain any hydrocarbon
liquids. Such gas is called non-associated gas.
- Condensate wellsthese wells produce raw natural gas along with natural gas liquid. Such gas is also non-
associated gas and often referred to as wet gas.
Introduction of Natural Gas:
- Natural gas is lighter than air, colorless, odorless, and tasteless. For this reason, odorant is added to the gas to
make it noticeable and objectionable for safety reasons.
- Natural gas can be compressed and, therefore, transmitted in large quantities through relatively small pipe
diameters when under high pressure.
- Natural gas is combustible, and when burned it gives off a great deal of energy. Natural gas is clean burning
and emits lower levels of potentially harmful byproducts into the air.
- Natural gas is a combustible mixture of hydrocarbon gases. While natural gas is formed primarily of methane,
it can also include ethane, propane, butane, and pentane.
Origin of Natural Gas:
- According to this theory the natural gas is formed by a chemical reaction in the earth of the marine organisms
that were buried in the sands, which was initially the seashore. The organic theory states that oil and gas have
biological origins.
- When the earth was mainly covered by water, small sea creatures and plants that were dead settled to the
bottom of the ocean floor, over the years layers and layers of sand, silt and clay built up on top of them.
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- This decayed matter from plants and animals is called organic matter. As the years passed, these sands were
further overlaid with sediments pushing the organic matter further down. The increased burden, the resulting
heat, pressure made the sands and other materials transform into rock formations known as "reservoir rock".
- Over time, the reservoir rock covered the organic material and trapped it beneath the rock. Through the ever
increasing heat and pressure and the process of decay, the decayed sea creatures and plants were converted to
oil and gas. Thus almost all oil and gas are derived from tiny decayed plants, algae, and bacteria.
- Oil forms first, and then with the increase in the temperature and pressure at greater depth gas begins to form.
Oil and gas form as a consequence of an environmental conditions occurring in a sequence
- The presence of organic material
- Organic remains are trapped and preserved in sediments
- The material is buried deeply. Then it is heated by increased temperature and pressure.
The biological stage:
During the immature, or biological, stage of petroleum formation, biogenic methane (often called marsh gas) is
produced as a result of the decomposition of organic material by the action of anaerobic microbes. These
microorganisms cannot tolerate even traces of oxygen and are also inhibited by high concentrations of dissolved sulfate.
Thermal stage:
In the post mature stage, below about 5,000 meters (16,000 feet), oil is no longer stable, and the main hydrocarbon
product is thermal methane gas. The thermal gas is the product of the cracking of the existing liquid hydrocarbons.
These hydrocarbons with a larger chemical structure than that of methane are destroyed much more rapidly than they are
formed
Types of Natural Gases:
- When natural gas is used as an energy source within a home, it is almost entirely pure methane. This form of
gas is considered a dry form, because all of the hydrocarbons have been removed. If the hydrocarbons are
present within the gas, the gas is known as a wet form.
- It is a type of petroleum that commonly occurs in association with crude oil. Natural gas is often found
dissolved in oil at the high pressures existing in a reservoir, and it can be present as a gas cap above the oil.
Such natural gas is known as associated gas. There are also reservoirs that contain gas and no oil. This gas is
termed nonassociated gas.
- Natural gas, in itself, might be considered a very uninteresting gas - it is colorless, shapeless, and odorless in its
pure form. Quite uninteresting - except that natural gas is combustible, and when burned it gives off a great
deal of energy.
- Unlike other fossil fuels, however, natural gas is clean burning and emits lower levels of potentially harmful
byproducts into the air. We require energy constantly, to heat our homes, cook our food, and generate our
electricity.
- It is this need for energy that has elevated natural gas to such a level of importance in our society, and in our
lives. Natural gas is a combustible mixture of hydrocarbon gases.
- While natural gas is formed primarily of methane, it can also include ethane, propane, butane and pentane. The
composition of natural gas can vary widely, but below is a chart outlining the typical makeup of natural gas
before it is refined.
- In its purest form, such as the natural gas that is delivered to your home, it is almost pure methane. Methane is
a molecule made up of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms, and is referred to as CH
4
.


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Chemical Name Chemical Formula Percentage (%)
Methane CH
4
70-90%
Ethane C
2
H
6

Propane C
3
H
8
0-20%
Butane C
4
H
10

Carbon Dioxide CO
2
0-8%
Oxygen O
2
0-0.2%
Nitrogen N
2
0-5%
Hydrogen sulphide H
2
S 0-5%
Rare gases Ar, He, Ne, Xe trace

Chemical Name Chemical Formula Percentage (%)
Methane CH
4
40-50%
Ethane C
2
H
6
5-10%
Propane C
3
H
8
1-5%
Carbon Dioxide CO
2
20-3-%
Hydrogen sulphide H
2
S 0-1%
Gas Sources:
The varieties of gas compositions can be broadly categorized into three distinct groups:
(1) Nonassociated gas that occurs in conventional gas fields,
(2) Associated gas that occurs in conventional oil fields, and
(3) Continuous (or unconventional) gas.
- Natural gas can be measured in a number of different ways. As a gas, it can be measured by the volume it takes
up at normal temperatures and pressures, commonly expressed in cubic feet. .
- Production and distribution companies commonly measure natural gas in thousands of cubic feet (Mcf),
millions of cubic feet (MMcf), or trillions of cubic feet (Tcf).
- While measuring by volume is useful, natural gas can also be measured as a source of energy. Like other forms
of energy, natural gas is commonly measured and expressed in British thermal units (Btu).
- One Btu is the amount of natural gas that will produce enough energy to heat one pound of water by one degree
at normal pressure. To give an idea, one cubic foot of natural gas contains about 1,027 Btus.
- When natural gas is delivered to a residence, it is measured by the gas utility in 'therms' for billing purposes. A
therm is equivalent to 100,000 Btu's, or just over 97 cubic feet, of natural gas.
Physical Properties of Natural Gas:
Natural gas is nontoxic:
Natural gas contains no toxic poisonous ingredients that can be absorbed into the blood when inhaled.
Natural gas is lighter than air:
If natural gas escapes into the atmosphere, it dissipates rapidly. A heavier-than-air gas, such as propane or
gasoline fumes, would settle and accumulate near the ground.
Natural gas is colorless:
When mixed with the proper amount of air and ignited, invisible natural gas burns with a clean, blue flame. It
is one of the cleanest burning fuels, producing primarily heat, carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Natural gas is odorless:
When taken from the ground, natural gas is odorless. A harmless but pungent odor is added as a safety
precaution. The odorant is so powerful you can smell even the smallest quantity of gas in the event of a leak.
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Chemical Properties of Natural Gas:
- It is made of hydrocarbons. The main component is methane which is a very unreactive component.
- It has narrow combustion limits. It will ignite only when there is an air and gas mixture of between 5 and 15
percent natural gas.
- Ignition point : 593 degree C, Relative density : 0.3 m/s +
- It has a flammability range of 4.5% to 14.5%, It undergoes uninhibited chain reaction.
- When gas is burned completely carbon dioxide and water vapor are produced.
Application of Natural Gas:
Fuel for industrial heating and desiccation process
Fuel for the operation of public and industrial power stations
Household fuel for cooking, heating and providing hot water
Fuel for environmentally friendly liquid natural gas vehicles
Raw material for chemical synthesis
Raw material for large-scale fuel production using gas-to-liquid (GTL) process (e.g. to produce sulphur-and
aromatic-free diesel with low-emission combustion)
NATURAL GAS PURITY TESTS
Natural gas consists of very high levels of solid and liquid contaminants as well as corrosives in varying concentrations.
There are usually three popular testing procedures used to evaluate the purity and energy content of natural gas. They are
as follows:
- Moisture Analysis ; Sulfur Analysis, and; BTU (energy) Analysis
Moisture Analysis
A variety of methods are covered under moisture analysis for measuring moisture content in both high level and trace
amounts in natural gases, besides other gases, solids and liquids. Moisture analysis is important for manufacturing and
process quality assurance of natural gas. Some methods used for moisture analysis are as follows:
- Loss on Drying Method: This is an old laboratory method used for measuring high level moisture in natural
gas. In the loss on drying (LOD) method, sample natural gas is weighed, heated in an oven for a fixed period,
cooled in the dry atmosphere of a desiccators, and then weighed again. If the volatile content of the gas is
mainly water, the LOD technique gives a good measure of moisture content. This technique has both the
manual and automatic versions.
- Karl Fischer Titration: Another method for determining moisture is the Karl Fischer titration. Developed by a
German chemist by the same name, this method is useful as it detects only water, contrary to LOD, which
detects any volatile substances as well.
- Color Indicator Tubes: The color indicator tube is a useful device used in natural gas pipelines for a quick
and rough measurement of moisture. Each tube consisting of chemicals react to a specific compound to form a
color or stain when passed through the gas.
- Chilled Mirrors: When natural gas flows over a chilled mirror or say a chilled surface, the moisture content in
the gas will condense on it. This condensation begins at the dew point temperature. By obtaining the dew point
temperature, the moisture content in the gas can be calculated.
- Electrolytic Sensor: It uses two closely spaced, windings coated with a thin film of phosphorus pent oxide
(P2O5). As this coating absorbs water vapor that is coming in, there is a reaction which is applied to the
windings that electrolyzes the water to hydrogen and oxygen. The current consumed by the electrolysis
measures the the mass of water vapor entering the sensor.
Sulfur Analysis
Sulphur components in natural gas are detectable to trace levels. Analytical techniques used for sulfur analysis include
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Gas Chromatography, Chemiluminesence, GC/AED, GC/MS, and GC/ICP/MS.
BTU (energy) Analysis
This is another popular technique. The quantity of natural gas delivered is calculated by multiplying the gas volume per
unit time by the heating value (BTU) per unit volume. Gas chromatography, a scientific method is used in BTU (energy)
analysis. In this analysis, a gas sample is separated into its component parts for measurement.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF GAS PLANTS:
The various industries served by different gas plants (oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, acetylene, argon,
methane etc.) are as follows:
Chemical Industry
- Oxygen: In the chemical industry, oxygen is required to improve the output of a large number of petrochemical
processes. Pure oxygen is used in chemical oxidation reactions like the production of ethylene dichloride
(EDC), propylene oxide (PO), ethylene oxide (EO), titanium dioxide (TiO2), ferric sulfate. Oxygen is also used
in de-bottlenecking of air-based processes and in the production of synthesis gas (H2/CO).
- Nitrogen: Nitrogen is used for blanketing in the chemical industry. It is also used as storage for protecting raw
materials or finished products in liquid form, regeneration of purification beds, preparing catalysts and
transporting polymer powders. It is also used to control temperature in reactors.
- Carbon dioxide: This gas is used in synthesis chemistry. It is used for controlling reactor temperatures. The
gas can neutralize alkaline effluents. Carbon dioxide is also used for purifying or dying polymer, animal or
vegetable fibers under supercritical conditions.
Glass, Cement and Lime industry
- Oxygen: Besides all oxy-combustion process, oxygen is used in the glass melting
- Nitrogen: This gas is used as an inert gas. In the float glass process, in combination with hydrogen, nitrogen
creates a reductive atmosphere over the tin bath.
- Hydrogen: An active gas. Used with nitrogen to form a reductive atmosphere over the tin bath in the float
glass process. It is also used for heat treatment of the hollow glass and pre-forms optic fibers
- Acetylene: This gas is used in automatic lubrification for glass bottle production molding
- Argon: Used for the filling of double glazing enclosures which can lead to high performance thermal isolation?
Oil and Gas Industry
- Oxygen: To enrich air of regeneration of Fluid Cracking Catalytic units. Oxygen is used in refinery.
- Nitrogen: Widely used for quality protection of products and facilities, for example blanketing.
- Hydrogen: Desulfurization of fuel-oil and gasoline. Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide is the mobile phase in
both extraction and chromatography applications
- Acetylene: The fuel gas in atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS)
- Argon: Used in mixtures or in pure form for industrial and hospital analyses and quality control. Argon is also
used as plasma gas in inductive coupled plasma emission spectrometry and as carrier gas in gas
chromatography for various detector
- Nitrous oxide: This gas is used as a comburant for the flame in atomic absorption spectrophotometry. It is also
used in calibration gas mixtures.
- Methane: In combination with argon, methane is used for the detector in X Ray Fluorescence as quenching
gas. In combination with other hydrocarbons, methane is used as reference point for the measurement of PCI of
hydrocarbons or coal.



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UNIT- II - Equation of state & NG processing
Ideal Behavior
An ideal gas is an imaginary gas that satisfies the following conditions:
- Negligible interactions between the molecules,
- Its molecules occupy no volume (negligible molecular volume),
- Collisions between molecules are perfectly elastic this is, no energy is lost after colliding.
For a given mass of an ideal gas, volume is inversely proportional to pressure at constant temperature, i.e,
(at constant temperature)(1)
This relationship is known as Boyles Law. Additionally, volume is directly proportional to temperature if pressure is
kept constant, i.e.,
(at constant pressure)(2)
This relationship is known as Charles Law. By combining both laws and recognizing R (the universal gas constant)
as the constant of proportionality, we end up with the very familiar equation:
(3)
This represents the equation of state (EOS) of an ideal gas. Numerical values of R depend on the system of units that
is used:


The ideal gas model predicts two limiting fluid behaviors: These two behaviors are a consequence of the assumptions
made in the ideal gas model.
- First, that the volume of the gas becomes very large at very low pressures (i.e., as , a concept
that agrees with what we know from our experience in the physical world).
- Second, as (the volume of matter just vanishes if the pressure is high enough: this concept
we would not be as willing to accept).
Real Gases
In reality, no gas behaves ideally. Therefore, the ideal EOS is not useful for practical applications, although it is
important as the basis of our understanding of gas behavior.
Definition of Equation of State (EOS):
- Assuming an equilibrium state, the three properties needed to completely define the state of a system are
pressure (P), volume (V), and temperature (T). Hence, we should be able to formulate an equation relating
these 3 variables, of the form f (P, T, V) =0.
- An equation of state (EOS) is a functional relationship between state variables usually a complete set of such
variables. EOS is to express functional relationships between P, T and V. It is also true that most EOS is still
empirical or semi-empirical. Hence, the definition:
An Equation of State (EOS) is a semi-empirical functional relationship between pressure, volume and temperature of a
pure substance.
Cubic equations of state and specific high accuracy equations:
- Van der Waals equation of state , Redlich Kwong equation of state
- Soave modification of Redlich-Kwong, PengRobinson equation of state

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Advantages of Using Cubic Equations of State:
All cubic equations of state have their foundation in VDW EOS. The use of cubic equations of state has become
widespread because of their advantages:
- Simplicity of application
- Only a few parameters need to be determined
The van der Waals equation:
The contributions of VDW EOS can be summarized as follows:
- It radically improved predictive capability over ideal gas EOS,
- It was the first to predict continuity of matter between gas and liquid,
- It formulated the Principle of Corresponding States (PCS),
- It laid foundations for modern cubic EOS.
- VDW proposed to semi-empirically remove the main key weaknesses that the ideal EOS carried with it.
- VDW accounted for the non-zero molecular volume and non-zero force of attraction of a real substance. He
realized that there is a point at which the volume occupied by the molecules cannot be neglected.
- VDW recognized is that molecules must have a finite volume, and that volume must be subtracted from the
volume of the container.


2 2
T R
aP
A = ;
RT
bP
B = ; 0 ) 1 (
2 3
= + AB AZ Z B Z
Redlich-Kwong EOS:
Redlich and Kwong EOS expression:



,
( ) ;
Soave-Redlich-Kwong EOS



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,

Peng-Robinson EOS:




Where:


Gas measurement
- Orifice meters, Gas turbine meters, & Vortex meters, Ultrasonic meters
Orifice meter:
- An orifice plate is essentially a restriction in the pipe that forces the fluid to accelerate and then decelerate as it
flows through the meter. In the resulting changes in pressure as confirmed by the Bernoulli equation.
- Flow rate is inferred from the pressure difference by pressure taps upstream and downstream of the plate.
- Orifice meter is using the following topics: meter piping and differential pressure (DP) devices, meter tube and
fitting, sealing units, ANSI/API specifications, calculation of gas flow rates, orifice meter operation, sources of
error, and current research programs.
- Values A and B are bypass values, C the bleed valve, and D and E supply values. While fig may suggest that
the matter is clamped to the pipe, a separate, firm, reasonably level, and vibration free support is highly
recommended.
- The mercury manometer and bellows-type differential pressure (DP) measuring devices. The bellows-type is
often preferred because:
1. It is particularly adaptable to measuring wet gas due to its self-draining feature.
2. It finds wide applicability with integrators and controllers due to its rapid response and high torque output.
The bellows-type meter should always be mounted above the orifice to exploit its self-draining ability, unless a liquid-
filled system with seal pots is used.
Turbine meters:
It is available for gas measurement in sizes and working pressures ranging from 0.24 to 3.36MMscfd and 175 to 1440
psig. The construction of turbine meters is presented first and then meter performance is reviewed by discussing the
validity of two basic assumptions:
1. The rotor rotation varies linearly with the average fluid velocity
2. The volumetric flow rate is proportional to the average fluid velocity


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Gas turbine meters:
- The driving torque is proportional to the density of the flowing gas; this torque is much lower than for liquids.
The rotor speed is therefore maintained high by operating at pipeline velocities and by having a high ratio of center
body diameter to pipe diameter.
- A nose cone or flow deflector forces the gas to flow through an annulus having an open area approximately
one-third of the open pipe area, thus providing more driving torque. The nose cone also absorbs most of the flow
stream thrust that otherwise might damage the rotor bearings.
- The rotor spins at similar speeds to those for liquids and hence smaller blade angles are used (10) compared to
liquids (35). The rotor blades are often helical rather than flat and are machined or molded as an integral part of the
hub to improve strength.
- Because light weight improves rotor performance and bearing life, high strength, impact-resistant plastic or
alumina is normally used.
- Bearings are usually of the ball race type and small relative to the meter partly to reduce frictional drag and
partly due to the high rotational speed. The nose cone usually shields the bearings from liquids, dirt and grit
entrained in the following gas.
- Bearings must be lubricated either permanently or periodically during operation. Most meters use a wick or felt
to add lubricating oil, even when the meter is pressurized. Excess oil in the bearings flushes out any dirt and
eventually evaporates into the gas stream.
- There are two distinct methods of measuring rotor rotation: mechanical and electro-magnetic. Mechanical
designs use gear trains connected to a counter clock. There are four types of electro-magnetic sensors- induction
pickup coil, reluctance pickup coil, modulated carrier pickup coil, and light emitting diode sensor.
Vortex meters:
- When a fluid impinges on a bluff or non-streamlined body, it splits into two paths. The resulting instability of
the fluid flow field causes alternating vortices to shed from each side of the bluff body at a frequency proportional
to the incident fluid velocity. This phenomenon is readily visible when a flag waves in the breeze.
- The flag pole serves as the bluff obstruction and generates vortices that cause the flag to wave. Such vortex
shedding can produce sound as when a wire vibrates and sings in the wind.
- Vortices are formed alternatively. These so-called von Karman vortex street results in areas of alternating high
and low pressure, Vortex meters usually use piezoelectric crystals that act as force to-charge transducers to detect
these pressure fluctuations.
Ultrasonic flow meters:
Ultrasonic flow meters can be divided into four basic types:
- Time of flight (TOF) , Doppler, Cross-correction & Swept-beam
Gas hydrates:
Introduction
Natural gas hydrates are ice-like materials formed under low temperature and high Pressure conditions. Natural gas
hydrates consist of water molecules interconnected through hydrogen bonds which create an open structural lattice that
has the ability to encage smaller hydrocarbons from natural gas or liquid hydrocarbons as guest molecules.
Structures and Properties
There are three known structures of gas hydrates: Structure I (sI), structure II (sII) and structure H (sH). These
are distinguished by the size of the cavities and the ratio between large and small cavities.
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SI and sII contain both a smaller and a larger type of cavity, but the large type cavity of sII is slightly larger
than the sI one. The maximum size of guest molecules in sII is butane.
SH forms with three types of cavities, two relatively small ones and one quite large.
The symmetry of the cavities leaves an almost spherical accessible volume for the guest molecules.
The size and shape of the guest molecule determines which structure is formed due to volumetric packing
considerations.
Additional characteristics are guest dipole and/or quadropole moments, such as for instance for H2S and CO
2
.
The average partial charges related to these moments may either increase the stability of the hydrate (H2S) or
be a decreasing factor in thermodynamic stability (CO
2
).
SII forms with for instance propane and iso-butane and sH with significantly larger molecules, as for instance
cyclo-hexane, neo-hexane. Both methane and carbon dioxide form sI hydrate.
SI hydrates forms with guest molecules less than 6 in diameter. The unit cell of sI hydrate contains 46 water
molecules and consists of 2 small and six large cages.
The unit cell is the smallest symmetric unit of sI. The two smaller cavities are built by 12 pentagonal faces
(512) and the larger of 12 pentagonal faces and two hexagon faces (51262). The growth of hydrate adds unit cells to
a crystal.
Natural Gas Processing: Introduction:
Raw natural gas after transmission through the field-gathering network must be processed before it can be moved into
long-distance pipeline systems for use by consumers. The objective of gas processing is to separate
natural gas
condensate
non-condensable
acid gases,
water
from a gas-producing well and condition these fluids for sale or disposal. The typical process operation modules are
shown in Figure 1. Each module consists of a single piece or a group of equipment performing a specific function. All
the modules shown will not necessarily be present in every gas plant. In some cases, little processing is needed;
however, most natural gas requires processing equipment at the gas processing plant
1) To remove
Impurities,
water
excess hydrocarbon liquid
2) To control delivery pressure
Process modules
1. The first unit module is the physical separation of the distinct phases, which are typically
gas
liquid hydrocarbons
liquid water
solids
- Phase separation of the production stream is usually performed in an inlet separator.
- Hydrocarbon condensate recovered from natural gas may be shipped without further processing but is typically
stabilized to produce a safe transportable liquid. Unstabilized condensates contain a large percentage of methane
and ethane, which will vaporize easily in storage tanks.
PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

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- The next step in natural gas processing is acid gas treating. In addition to heavy hydrocarbons and water vapor,
natural gas often contains other contaminants that may have to be removed. Carbon dioxide (CO
2
), hydrogen sulfide
(H
2
S), and other sulfur-containing species such as mercaptans are compounds that require complete or partial
removal. These compounds are collectively known as acid gases. H
2
S when combined with water forms a weak
sulfuric acid, whereas CO
2
and water form carbonic acid, thus the term acid gas.
- Natural gas with H
2
S or other sulfur compounds present is called sour gas, whereas gas with only CO
2
is
called sweet. Both H
2
S and CO
2
are very undesirable, as they cause corrosion and present a major safety risk.
Depending on the pressure at the plant gate, the next step in processing will either be inlet compression to an inter
stage pressure, typically 300400 psig or be dew point control and natural gas liquid recovery.
Scope of natural gas processing
The important factors that usually determine the extent of gas processing include the processing objectives, the type or
source of the gas, and the location and size of the gas fields.
Processing Objectives
Processing of a gas stream may have one of the following three basic objectives.
To produce a sales gas stream that meets specifications of the type. These specifications are mainly intended to meet
pipeline requirements and the needs of industrial and domestic consumers
To maximize NGLs production by producing a lean gas stripped of most of the hydrocarbons other than methane
To deliver a commercial gas. Such gas must be distinguished by a certain range of gross heating value lying
Phase separation
Introduction
1. Separation of oil and gas is a critical eld processing operation. As producing pressure is increased and lighter
condensates are produced, efficient separation has become more critical than ever.
2. Selection should be made based on the droplet size, concentration, and whether the liquid has waxing or fouling
tendencies .Before evaluating specic technologies, it is important to understand the mechanisms used to remove liquids
and solids from gases.
Three principles used to achieve physical separation of gas and liquids or solids are momentum, gravity settling, and
coalescing.
1. Momentum force is utilized by changing the direction of flow and is usually employed for bulk separation of the fluid
phases.
2. The gravitational force is utilized by reducing velocity so the liquid droplets can settle out in the space provided.
3. Gravity segregation is the main force that accomplishes the separation, which means the heaviest fluid settles to the
bottom and the lightest fluid rises to the top. However, very small droplets such as mist cannot be separated practically
by gravity. These droplets can be coalesced to form larger droplets that will settle by gravity.
General Description
All gravity separators normally have the following components or features
A primary gas/liquid separation section with an inlet diverter to remove the bulk of the liquid from the gas.
A gravity-settling section providing adequate retention time so that proper settling may take place.
A mist extractor at the gas outlet to capture entrained droplets or those too small to settle by gravity.
Proper pressure and liquid-level controls.
Gravity separators are designed as either horizontal or vertical pressure vessels.
Horizontal three-phase separator
- The uid enters the separator and hits an inlet diverter. This sudden change in momentum generates the initial
bulk separation of liquid and gas. In most designs, the inlet diverter contains a down comer that directs the liquid
ow below the oil/water interface.
PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

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- This forces the inlet mixture of oil and water to mix with the water continuous phase in the bottom of the vessel
and rise through the oil/water interface. This process is called water washing and promotes the coalescence of
water droplets that are entrained in the oil continuous phase.
- The inlet diverter assures that little gas is carried with the liquid, and the water wash assures that the liquid
does not fall on top of the gas/oil or oil/water interface, mixing the liquid retained in the vessel and making control
of the oil/water interface difficult.
- The liquid-collecting section of the vessel provides sufficient time so that the oil and emulsion form a layer or
oil pad at the top. The free water settles to the bottom. The produced water ows from a nozzle in the vessel
located upstream of the oil weir.
Diagram refer handbook of. Natural gas. Transmission and Processing. Saeid Mokhatab. William A. Poe.
James G. Speight. Page No: 199
- An interface level controller senses the height of the oil/water interface. The controller sends a signal to the
water dump valve, thus allowing the correct amount of water to leave the vessel so that the oil/water interface is
maintained at the design height.
The gas ows horizontally and outs through a mist extractor (normally known as a demisting device) to a pressure
control valve that maintains constant vessel pressure. The level of the gas/oil interface can vary from half the diameter to
75% of the diameter depending on the relative importance of liquid/gas separation and what purpose the separator has.
Advantages
Require smaller diameter for similar gas capacity as compared to vertical vessels
No counter ow
Large liquid surface area for foam dispersion generally reduces turbulence
Larger surge volume capacity
Disadvantages
Only part of shell available for passage of gas
Occupies more space unless stack mounted
Liquid level control is more critical
More difficult to clean produced sand, mud, wax, paraffin, etc
Condensate stabilization
The process of increasing the amount of intermediates (C
3
to C
5
) and heavy (C
+6
) components in the condensate is called
condensate stabilization. The scope of this process is to separate the very light hydrocarbon gases, methane and ethane
in particular, from the heavier hydrocarbon components (C
+3
).
Stabilization processes
Stabilization of condensate streams can be accomplished through either flash vaporization or fractionation.
Stabilization by Fractionation
Stabilization by fractionation is a detailed process, very popular in the industry and precise enough to produce liquids of
suitable vapor pressure
Process Description
- The liquid hydrocarbon (condensate) is brought into the system from the inlet separator and preheated in the
stabilizer feed/bottoms exchanger before entering the stabilizer feed drum.
- Liquid from the feed drum is fed to the stabilization tower at approximately 50 to 200 psi depending on
whether they are sour.
Diagram refer handbook of. Natural gas Transmission and Processing. Saeid Mokhatab. William A. Poe. James G.
Speight. Page No:250
PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

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- The condensate stabilizer reduces vapor pressure of the condensate by removing the lighter components. The
stabilization is typically carried out in a reboiled absorber, with tray type internals.
- If a better separation is required, typically the column is changed from a top feed re-boiled absorber to a re-
uxed distillation tower. As the liquid falls into the column, it becomes leaner in light ends and richer in heavy
ends.
- At the bottom of the tower some of the liquid is circulated through a reboiler to add heat to the tower. As the
gas goes up from tray to tray, more and more of the heavy ends get stripped out of the gas at each tray and the gas
becomes richer in the light ends and leaner in the heavy ends.
- Overhead gas from the stabilizer, which would seldom meet market specications for the natural gas market, is
then sent to the low-pressure fuel gas system through a back-pressure control valve that maintains the tower
pressure to set point.
- Liquids leaving the bottom of the tower have undergone a series of stage ashes at ever-increasing
temperatures, driving off the light components, which exit the top of the tower. These liquids must be cooled to a
sufficiently low temperature to keep vapors from ashing to atmosphere in the condensate storage tank.
Acid gas Treating:
Natural gas contains large amounts of acid gases, such as hydrogen sulde and carbon dioxide. Natural gas containing
hydrogen sulde or carbon dioxide is referred to as sour, and natural gas free from hydrogen sulde is referred to as
sweet.
There are many variables in treating natural gas. Several factors must be considered:
(1) Types and concentrations of contaminants in the gas
(2) The degree of contaminant removal desired
(3) The selectivity of acid gas removal required
(4) The temperature, pressure, volume, and composition of the gas to be processed
(5) The carbon dioxidehydrogen sulde ratio in the gas
(6) The desirability of sulfur recovery due to process economics or environmental issues.
Acid gas removal processes:
Natural Gas Sweetening
Hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, mercaptans, and other contaminants are often found in natural gas streams. Gas
sweetening processes remove these contaminants so that the gas is marketable and suitable for transportation. The
removal of H
2
S from natural gas is accompanied by the removal of CO
2
and COS if present, since these have similar
acid characteristics.
Desulfurization processes are primarily of two types:
Adsorption on a solid (dry process)
Absorption into a liquid (wet process)
Both the adsorption and absorption processes may be of the physical or chemical type.
Acid gas removal processes
Process Description
- The general process ow diagram for an amine-sweetening plant varies little, regardless of the aqueous amine
solution used as the sweetening agent.
- The sour gas containing H
2
S and/or CO
2
will nearly always enter the plant through an inlet separator (scrubber)
to remove any free liquids and/or entrained solids.
PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

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- The sour gas then enters the bottom of the absorber column and ows upward through the absorber in intimate
countercurrent contact with the aqueous amine solution, where the amine absorbs acid gas constituents from the gas
stream.
- Sweetened gas leaving the top of the absorber passes through an outlet separator and then ows to a
dehydration unit (and compression unit, if necessary) before being considered ready for sale.
- In many units the rich amine solution is sent from the bottom of the absorber to a ash tank to recover
hydrocarbons that may have dissolved or condensed in the amine solution in the absorber.
- The rich solvent is then preheated before entering the top of the stripper column. The amineamine heat
exchanger serves as a heat conservation device and lowers total heat requirements for the process.
- A part of the absorbed acid gases will be ashed from the heated rich solution on the top tray of the stripper.
The remainder of the rich solution ows downward through the stripper in countercurrent contact with vapor
generated in the reboiler
- The reboiler vapor (primarily steam) strips the acid gases from the rich solution. The acid gases and the steam
leave the top of the stripper and pass overhead through a condenser, where the major portion of the steam is
condensed and cooled.
- The acid gases are separated in the separator and sent to the are or to processing. The condensed steam is
returned to the top of the stripper as reux. The lean amine solution from the bottom of the stripper column is
pumped through an amineamine heat exchanger and then through a cooler before being introduced to the top of the
absorber column.
- The amine cooler serves to lower the lean amine temperature to the 100F range. Higher temperatures of the
lean amine solution will result in excessive amine losses through vaporization and also lower acid gas-carrying
capacity in the solution because of temperature effects.
- Particulates formed in the plant as well as those transported into the plant can be very bothersome. A ltration
scheme of mechanical and activated carbon filters is therefore important in maintaining good solution control.
- Mechanical filters such as cartridge filters or precoat filters remove particulate material while carbon filters
remove chemical contaminants such as entrained hydrocarbons and surface-active compounds.
Diagram refer handbook of. Natural gas Transmission and Processing. Saeid Mokhatab. William A. Poe.
James G. Speight. Page No: 274
Natural Gas Dehydration:
Natural, associated, or tail gas usually contains water, in liquid and/or vapor form, at source and/or as a result of
sweetening with an aqueous solution. The major reasons for removing the water from natural gas are as follow.
1. Natural gas in the right conditions can combine with liquid or free water to form solid hydrates that can plug valves
ttings or even pipelines.
2. Water can condense in the pipeline, causing slug ow and possible erosion and corrosion.
3. Water vapor increases the volume and decreases the heating value of the gas.
Multistage separators can also be deployed to ensure the reduction of free water that may be present. However, removal
of the water vapor that exists in solution in natural gas requires a more complex treatment. This treatment consists of
dehydrating the natural gas, which is accomplished by lowering the dew point temperature of the gas at which water
vapor will condense from the gas.
Diagram refer from
There are several methods of dehydrating natural gas.
Liquid desiccant (glycol) dehydration
PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

18

Solid desiccant dehydration
Refrigeration (i.e., cooling the gas)
The rst two methods utilize mass transfer of the water molecule into a liquid solvent (glycol solution) or a crystalline
structure (dry desiccant).
The third method employs cooling to condense the water molecule to the liquid phase with the subsequent injection of
inhibitor to prevent hydrate formation. However, the choice of dehydration method is usually between glycol and solid
desiccants.
Several other dehydration technologies (i.e., membranes, vortex tube, and supersonic processes)
The commonly available glycols and their uses are described as follows:
1. Mono ethylene glycol (MEG); high vapor equilibrium with gas so tend to lose to gas phase in contactor. Use as
hydrate inhibitor where it can be recovered from gas by separation at temperatures below 50F.
2. Di ethylene glycol (DEG); high vapor pressure leads to high losses in contactor. Low decomposition temperature
requires low re-concentrator temperature (315 to 340F) and thus cannot get pure enough for most applications.
3. Tri ethylene glycol (TEG); most common. Re-concentrate at 340400F, for high purity. At contactor temperatures in
excess of 120F, there is a tendency to high vapor losses. Dewpoint depressions up to 150F are possible with stripping
gas.
4. Tetra ethylene glycol (TREG); more expensive than TEG but less loss at high gas contact temperatures. Re-
concentrate at 400 to 430F.
Absorption (glycol dehydration process)
The basic principles of relevance to the absorption process are as follows:
1. In this process, a hygroscopic liquid is used to contact the wet gas to remove water vapor from it. Tri ethylene
glycol (TEG) is the most common solvent used.
2. Absorption, which is defined as the transfer of a component from the gas phase to the liquid phase, is more favorable
at a lower temperature and higher pressure.
3. The actual absorption process of water vapor from the gas phase using glycol is dynamic and continuous.
Therefore, the gas flow cannot be stopped to let a vapor and the liquid reach an equilibrium condition.
Accordingly, the system under consideration must be designed to allow for a close approach to equilibrium
while the flow continues.
Selection of glycol:
TEG is better than MEG, DEG, and TREG. Because,
Easily regenerated , Low vaporization losses & Low capital cost
Diagram refer from
Diagram refer handbook of. Natural gas Transmission and Processing Saeid Mokhatab. William A. Poe. James G.
Speight. Page No: 329
Process description:
Generally, in the glycol dehydration process, TEG is pumped to the top of a dehydration unit or contactor tower where it
is flow countercurrent with wet gas flowing up the tower.
- The TEG adsorbs water from the wet gas and is passed to the glycol regeneration unit where, very simply,
adsorbed gases are flashed off and the water is removed from the reboiler by heating the wet glycol to around 400F
at atmospheric conditions gas.
- The processes are continuous, that is glycol flow continuously through dehydration unit where they come in
contact and the glycol absorbs the water. The regenerated TEG is then pumped back to the dehydration unit inlet.
PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

19

Gas Gathering:
Gas Gathering systems are the physical facilities that accumulate and transport natural gas from a well to an
acceptance point of a transportation pipeline are called a gas gathering system.
- Gas Gathering lines are small-diameter pipelines move natural gas from the wellhead to the natural gas
processing plant or to an interconnection with a larger mainline pipeline.
- Transporting natural gas from the wellhead to the final customer involves several physical transfers of custody
and multiple processing steps. A natural gas pipeline system begins at the natural gas producing well or field.
- Once the gas leaves the producing well, a gas gathering system directs the flow either to a natural gas
processing plant or directly to the mainline transmission grid, depending upon the initial quality of the
wellhead product.
- The processing plant produces pipeline-quality natural gas. This gas is then transported by pipeline to
consumers or is put into underground storage for future use. Storage helps to maintain pipeline system
operational integrity and/or to meet customer requirements during peak-usage periods.
NGLS
Natural gas is processed to remove the heavier hydrocarbon liquids from the natural gas stream. These heavier
hydrocarbon liquids, commonly referred to as natural gas liquids (NGLs), include ethane, propane, butanes, and natural
gasoline (condensate).
Recovery of NGL components in gas not only may be required for hydrocarbon dew point control in a natural gas
stream (to avoid the unsafe formation of a liquid phase during transport), but also yields a source of revenue, as NGLs
normally have signicantly greater value as separate marketable products than as part of the natural gas stream.
Lighter NGL fractions, such as ethane, propane, and butanes, can be sold as fuel or feedstock to reneries and
petrochemical plants, while the heavier portion can be used as gasoline-blending stock.
NGL RECOVERY PROCESSES
1. Refrigeration processes
- Mechanical refrigeration
- Self Refrigeration
- Cryogenic Refrigeration
2. Lean Oil Absorption
3. Solid Bed Adsorption
4. Membrane Separation Process
5. Selection of NGL Recovery Processes
6. NGL fractionation
NGLs recovery processes
Refrigeration process
Mechanical refrigeration
Self refrigeration
Cryogenic refrigeration
Lean oil absorption
Solid bed adsorption
Membrane separation process
NGL fractionation
Fractionators Operation
PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

20

- The operation takes place in a vertical column where vapor and liquid mixtures flow countercurrent and are
brought into repeated contact. During each contact, part of the liquid vaporizes and part of the vapor condenses.
- As the vapor rises through the column, it becomes enriched in the lighter or lower boiling components.
Conversely, the downward flowing liquid becomes richer in heavier, higher boiling components. Figure 2 is a
schematic view of a typical fractionating column.
- The liquid mixture that is to be processed is known as the feed, which is introduced usually somewhere near
the middle of the column to a tray known as the feed tray. The feed tray divides the column into a top (enriching or
rectification) section and a bottom (stripping) section.
- The feed flows down the column where it is collected at the bottom in the reboiler. Heat is supplied to the
reboiler to generate vapor. The vapor raised in the reboiler is reintroduced into the unit at the bottom of the column.
- The liquid removed from the reboiler is known as the bottoms product or, simply, bottoms. The vapor moves
up the column, and as it exits the top of the unit, it is cooled by a condenser.

Diagram refer handbook of. Natural gas. Transmission and Processing Saeid Mokhatab. William A. Poe.
James G. Speight. Page No:384
- The condensed liquid is stored in a holding vessel known as the reflux drum (accumulator). Some of this liquid
is recycled back to the top of the column and this is called the reflux. The condensed liquid that is removed from the
system is known as the distillate or overhead product.


























PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

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UNIT-III - Gas Compression& Equation of flow
Introduction
Compression is used in all aspects of the natural gas industry, including gas lift, reinjection of gas for pressure
maintenance, gas gathering, gas processing operations (circulation of gas through the process or system), transmission
and distribution systems, and reducing the gas volume for shipment by tankers or for storage.
The benets of operating at higher pressures include the ability to transmit larger volumes of gas through a given size of
pipeline, lower transmission losses due to friction, and the capability to transmit gas over long distances without
additional boosting stations.
In gas transmission, two basic types of compressors are used: reciprocating and centrifugal compressors. Reciprocating
compressors are usually driven by either electric motors or gas engines, whereas centrifugal compressors use gas
turbines or electric motors as drivers.
Reciprocating compressor:
- A reciprocating compressor is a positive displacement machine in which the compressing and displacing
element is a piston moving linearly within a cylinder. The reciprocating compressor uses automatic spring-
loaded valves that open when the proper differential pressure exists across the valve.
- Reciprocating compressors are widely utilized in the gas processing industries because they are exible in
throughput and discharge pressure range.
- Reciprocating compressors are classied as either high speed or slow speed. Typically, high-speed
compressors operate at speeds of 900 to 1200 rpm and slow-speed units at speeds of 200 to 600 rpm.
Centrifugal compressors:
- Centrifugal compressors are used in a wide variety of applications in chemical plants, reneries, onshore and
offshore gas lift and gas injection applications, gas gathering, and in the transmission of natural gas.
- Centrifugal compressors can be used for outlet pressures as high as 10,000 psia, thus overlapping with
reciprocating compressors over a portion of the ow rate/pressure domain. Centrifugal compressors are usually
either turbine or electric motor driven.
- Typical operating speeds for centrifugal compressors in gas transmission applications are about 14,000 rpm for
5000-hp units and 8000 rpm for 20,000-hp units.
- The rotor, or impeller, in the centrifugal compressor spins at a high speed (3,000-20,000 RPM) inside the
compressor housing. The refrigerant is fed into the housing at the center of the impeller. The impeller forces
the vapor against its outer diameter, by centrifugal force, causing it to move at a high speed.
- The high velocity gas is then allowed to slow down and expand in a diffuser section which causes the gas
pressure to increase. One process like this is called a stage of compression. A centrifugal compressor using one
impeller is called a single stage machine; one which uses two impellers is called a double stage machine; etc.
- When more than one stage is used, the discharge from the diffuser section of one stage goes into the inlet of the
next stage. Industrial refrigeration models may make use of as many as four stages to achieve the desired
compression. Air conditioning models usually have one or two stages of compression.
Compressor selection
The design for choosing a compressor should include the following considerations.
Good efficiency over a wide range of operating conditions
Maximum flexibility of configuration
Low maintenance cost, Low life cycle cost , Acceptable capital cost & High availability
In fact, compressor selection consists of the purchaser defining the operating parameters for which the machine will be
designed. The process design parameters that specify a selection are as follows:
PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

22

1. Flow rat, 2. Gas composition 3. Inlet pressure and temperature 4. Outlet pressure
5. Train arrangement
i). for centrifugal compressors: series, parallel, multiple bodies, multiple sections, intercooling, etc.
ii). for reciprocating compressors: number of cylinders, cooling, and flow control strategy
6. Number of units
COMPRESSION DESIGN
Compressor design involves several steps. These include selection of the correct type of compressor, as well as the
number of stages required.
In addition, depending on the capacity, there is also a need to determine the horsepower requirement for the
compression.
Design procedure:
The capacity of the cylinder is a function of piston displacement and volumetric efficiency. This is in turn a function of
cylinder clearance, compression ratio, and gas properties.
Piston displacement:
The actual volume of the cylinder that is swept by the piston per minute is piston displacement. It can be calculated
from:
Single acting cylinder (head end displacement)

PD =
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2200
2
2 2
SN d d
r c


Single acting cylinder (crank end displacement)
PD
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2200
2 2
SN d d
r c

PD- displacement, cfm
S Stroke length, inch
rpm compressor speed, rpm
d
c
diameter of cylinder, inch
d
r
diameter of rod, inch
Double acting cylinder (sum of head end and crank end displacement)

PD
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2200
2
2 2
SN d d
r c

Volumetric efficiency:
E
v
= ( )
(

1 96
/ 1
Zd
Zs
R C R
K

E
v
- Stage volumetric efficiency, %
R - Compression ratio (P
d
/ P
s
) of the compressor stage (based on absolute pressure)
C - Cylinder clearance, percent of piston displacement
Zs - compressibility factor at suction, psia
Zd - compressibility factor at discharge, psia
K - ratio of specific heats, C
p
/ C
v
PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

23

Cylinder throughput capacity:
q
a
= E
v
PD
q
a
gas throughput at suction conditions of temperature and pressure , ft
3
/min
E
v
-volumetric efficiency
PD- piston displacement, ft
3
/min
q
g
=
s s
s s
Z T
P q
4 . 35
q
g
- Gas throughput at standard conditions, scfm
P
s
- Suction pressure, psia
T
s
- Suction temperature, R
Z
s -
Compressibility at suction conditions
Q
g

s s
s a
Z T
P q
051 . 0 =
Q
g
- Gas throughput, MMscfd
Rod load:
Single acting cylinder, head end
RL
c
= a
p
(P
d
P
u
) + a
r
P
u
; RL
u
= a
p
(P
u
P
s
) - a
r
P
u

Single acting cylinder,crank end
RL
c
= a
p
(P
u
P
s
) + a
r
P
s
; RL
t
= a
p
(P
d
P
u
) - a
r
P
d

Double acting cylinder
RL
c
= a
p
(P
d
P
s
) + a
r
P
s
; RL
t
= a
p
(P
d
P
s
) - a
r
P
d
Rod load in compression, lb
Rod load in tension, lb
Cross sectional area of piston, inch
2

Discharge pressure, psia
Suction pressure, psia
Pressure in unloaded area, psia
Cross sectional area of rod, inch
2

Clearance:
It is normally expressed as a percent or fraction of cylinder displacement.
Single acting cylinder (head end clearance)
%C
S d
CHE
c
) 76854 . 0 (
2
= 100

Double acting cylinder (average clearance)
%C =
S d d d
CCE CHE
r c c
) 7854 . 0 )]( ( [
) ( ) (
2 2 2

+
100

%C cylinder clearance, fraction
d
c
cylinder diameter, inch
d
r
rod diameter, inch
PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

24

C
HE
head end clearance, inch
3

C
CE
crank end clearance, inch
3

S Stroke length, inch
Brake Horse Power:
BHP ( )
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
k
k
d
s
s g avg
P
P
K
K
E T Q z
1
1
/ 0857 . 0 q

BHP - Brake horse power per stage
Z
avg
-Average compressibility factor
Q
g
-Standard Volumetric flow rate of gas, MMscfd
T
s
-Saturation temperature, R
P
s
, P
d
-Suction and discharge pressure, psia
E - Parasitic efficiency (for high speed reciprocating units 0.72 to 0.82; low speed reciprocating units 0.72 to 0.85; for
centrifugal unit 0.99)
- Compression efficiency (for reciprocating and 0.80 to 0.87 for centrifugal units)
Fundamental equations
Flow of fluid derived from three fundamental laws of physics:
1. Conservation of matter , Conservation of energy & Conservation of momentum
Conservation of matter:
Matter cant be created nor destroyed, but it may be converted (e.g. by a chemical process)
Conservation of energy:
Energy cant be created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one type to another (e.g. potential may be
converted to kinetic energy).
Conservation of momentum:
A moving body cant gain or lose momentum unless acted upon by an external force
This is a statement of Newtons second law of motion:
Force = rate of change of momentum
The continuity equation
For any control volume during the small time interval t the principle of conversation of mass implies that the mass of
flow entering the control volume minus the mass of flow leaving the control volume equals the change of mass within
the control volume.
If the flow is steady and the fluid incompressible the mass entering is equal to the mass leaving, so there is no change of
mass within the control volume.
So for the time interval t:
Mass flow entering = mass flow leaving
Considering the control volume above which is a short length of open channel of arbitrary cross section then, if is the
fluid density and Q is the volume flow rate then mass flow rate is Q and the continuity equation for steady
incompressible flow can be written
leaving entering
Q Q =
As Q, the volume flow rate is the product of the area and the mean velocity then at the upstream face where the mean
velocity is
1
and the cross- sectional area is A
1
then:
entering
Q =
1
A
1
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Similarly at the downstream face, face 2, where mean velocity is
2
and cross- sectional area A
2
then:
leaving
Q
=

2
A
2
Therefore the continuity equation can be written as
2 2 1 1
A V A V =
The energy equation
Consider the forms of energy available for the above control volume. If the fluid moves from the upstream face 1, to the
downstream face 2 in time t over the length L.
The work done in moving the fluid through face 1 during this time is
Work done = P
1
A
1
L
Where P
1
is pressure at face 1
The mass entering through face 1 is Mass entering =
1
A
1
L
Therefore kinetic energy of the system is: KE = mu
2
=
1
A
1
Lu
1
2

If z1 is the height of the centroid of face 1, then the potential energy of the fluid entering the control volume is: PE =
mgz =
1
A
1
Lgz
1
The total energy entering the control volume is the sum of the work done, the potential and the kinetic energy:
Total energy =
1
A
1
L +
1
A
1
Lu
1
2
+
1
A
1
Lgz
1
In terms of energy per unit weight, as the weight of water entering the control volume is
1
A
1
Lg
Then divide by this to get the total energy per unit weight:
Total energy per unit weight = ( P
1
/
1
g) + (u
1
2
/2g) +z
1
At the exit to the control volume, face 2, similar considerations deduce
Total energy per unit weight = ( P
2
/
2
g) + (u
2
2
/2g) +z
2
If no energy is supplied to the control volume from between the inlet and the outlet then energy leaving = energy
entering and if the fluid is incompressible

1
=
2 =
; ( P
1
/
1
z
1
) + (u
1
2
/2g) +z
1
= ( P
2
/
2
z
2
) + (u
2
2
/2g) +z
2
= H = constant
This is the Bernoulli equation.
1. In the derivation of the Bernoulli equation it was assumed that no energy is lost in the control volume- i.e. the
fluid is frictionless. To apply to non frictionless situations some energy loss term must be included.
2. The dimensionless of each term in Bernoulli equation has the dimensions of length. For this reason each term is
often regarded as a head and given the names
P/g= pressure head ; u
2
2
/2g = velocity head; z
2
= potential head
The momentum equation
Again consider the control volume above during the time t
Momentum entering = Q
1
t u
1
; Momentum leaving = Q
2
t u
2
By the continuity principle: Q
1
= Q
2
And by Newtons second law Force = rate of change of momentum
F= (momentum leaving momentum entering) / t = Q( u
2
-u
1
)
Its more convenient to write the force on a control volume in each of the three, x, y and z direction e.g. in the x-
direction
F
x
= Q ( u
2x
-u
1x
)
Integration over a volume gives the total force in the x- direction as
F
x
= Q ( V
2x
-V
1x
) As long as velocity V is uniform over the whole cross section.
This is the momentum equation for steady flow for a region of uniform velocity.

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UNIT IV - Phase behavior & Gas reservoir performance
Why Study Phase Behavior?
- Natural gas and crude oil are naturally occurring hydrocarbon mixtures that are found underground and at
elevated conditions of pressure and temperature. They are generally referred to as petroleum fluids. Petroleum
fluids are principally made up of hydrocarbons; but few non-hydrocarbon components may be present such as
nitrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
- Phase Behavior has many implications in natural gas and petroleum engineering. Pressure, volume,
temperature (PVT) relations are required in simulating reservoirs, evaluating reserves, forecasting production,
designing production facilities and designing gathering and transportation systems.
- Every hydrocarbon molecule in the reservoir is to embark on a fascinating journey from beneath the earth,
passing through a great deal of intermediate stages, to be finally dumped into our atmosphere upon combustion
(release of energy).
- Phase Behavior is the part of thermodynamics that gives us the tools for the complete understanding of how
fluids behave at any of those stages.
Phase Diagram: A phase diagram is a concise graphical method of representing phase behavior of fluids. It provides an
effective tool for communicating a large amount of information about how fluids behave at different conditions.
Definition of Basic Terms
Vapor Pressure: The vapor pressure of liquid is defined as the absolute pressure at which liquid and its vapor are in
equilibrium at a given temperature.
Dew Point: is the temperature at which vapor mixture on cooling first begins to condense.
Bubble Point: is the temperature at which the liquid mixture starts to vaporize as the temperature is increased.
NOTE: For single-component systems, one single curve represents all three of these conditions (vapor pressure, dew
point and bubble point conditions) simply because Vapor Pressure = Dew Point = Bubble Point for unary systems.
Basic phase behavior
- A phase is defined as any homogeneous part of a system that is physically distinct and separated from other
parts of the system by definite boundaries.
- For example, ice, liquid water, and water vapor constitute three separate phases of the pure substance H
2
O
because each is homogeneous and physically distinct from the others.
- Moreover, each is clearly defined by the boundaries existing between them. Whether a substance exists in a
solid, liquid, or gas phase is determined by the temperature and pressure acting on the substance. It is known
that ice (solid phase) can be changed to water (liquid phase) by increasing its temperature and, by further
increasing temperature, water changes to steam (vapor phase).
- This change in phases is termed Phase Behavior. Hydrocarbon systems found in petroleum reservoirs are
known to display multi-phase behavior over wide ranges of pressures and temperatures. The most important
phases which occur in petroleum reservoirs are;
+ Liquid phase, e.g., crude oils or condensates. Gas phase, e.g., natural gases.
+ The conditions under which these phases exist are a matter of considerable practical importance. The
experimental or the mathematical determinations of these conditions are conveniently expressed in different
types of diagrams, commonly called Phase Diagrams.
+ The objective is to review the basic principles of hydrocarbon phase behavior and illustrate the use of phase
diagrams in describing and characterizing the volumetric behavior of single-component, two-component, and
multi-component systems.

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Types of phase diagram:
Single-component systems
Step 1: the pressure is increased isothermally, consequently, the gas volume decreases until it reaches point F on
the diagram, where the gas begins to condense. The corresponding pressure is known as the dew-point pressure Pd,
and is defined as the pressure at which the first drop let of liquid is formed.
Step 2: further more liquid condenses. This condensation process is characterized by a constant pressure and
represented by the horizontal line FG. At point G, traces of gas remain and the corresponding pressure is called the
bubble-point pressure P
b
, and defined as the pressure at which the first sign of gas formation is detected.
A characteristic of a single-component system is that at a given temperature, the dew-point pressure and the bubble-
point pressure are equal.
Step 3: As the piston is forced slightly into the cylinder, a sharp increase in the pressure (point H) is noted without
an appreciate decrease in the liquid volume. That behavior evidently reflects the low compressibility of the liquid
phase.
- By repeating the above steps at progressively increasing temperature, a family of curves of equal
temperatures, a family of curves of equal temperature (isotherms) is constructed.
- The dashed curve connecting the dew points is called the dew-point curve (line FC) and represents the
states of the saturated gas.
- The dashed curve connecting the bubble points is called the bubble-point curve (line GC) and similarly
represents the saturated liquid. These two curves meet at point C which is known as the critical point.
The corresponding pressure and volume are called the critical pressure P
c
and critical volume V
c
,
respectively.
Two-component systems
- Consider that the initial pressure p
1
exerted on the system, at a fixed temperature of T
1
, is low enough that the
entire system exists in the vapor state.
- As the pressure is increased isothermally, it reaches point 2, at which an infinitesimal amount of liquid is
condensed. The pressure at this point is called the dew-point pressure p
d
of the mixture. It should be noted that at the
dew-point pressure, the composition of the vapor phase is equal to the overall composition of the binary mixture.
- As the volume is decreased, a noticeable increase in the pressure is observed as more and more liquid is
condensed. This condensation process is continued until the pressure reaches point 3, at which traces of gas remain.
At point 3, the corresponding pressure is called the bubble-point pressure p
b
.
- Because at the bubble point the gas phase is only of infinitesimal volume, the composition of the liquid phase is
therefore identical with that of the whole system. Further, the pressure rises steeply to point 4 with a corresponding
decreasing volume.
The phase rule
It is appropriate at this stage to introduce and define the concept of the Phase Rule. Gibbs derived a simple
relationship between the number of phases in equilibrium, the number of components, and the number of independent
variables that must be specified to describe the state of the system completely.
Gibbs proposed the following fundamental statement of the phase rule.
F = C P + 2
Where F = number of variables required to determine the state of the system at equilibrium, or
Number of degree of freedom
C = number of independent components
P = number of phases
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- A phase has been defined previously as a homogeneous system of uniform physical and chemical composition.
In a system containing ice, liquid water, and water vapor in equilibrium there are three phases, i.e., P = 3.
- The number of independent components in the system is one, i.e., C = 1, since the system contains only H
2
O.
The degrees of freedom F for a system include the temperature, the pressure, and the composition
(concentration) of phases. These independent variables must be specified to define the system completely.
Multi-component systems
The phase behavior of multi-component hydrocarbon systems in the liquid-vapor region is very similar to that of binary
systems. However, as the system becomes more complex with a greater number of different components, the pressure
and temperature ranges in which to phase exist increase significantly.
These multi-component p-T diagrams are essentially used to
+ Classify reservoirs
+ Classify the naturally occurring hydrocarbon systems
+ Describe the phase behavior of the reservoir fluid
To fully understand the significance of the p-T diagrams, it is necessary to identify and define the following key
points on the p-T diagram:
+ Cricondentherm (T
ct
) The Cricondentherm is defined as the maximum temperature above which liquid cannot
be formed regardless of pressure (point E). The corresponding pressure is termed the cricondenthern pressure
P
ct
.
+ Critical point - The critical point for a multi-component mixture is referred to as the state of pressure and
temperature at which all intensive properties of the gas and liquid phases are equal (point C). at the critical
point, the corresponding pressure and temperature are called the critical pressure p
c
and critical temperature T
c

of the mixture.
+ Phase envelope (two-phase region) - the region enclosed by the bubble-point curve and the dew-point curve
(line BCA), wherein gas and liquid coexist in equilibrium, is defined as the phase envelope of the hydrocarbon
system.
+ Quality lines-The dashed lines within the phase diagram are called quality lines. They describe the pressure and
temperature conditions for equal volumes of liquids. Note that the quality lines converge at the critical point
(point C).
+ Bubble-point curve The bubble-point curve (line BC) is defined as the line separating the liquid phase region
from the two-phase region.
+ Dew-point curve - The dew-point curve (line AC) is defined as the line separating the vapor phase region from
the two-phase region.
Diagram refer Reservoir Engineering Hand Book Tarek Ahmed Page No: 2
Classification of reservoirs and reservoir fluids
Proper classification of a reservoir requires the knowledge of the thermodynamic behavior of the phases present in the
reservoir and forces responsible for the production mechanism. In general, reservoirs are conveniently classified on the
basis of the location of the point representing the initial reservoir pressure pi and temperature T with respect to the p-T
diagram of the reservoir fluid. Accordingly, reservoirs can be classified into essentially two types. These are:
+ Oil reservoirs - If the reservoir temperature T is less than the critical temperature T
c
of the reservoir fluid, the
reservoir is classified as an oil reservoir.
+ Gas reservoirs If the reservoir temperature is greater than the critical temperature of the hydrocarbon fluid,
the reservoir is considered a gas reservoir.
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Oil reservoirs
Depending upon initial reservoir pressure p
i
, oil reservoirs can be sub classified into the following categories:
1. Under saturated Oil Reservoir. If the initial reservoir pressure p
i
), is greater than the bubble-point pressure p
b
of
the reservoir fluid, the reservoir is labeled an under saturated oil reservoir.
2. Saturated Oil Reservoir: When the initial reservoir pressure is equal to the bubble-point pressure of the
reservoir fluid by point 2, the reservoir is called a saturated oil reservoir.
3. Gas-cap Reservoir. If the initial reservoir pressure is below the bubble-point pressure of the reservoir fluid, the
reservoir is termed a gas-cap on two-phase reservoir, in which the gas or vapor phase is underlain by an oil
phase. The ratio of the gas-cap volume to reservoir oil volume is given by the appropriate quality line.
Gas reservoirs
In general, if the reservoir temperature is above the critical temperature of the hydrocarbon system, the reservoir is
classified as a natural gas reservoir. Natural gases can be categorized on the basis of their phase diagram and the
prevailing reservoir condition into four categories.
+ Retrograde gas-condensate, Near-critical gas-condensate
+ Wet gas, Dry gas
Retrograde Gas-condensate Reservoir
- If the reservoir temperature T lies between the critical temperature T
c
and cricondentherm T
ct
of the reservoir
fluid, the reservoir is classified as a retrograde gas-condensate reservoir.
- Gas reservoir is a unique type of hydrocarbon accumulation in that the special thermodynamic behavior of the
reservoir fluid is the controlling factor in the development and the depletion process of the reservoir.
- Reservoir pressure is above the upper dew-point pressure, the hydrocarbon system exists as a single phase (i.e.,
vapor phase) in the reservoir.
- As the reservoir pressure declines isothermally during production from the initial pressure to the upper dew-
point pressure, liquid begins to condense.
- As the pressure is further decreased, instead of expanding (if a gas) or vaporizing (if a liquid) as might be
expected, the hydrocarbon mixture tends to condense.
- This retrograde condensation process continues with decreasing pressure until the liquid drop-out reaches its
maximum, the dew-point curve must be crossed again. This means that all the liquid which formed must
vaporize because the system is essentially all vapors at the lower dew-point.
Near-critical Gas-condensate Reservoir:
- If the reservoir temperature is near the critical temperature, the hydrocarbon mixture is classified as a near-
critical gas-condensate. Because all the quality lines converge at the critical point, a rapid liquid build-up
immediately below the dew-point will result as the pressure is reduced.
- This behavior can be justified by the fact that several quality lines are crossed very rapidly by the isothermal
reduction in pressure. At the point where the liquid ceases to build up and begins to shrink again, the reservoir
goes from the retrograde region to a normal vaporization region.
Wet Gas Reservoir:
- Reservoir temperature is above the cricondentherm of the hydrocarbon mixture. Because the reservoir
temperature exceeds the cricondentherm of the hydrocarbon system, the reservoir fluid will always remain in
the vapor phase region as the reservoir fluid will always remain in the vapor phase region as the reservoir is
depleted isothermally.
- The produced gas flows to the surface, the pressure and temperature of the gas will decline. If the gas enters the
two phase region, a liquid phase will condense out of the gas and be produced from the surface separators.
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Dry Gas Reservoir: The hydrocarbon mixture exists as a gas both in the reservoir and the surface facilities. The only
liquid associated with the gas from a dry gas reservoir is water.
Properties Of The Critical Point (T
c
,P
c
) (For Pure Substances):
1. Temperature and pressure for which liquid and vapor are no longer distinguishable.
2. For T > T
c
, liquid and vapor will not co-exist, no matter what the pressure is.
3. For P > P
c
, liquid and vapor will not co-exist, no matter what the temperature is.
Sensible Heat: Its main purpose is to cause an increase in temperature of the system.
Latent Heat: It serves only one purpose: to convert the liquid into vapor. It does not cause a temperature increase.
Critical Point (P
c
, T
c
): The temperature and pressure for which liquid and vapor are indistinguishable.
Cricondentherm (T
cc
):
1. The highest temperature in the two-phase envelope.
2. For T > T
cc
, liquid and vapor cannot co-exist at equilibrium, no matter what the pressure is.
Cricondenbar (P
cc
):
1. The highest pressure in the two-phase envelope.
2. For P > P
cc
, liquid and vapor cannot co-exist at equilibrium, no matter what the temperature is.
For pure substances only:
Cricondentherm = Cricondenbar = Critical Point.
Flow equations
Several equations are available that relate the gas flow rate with gas properties, pipe diameter and length, and upstream
and downstream pressures. These equations are listed as follows:
1. General Flow equation 2. Colebrook-White equation 3. Modified Colebrook-White equation
4. AGA equation, 5. Weymouth equation, 6. Panhandle A equation
7. Panhandle B equation, 8. IGT equation, 9. Spitzglass equation
10. Mueller equation, 11. Fritzsche equation
General flow equation Isothermal flow equation in pipes
The General Flow equation, also called the Fundamental Flow equation, for the steady-state isothermal flow in a gas
pipeline is the basic equation for relating the pressure drop with flow rate. The most common form of this equation in
the U.S. Customary System (USCS) of units is given in terms of the pipe diameter, gas properties, pressures,
temperatures, and flow rate as follows.

Q = 77.54 D
2.5
----------------- (1)
Where,
Q =gas flow rate, measured at standard conditions,
F = friction factor, dimensionless
Pb=base pressure, psia
Tb=base temperature,R(460+F)
P1=upstream pressure, psia
P2=downstream pressure, psia
G=gas gravity (air=1.00)
Tf=average gas flowing temperature,R (460+F)
L=pipe segment length, mi
Z=gas compressibility factor at the flowing temperature, dimensionless
D=pipe inside diameter, in.
It must be noted that for the pipe segment from section 1 to section 2, the gas temperature
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T
f
is assumed to be constant (isothermal flow).
In SI units, the General Flow equation is stated as follows:
Q = 1.149410
-4
D
2.5
--------- (2)
Where,
Q=gas flow rate, measured at standard conditions, m3/day
F =friction factor, dimensionless
Pb=base pressure, kPa
Tb=base temperature, K (273+C)
P1=upstream pressure, kPa
P2=downstream pressure, kPa
G=gas gravity (air=1.00)
Tf=average gas flowing temperature, K (273+C)
L=pipe segment length, km
Zf=gas compressibility factor at the flowing temperature, dimensionless
D=pipe inside diameter, mm
- Due to the nature of Equation 2, the pressures can also be in M Pa or bar, as long as the same consistent unit is
used.
- Equation 1 relates the capacity (flow rate or throughput) of a pipe segment of length L, based on an upstream
pressure of P
1
and a downstream pressure. It is assumed that there is no elevation difference between the upstream
and downstream points; therefore, the pipe segment is horizontal.
- General Flow Equation 1, for a pipe segment of length L and diameter D, the gas flow rate Q (at standard
conditions) depends on several factors. Q depends on gas properties represented by the gravity G and the
compressibility factor Z, If the gas gravity is increased (heavier gas), the flow rate will decrease.
- Similarly, as the compressibility factor Z increases, the flow rate will decrease. Also, as the gas flowing
temperature T
f
increases, throughput will decrease. Thus, the hotter the gas, the lower the flow rate will be.
- Therefore, to increase the flow rate, it helps to keep the gas temperature low. The impact of pipe length and
inside diameter is also clear.
- As the pipe segment length increases for given pressureP1andP2, the flow rate will decrease. On the other
hand, the larger the diameter, the larger the flow rate will be. The term P
12
P
22
represents the driving force that
causes the flow rate from the upstream end to the downstream end.
- As the downstreampressureP2is reduced, keeping the upstream pressureP1constant, the flow rate will increase.
It is obvious that when there is no flow rate, P1 is equal toP2.
- It is due to friction between the gas and pipe walls that the pressure drop (P1P2) occurs from the upstream
point 1 to downstream point 2. The friction factor f depends on the internal condition of the pipe as well as the
type of flow (laminar or turbulent) .General Flow equation is represented in terms of the transmission factor F
instead of the friction factor f. This form of the equation is as follows.
Q = 38.77F D
2.5
-------------- (3)
Where, the transmission factor F and friction factor f are related by
F = and in SI units
Q = 5.74710
-4
F D
2.5
-------------- (3)
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Weymouth equation
The Weymouth equation is used for high pressure, high flow rate, and large diameter gas gathering systems. This
formula directly calculates the flow rate through a pipeline for given values of gas gravity, compressibility, inlet and
outlet pressures, pipe diameter, and length. In USCS units, the Weymouth equation is stated as follows:

Q = 433.5E D
2.667
-------------- (1)
Where,
Q = volume flow rate, standard ft3/day (SCFD)
E = pipeline efficiency, a decimal value less than or equal to 1.0
Pb = base pressure, psia
Tb = base temperature, R (460 + F)
P1 = upstream pressure, psia
P2 = downstream pressure, psia
G = gas gravity (air = 1.00)
Tf = average gas flow temperature, R (460 + F)
Le = equivalent length of pipe segment, mi
Zf = gas compressibility factor, dimensionless
D = pipe inside diameter, in.
Where, the equivalent length L
e
and s were defined earlier in and
s = 0.0375G
By comparing the Weymouth equation with the General Flow equation, we can isolate an equivalent transmission factor
as follows:
The Weymouth transmission factor in USCS units is
F = 11.18(D)
1/6

In SI units, the Weymouth equation is as follows:
Q =3.743510
-3
E D
2.667
-------------- (1)
Where,
Q = gas flow rate, standard m3/day
Tb = base temperature, K (273 + C)
Pb = base pressure, kPa
Tf = average gas flow temperature, K (273 + C)
P1 = upstream pressure, kPa
P2 = downstream pressure, kPa
Le = equivalent length of pipe segment, km
Other symbols are as defined previously.
The Weymouth transmission factor in SI units is
F = 6.521(D)
1/6
You will notice that a pipeline efficiency factor, E, is used in the Weymouth equation so we can compare the throughput
performance of a pipeline using the General Flow equation that does not include an efficiency factor.



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Darcys law and applications
Introduction
Darcy's empirical flow law was the first extension of the principles of classical fluid dynamics to the flow of fluids
through porous media. Darcy's law can be derived from the Navier-Stokes equation of motion of a viscous fluid.
The significance of Darcy's law is that it introduces flow rates into reservoir engineering and, since the total surface oil
production rate from a reservoir is
q
res
=
It implicitly introduces a time scale in oil recovery calculations. The practical application of this aspect of Darcy's law is
given of the fundamental mechanics of well stimulation and enhanced oil recovery.
Darcys law; fluid potential (gas flow in cylindrical reservoir, fundamentals of gas flow in porous media)
- The equipment consisted of an iron cylinder containing an unconsolidated sand pack, about one metre in
length, which was held between two permeable gauze screens.
- Manometers were connected into the cylinder immediately above and below the sand pack. By flowing water
through the pack Darcy established that, for any flow rate, the velocity of flow was directly proportional to the
difference in manometric heights, the relationship being
U = K =
Where, u = flow velocity in cm/sec, which is the total measured flow rate q cc/sec, divided by the cross-sectional area of
the sand pack
h = difference in manometric levels, cm (water equivalent); I = total length of the sand pack, cm, and K = constant.
- The irrespective of the orientation of the sand pack, the difference in height, h, was always the same for a
given flow rate. Thus Darcy's experimental law proved to be independent of the direction of flow in the earth's
gravitational field.
- It is worthwhile considering the significance of the h term appearing in Darcy's law.
The pressure at any point in the flow path, which has an elevation z, relative to the datum plane, can be expressed in
absolute units as
p = g(h-z) -------- (1)
with respect to the prevailing atmospheric pressure. In this equation h is the liquid elevation of the upper manometer,
again, with respect to z = 0 and is the liquid (water) density. The equation can be alternatively expressed as
hg = ( +gz) --------- (2)
If its written in differential form as
U = K ------------ (3)
then differentiating equ. (2) and substituting in equ. (3) Gives,

u = ( +gz) = --------- (4)
The term ( + gz), in this latter equation, has the same unit as hg which is:
Distance force per unit mass, that is, potential energy per unit mass. This fluid potential is usually given the symbol
and defined as the work required, by a frictionless process, to transport a unit mass of fluid from a state of atmospheric
pressure and zero elevation to the point in question, thus
= + gz ------------- (5)
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Although defined in this way, fluid potentials are not always measured with respect to atmospheric pressure and zero
elevation, but rather, with respect to any arbitrary base pressure and elevation (p
b
, z
b
) which modifies equ. (5) to,

= + g(Z- Z
b
) ------- (6)

The reason for this is that fluid flow between two points A and B is governed by the difference in potential between the
points, not the absolute potentials, i.e.

A

B
= + g( - Z
b
) _ + g( - Z
b
) = + g( - Z
B
) ------ (7)

It is therefore conventional, in reservoir engineering to select an arbitrary, convenient datum plane, relative to the
reservoir, and express all potentials with respect to this plane. Furthermore, if it is assumed that the reservoir fluid is
incompressible ( independent of pressure) then equ. (5) can be expressed as

= +gz ---- (7)
Which, is precisely the term appearing in equ. (4). It can therefore be seen that the h term in Darcy's equation is directly
proportional to the difference in fluid potential between the ends of the sand pack.
The constant K/g is only applicable for the flow of water, which was the liquid used exclusively in Darcy's experiments.
Experiments performed with a variety of different liquids revealed that the law can be generalized as
u = ----------- (8)
In which the dependence of flow velocity on fluid density and viscosity is fairly obvious. The new constant k has
therefore been isolated as being solely dependent on the nature of the sand and is described as the permeability. It is, in
fact, the absolute permeability of the sand, provided the latter is completely saturated with a fluid and, because of the
manner of derivation, will have the same value irrespective of the nature of the fluid.
Sign convention
Darcy's empirical law was described without regard to sign convention, it being assumed that all terms in equ. (8) were
positive. This is adequate if the law is being used independently to calculate flow rates; however, if equ. (8) is used in
conjunction with other mathematical equations.
Linear flow
If, distance is measured positive in the direction of flow, then the potential gradient d/dl must be negative in the same
direction since fluids move from high to low potential
Therefore, Darcy's law is
u =-
Radial flow
If production from the reservoir into the well is taken as positive, since the radius is measured as being positive in the
direction opposite to the flow, d/dr is positive and Darcy's law may be stated as
u =
Radial steady state flow; well stimulation (General equations for radial flow of gases in symmetrical homogeneous
reservoirs)
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- The mathematical description of the radial flow of fluids simulates flow from a reservoir, or part of a reservoir,
into the wellbore.
- For the radial geometry, flow will be described under what is called the steady state condition. This implies
that, for a well producing at a constant rate q; d
p
/ d
t
= 0, at all points within the radial cell. Thus the outer
boundary pressure p
e
and the entire pressure profile remain constant with time.
- This condition may appear somewhat artificial but is realistic in the case of a pressure maintenance scheme,
such as water injection, in which one of the aims is to keep the pressure constant. In such a case, the oil
withdrawn from the radial cell is replaced by fluids crossing the outer boundary at r = r
e
.
- In addition, for simplicity, the reservoir will be assumed to be completely homogeneous in all reservoir
parameters and the well perforated across the entire formation thickness.
Under these circumstances, Darcy's law for the radial flow of single phase oil can be expressed as
q = ---- (1)
Since the flow rate is constant, it is the same across any radial area, A = 2rh, situated at distance r from the centre of
the system. Therefore, equ. (1) Can be expressed as

q = ---- (2)
and separating the variables and integrating

---- (3)

Where, p
wf
is the conventional symbol for the bottom hole flowing pressure. The integration results in
---- (4)
Which, shows that the pressure increases logarithmically with respect to the radius,
the pressure drop being consequently much more severe close to the well than towards the outer boundary. In particular,
when r = r
e
then
---- (5)
- When a well is being drilled it is always necessary to have a positive pressure differential acting from the
wellbore into the formation to prevent inflow of the reservoir fluids.
- Because of this, some of the drilling mud will flow into the formation and the particles suspended in the mud
can partially plug the pore spaces, reducing the permeability, and creating a damaged zone in the vicinity of the
wellbore. The situation, in which r
a
represents the radius of this zone.
If the well were undamaged, the pressure profile for r < r
a
would be as shown by the dashed line, whereas due to the
reduction in permeability in the damaged zone, equ. (5) Implies that the pressure drop will be larger than normal, or that
p
wf
will be reduced. This additional pressure drop close to the well by skin

= S ---------- (6)
in which the p
skin
is attributed to a skin of reduced permeability around the well and S is the mechanical skin factor,
which is just a dimensionless number. This definition can be included in equ. (5) to give the total steady state inflow
equation as

PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

36

= S) --------- (7)
in which it can be seen that if S is positive then pe - pwf the pressure drawdown, contains the additional pressure drop
due to the perturbing effect of the skin. Since, equ. (7) is frequently employed by production engineers, it is useful to
express it in field units rather than the Darcy units in which it was derived.
The reader should check that this will give
= S) ------- (8)
in which the geometrical factor 2 has been absorbed in the constant. This equation is frequently expressed as
PI = =

PI = --------- (9)
Where, the PI, or Productivity Index of a well, expressed in stb/d/psi, is a direct measure of the well performance.
One of the aims of production engineering is to make the PI of each well as large as is practically possible, consistent
with the economics of doing so. This is termed well stimulation.
The ways in which a well can be stimulated can be deduced by considering how to vary the individual parameters in
equ. (9) so as to increase the PI.
Steady State condition (Radial flow)
The steady state condition applies, after the transient period, to a well draining a cell which has a completely open outer
boundary. It is assumed that, for a constant rate of production, fluid withdrawal from the cell will be exactly balanced by
fluid entry across the open boundary and therefore,
p = p
e
= constant, at r = r
e


and = 0 for all r and t
This condition is appropriate when pressure is being maintained in the reservoir due to either natural water influx or the
injection of some displacing fluid.

















PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

37

UNIT-V - Multi phase flow terminology
Superficial velocity:
The Superficial velocity is the velocity of one phase of a multiphase flow, assuming that the phase occupies the whole
cross section of pipe by itself.
It is defined for each phase as follows:
V
SW
= Q
W
/A ; V
SO
= Q
O
/A ; V
SG
= Q
G
/A; Where, A = A
W
+ A
O
+ A
G
The parameter A is the total cross sectional area of pipe, Q is volumetric flow rate, V is velocity, and the subscripts are
W for water, O for oil, G for gas and S for superficial term.
Multiphase flow mixture velocity:
Mixture velocity is the sum of phase superficial velocities:
V
M
= V
SW
+ V
SO
+ V
SG
Where , V
M
is the multiphase mixture velocity.
Holdup
Holdup is the cross-sectional area, which is locally occupied by one of the phases of a multiphase flow, relative to the
cross sectional area of the pipe at the same local position.
For the liquid phase,
H
L
= A
L
/A = A
W
+ A
O
/ A = H
W
+ H
O

For the gas phase,
H
G
= A
G
/A
Where the parameter H is the phase holdup and the subscripts are L for the liquid and G for the gas phase.
Holdup can be defined as the fraction of the pipe volume occupied by a given phase; holdup is usually defined as the
in situ liquid volume fraction, where as the term void fraction is used for the in situ gas volume fraction.
Phase velocity
Phase velocity is the velocity of a phase of a multiphase flow based on the area of the pipe occupied by that phase. It
may also be defined for each phase as follows:
V
L
= V
SL
/ H
L
= V
SW
+ VS
O
/ H
L
V
L
= V
SG
/ H
G
Slip
Slip is the term used to describe the flow condition that exists when the phases have different phase velocities. The slip
velocity is defined as the difference between actual gas and liquid velocities, as follows:
V
S
= V
G
- V
SL

The ratio between two-phase velocities is defined as the slip ratio. If there is no slip between the phases, V
L
= V
G ,
and by
applying the no-slip assumption to the liquid holdup definition
H
L, no- slip
=
L
=V
SL
/ V
M
Its not often applicable. For certain flow patterns in horizontal and upward inclined pipes, gas tends to flow faster than
the liquid (positive slip). For some flow regimes in downward flow, liquid can flow faster than the gas (negative slip).
Multiphase flow density
Equations for two-phase gas/liquid density

S
=
L
H
L
+
G
H
G ----------------------------------- (i)

n
=
L

L
+
G

G ----------------------------------- (ii)

k
=
L

L
2
/ H
L
+
G

G
2
/H
G ---------------------------------------(iii)

Equation (i) is used to determine the pressure gradient due to elevation change. Some correlations are based on the
assumption of no slippage and therefore use equation (ii) for two phase density.
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38

Equation (iii) is used to define the density used in the friction loss term and in the Reynolds number. The total density
determined from the oil and water densities and flow rates if no slippage between these liquid phases is assumed:

L
=
O
f
O
+
W
f
W
Where f
O
= Q
O
/Q
O
+ Q
W
= 1- f
W

Where, the parameter f is the volume fraction of each phase.
1. Multiphase flow regimes
- Multiphase ow is a complex phenomenon that is difficult to understand, predict, and model.
- Common single-phase ow characteristics such as velocity prole, turbulence, and boundary layer are thus
inappropriate for describing the nature of such ows.
- The ow structures are rather classied in flow regimes, whose precise characteristics depend on a number of
parameters.
- Flow regimes vary depending on operating conditions, fluid properties, flow rates, and the orientation and
geometry of the pipe through which the fluids flow.
- The transition between different flow regimes may be a gradual process. Due to the highly nonlinear nature of
the forces that rule the flow regime transitions, the prediction is near impossible.
1.1 Two-Phase Flow Regimes
- The description of two-phase flow can be simplified by classifying types of gasliquid interfacial distribution
and calling these flow regimes or flow patterns.
- The distribution of the fluid phases in space and time differs for the various flow regimes and is usually not
under the control of the pipeline designer or operator.
1.1.1. Horizontal Flow Regimes
1.1.1. i. Stratified (Smooth and Wavy) Flow
- Stratified flow consists of two superposed layers of gas and liquid, formed by segregation under the influence
of gravity.
- The gasliquid interface is more or less curved and either smooth or rough because of capillary or gravity
forces. The curvature of the interface increases with the velocity of the gas phase
1.1.1. ii. Intermittent (Slug and Elongated Bubble) Flow
- The intermittent flow regime is usually divided into two sub regimes: plug or elongated bubble flow and slug
flow. The elongated bubble flow regime can be considered as a limiting case of slug flow, where the liquid slug
is free of entrained gas bubbles.
- Flow regimes are quite similar to each other, their fluid dynamic characteristics are very different and greatly
influence such quantities as pressure drop and) slug velocity.
- Gasliquid intermittent flow exists in the whole range of pipe inclinations and over a wide range of gas and
liquid flow rates.
- It is characterized by an intrinsic unsteadiness due to regions in which the liquid slugs fill the whole pipeline
cross section and regions in which the flow consists of a liquid layer and a gas layer.
- The presence of these slugs can often be troublesome in the practical applications (giving rise to sudden
pressure pulses, causing large system vibration and surges in liquid and gas flow rates), and the prediction of
the onset of slug flow is of considerable industrial importance.
1.1.1. iii. Annular Flow:
- During annular flow, the liquid phase ows largely as an annular film on the wall with gas flowing as a central
core some of the liquid is entrained as droplets in this gas core.
PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

39

- The annular liquid film is thicker at the bottom than at the top of the pipe because of the effect of gravity and,
except at very low liquid rates, the liquid film is covered with large waves.
1.1.1. iv. Dispersed Bubble Flow:
- At high liquid rates and low gas rates, the gas is dispersed as bubbles in a continuous liquid phase. The bubble
density is higher toward the top of the pipeline, but there are bubbles throughout the cross section.
- Dispersed flow occurs only at high flow rates and high pressures. This type of flow, which entails high-
pressure loss, is rarely encountered in flow lines.
- Note that raw gas pipelines usually have stratified smooth/wavy flow patterns. This arises because flow lines
are designed to have appreciable velocities and the liquid content is usually quite low.
- Annular flow can also occur but this corresponds to high velocities, which are avoided to prevent
erosion/corrosion, etc. In other words, raw gas lines are sized to be operated in stratified flow during normal
operation.
1.1.2. Vertical Flow Regimes
Flow regimes frequently encountered in upward vertical two-phase flow. These flow regimes tend to be somewhat
simpler than those in horizontal flow. This results from the symmetry in the flow induced by the gravitational force
acting parallel to it.
1.1.2. i. Bubble Flow
The gas phase is distributed in the liquid phase as variable-size, deformable bubbles moving upward with zigzag
motion. The wall of the pipe is always contacted by the liquid phase.
1.1.2. ii Slug Flow
- Most of the gas is in the form of large bullet-shaped bubbles that have a diameter almost reaching the pipe
diameter.
- These bubbles are referred to as Taylor bubbles, move uniformly upward, and are separated by slugs of
continuous liquid that bridge the pipe and contain small gas bubbles.
- Typically, the liquid in the film around the Taylor bubbles may move downward at low velocities, although the
net flow of liquid can be upward. The gas bubble velocity is greater than that of the liquid.
1.1.2. iii. Churn Flow
- If a change from a continuous liquid phase to a continuous gas phase occurs, the continuity of the liquid in the
slug between successive Taylor bubbles is destroyed repeatedly by a high local gas concentration in the slug.
- This oscillatory flow of the liquid is typical of churn flow. It may not occur in small-diameter pipes. The gas
bubbles may join and liquid may be entrained in the bubbles.
1.1.2. iv. Annular Flow
- Annular flow is characterized by the continuity of the gas phase in the pipe core. The liquid phase moves
upward partly as a wavy flow and partly in the form of drops entrained in the gas core.
- Although downward vertical two-phase flow is less common than upward flow, it does occur in steam injection
wells and down comer pipes from offshore production platforms.
Three-Phase Flow Regimes
- The main difference between two-phase (gas/liquid) flows and three-phase (gas/liquid/liquid) flows is the
behavior of the liquid phases, where in three-phase systems the presence of two liquids gives rise to a rich
variety of flow patterns.
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40

- Basically, depending on the local conditions, the liquid phases appear in a separated or dispersed form. In the
case of separated flow, distinct layers of oil and water can be discerned, although there may be some inter
entrainment of one liquid phase into the other.
- In dispersed flow, one liquid phase is completely dispersed as droplets in the other, resulting in two possible
situations, namely an oil continuous phase and a water continuous phase. The transition from one liquid
continuous phase to the other is known as phase inversion.
2. Calculating multiphase flow pressure gradients
- The hydraulic design of a multiphase flow pipeline is a two-step process.
- The first step is the determination of the multiphase flow regimes because many pressure drop calculation
methods rely on the type of flow regime present in the pipe.
- The second step is the calculation of flow parameters, such as pressure drop and liquid holdup, to size pipelines
and field processing equipment, such as slug catchers.
2.1. Steady-State Two-Phase Flow
The techniques used most commonly in the design of a two-phase flow pipeline can be classified into three categories:
single-phase flow approaches, homogeneous flow approaches, and mechanistic models.
2.1.1. Single-Phase Flow Approaches
- In this method, the two-phase flow is assumed to be a single-phase flow having pseudo-properties arrived at by
suitably weighting the properties of the individual phases.
- Single-phase flow approaches were used commonly for the design of wet gas pipelines.
- When the amount of the condensed liquid is negligibly small, the use of such methods could at best prevent
under design, but more often than not, the quantity of the condensed liquid is significant enough that the single-
phase flow approach grossly over predicted the pressure drop.
2.1.2. Homogeneous Flow Approaches
- The inadequacy of the single-phase flow approaches researchers to develop better design procedures and
predictive models for two-phase flow systems. This effort led to the development of homogeneous flow
approaches to describe these rather complex flows.
- The homogeneous approach, also known as the friction factor model, is similar to that of the single-phase flow
approach except that mixture fluid properties are used in determination of the friction factor.
- Therefore, the appropriate definitions of the fluid properties are critical to the accuracy of the model.
- The mixture properties are expressed empirically as a function of the gas and liquid properties, as well as their
respective holdups.
- Many of these correlations are based on flow regime correlations that determine the two-phase (gas/liquid)
flow friction factor, which is then used to estimate pressure drop.
1. Lockhart and Martinelli Method, 2. Beggs and Brill Method
2.1.2.1 Lockhart and Martinelli Method:
This method was developed by correlating experimental data generated in horizontal isothermal two phase flow of two-
component systems (airoil and airwater) at low pressures.
The two-phase frictional pressure drop is calculated by multiplying by a correction factor for each phase, as follows:
dp/ dx =
2
G
(dp/ dx)
G
=
2
L
(dp/ dx)
L

Where,
(dp/ dx)
G
= (f
G

G
V
2
SG
/ 2g
c
D) ; (dp/ dx)
L
= (f
L

L
V
2
SL
/ 2g
c
D)

PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

41

The friction factors fG and fL are determined from the Moody diagram using the following values of the Reynolds
number:
N
Re,G
= (
G
V
SG
D/
G
); N
Re,L
= (
L
V
SL
D/
L
)

The two-phase flow correction factors (
G
,
L
) are determined from the relationships of Equations

2
G
= 1 + CX + CX
2 ;

2
L
= 1 + CX + CX
2
Where,
X
5 . 0
(
(
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
G
L
dx
dp
dx
dp


Where, Parameter C has the values shown in table. Note that the laminar flow regime for a phase occurs when the
Reynolds number for that phase is less than 2000.
In this method, the correlation between liquid holdup and Martinelli parameter, X, is independent of the flow regime and
can be expressed as follows:
H
L
-2
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
1 20
1
X X

C Parameter
Liquid phase Gas phase C
Turbulent Turbulent 20
Laminar Turbulent 12
Turbulent Laminar 10
Laminar Laminar 5
2.2. Steady-State Three-Phase Flow
- The complex nature of such flows makes prediction very difficult. Treated the two immiscible liquid phases as
a single fluid with mixture properties, thus a two-phase flow correlation could be used for pressure loss
calculations.
- Two-phase flow correlations for gasliquid two-phase flow can be used as the basis in the determination of
three-phase flow parameters; hence, an appropriate model is required to describe the flow of one gas and two
liquid phases.
- One of the most fundamental approaches used to model such systems is the two-fluid model, where the
presented approach can be used by combining the two liquid phases as one pseudo-liquid phase and modeling
the three-phase flow as a two-phase flow.
- Three-fluid models should be used to account for the effect of liquidliquid interactions on flow characteristics,
especially at low flow rates.
2.3. Transient Multiphase Flow
- Transient multiphase flow in pipelines can occur due to changes in inlet flow rates, outlet pressure, opening or
closing of valves, blow down, ramp-up, and pigging.
- In each of these cases, detailed information of the flow behavior is necessary for the designer and the operator
of the system to construct and operate the pipeline economically and safely.
PE505 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

42

- The steady-state pipeline design tools are not sufficient to adequately design the operational flexibility of
multiphase pipelines.
- Therefore, a model for predicting the overall flow behavior in terms of pressure, liquid holdup, and flow rate
distributions for these different transient conditions would be very useful.
Transient multiphase flow is traditionally modeled by one-dimensional averaged conservation laws, yielding a set of
partial differential equations.
The two-fluid model (TFM), consisting of a separate momentum equation for each phase.
The drift-flux model (DFM), consisting of a momentum equation and an algebraic slip relation for the phase velocities.
The following major assumptions have been made in the formulation of the differential equations.
1. Two immiscible liquid phases (oil and water) that are assumed to be a single fluid with mixture properties.
2. Flow is one dimensional in the axial direction of the pipeline.
3. Flow temperature is constant at wall, and no mass transfer occurs between gas and liquid phases. Note that most
commercial codes allow phase change.
4. The physical properties of multiphase flow are determined at the average temperature and pressure of flow in each
segment of the pipeline.
2.3.1 Two-Fluid Model
The TFM is governed by a set of four partial differential equations, the first two of which express mass conservation for
gas and liquid phases, respectively,
| | | | 0 =
c
c
+
c
c
G G G G G
V H
x
H
t

Similarly for liquid phase
The last two equations represent momentum balance for the gas and liquid phases, respectively,
( ) | |
G G G
V H
t

c
c
+ | |
X
P
H P H V H
x
G G G
G
G G
A
A
+ A +
c
c
2
= + i G t t u sin g
G
A

Similarly, liquid phase
Parameter P denotes the interface pressure, whereas V
K
, |
K
, and H
K
are the velocity, the density, and the volume
fraction of phase k {G, L}, respectively. The variables |
i
and |
k
are the interfacial and wall momentum transfer terms.
The quantities P
G
and P
L
correspond to the static head around the interface defined as follows:
( ) ( ) ( ) | | u e e gdCOS Sin H COS P P P
G G G G
2 / 3 / 1 2 / 2 / 1
3
A + = A = A
Similarly for liquid phase, replace the G by L. Where, | is the wetted angle
Drift Flux Model:
The DFM is derived from the TFM by neglecting the static head terms AP
G
, AP
L
and replacing the two
momentum equations by their sum. The main advantages of this three-equation model are as follows:
i) The equations are in conservative form, which makes their solution by finite volume methods less
onerous.
ii) The interfacial shear term, |
i
, is cancelled out in the momentum equations, although it appears in an
additional algebraic relation called the slip law.
iii) The model is well posed and does not exhibit a complex characteristic.
| | | | ( ) u t t sin
2 2
L L G G L G
L
L L
G
G G L L l G G G
H H P V H V H
t
V H V H
t
+ = + +
c
c
+ +
c
c

Drift flux approach is best applied to closely coupled flows such as bubbly flow. Its application to stratified flows is, at
best, artificial.

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