1

USE OF GEOSYNTHETICS IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION

(CASE STUDY GEOTEXTILE)


BY


ALAO, OLUKAYODE OLAWALE
CVE/06/7929

A PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE
AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG.)
DEGREE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

TO


THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE
ONDO STATE


AUGUST, 2011
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 PREAMBLE
Geosynthetics have been defined by the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) Committee D35 on geosynthetics as planar products manufactured from polymeric
materials used with soil, rock, earth, or other geotechnical engineering related material as an
integral part of a man-made project, structure or system. Geosynthetics is the term used to
describe a range of polymeric products used for Civil Engineering construction works. The term
is generally regarded to encompass eight main products categories. They include geotextiles,
geogrids, geonets, geomembrane, geosynthetic clay liners, geofoam, geocells and geocomposite.
The most popular geosynthetics used are the geotextiles and geomembrane.
The ASTM (1994) defines geotextiles as permeable textile materials used in contact with
soil, rock, earth or any other geotechnical related material as an integral part of civil engineering
project, structure, or system.
Geomembrane is an essentially impermeable membrane in the form of manufactured
sheet used widely as cut-offs and liners. They are often used to line landfills.
Geotextiles, as permeable textile materials are used in contact with soil, rock, earth or any
other geotechnical related material as an integral part of civil engineering project, structure, or
system.
A geogrid is a polymeric structure, unidirectional or bidirectional, in the form of
manufactured sheet, consisting of a regular network of integrally connected elements which may
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be linked by extrusion, bonding, and whose openings are larger than the constituents and are
used in geotechnical, environmental, hydraulic and transportation engineering applications.
A geonet is a polymeric structure in the form of manufactured sheet, consisting of a
regular network of integrally connected overlapping ribs, whose openings are usually larger than
its constituents.
A geocomposite is an assembled polymeric material in the form of manufactured sheet or
strips, consisting of at least, one geosynthetic among the components, used in geotechnical
environmental and transportational engineering applications.
A geomat is a polymeric structure in the form of manufactured sheet consisting of non-
regular networks of fibres, yarns, filament, tapes or other elements which may be thermally or
mechanically connected and whose openings are larger than its constituents.
A geocell is a polymeric cellular structure consisting of regular open networks of
connected strips linked by extrusion or adhesion or other methods
Geotextiles have proven to be among the most versatile and cost-effective ground
modification materials. Their use has expanded rapidly into nearly all areas of civil,
geotechnical, environmental, coastal, and hydraulic engineering.

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1.1 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this research work is to assess the different types of geosynthetics available and to
evaluate the effectiveness of the geotextile in road construction and maintenance. To achieve this
aim, the following objectives have been identified:
(1) To classify the available geosynthetics in the country.
(2) To determine the constituent material used in producing the geotextile, one of the
geosynthetic materials.
(3) To incorporate the geotextile in some collected soil materials and assess performance.
(4) To analyse the results and make appropriate recommendations for optimal use.
1.2 HYPOTHESIS
H0: Geotextiles is not among the most versatile and cost-effective ground modification and soil
stabilizing materials in the construction industry.
H1: Geotextiles is among the most versatile and cost-effective ground modification and soil
stabilizing materials in the construction industry.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
The high rate of erosion and poor drainage system in different parts of the country has led to
speedy road degradation and extra costs incurred on road rehabilitation; hence the use of
geosynthetics is aimed at controlling this phenomenon. The benefits of a geosynthetic material in
any application are defined by six discrete functions: separation, filtration, drainage,
reinforcement, sealing and protection.
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The geotextile acts as a filter through which water passes while it restricts fine-grained soil from
entering into coarse-grained soil (sand or gravel) and thus prevent their being washed away and
forestall failure of the road.
1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This work shall be limited to the use of geosynthetics as a soil stabilizer in road construction. It
would involve the collection of soil materials and determination of their geotechnical properties
both soaked and unsoaked after which the geotextile would be incorporated into the soil sample
and their geotechnical properties also determined in both the soaked and unsoaked conditions.
The result would be analysed and the effect of the geotextile on the tested soil sample would be
evaluated and the appropriate recommendations would be made for their best use.


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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 CONCEPT OF GEOSYNTHETICS
In times past, various types of materials have been added to soil in order to increase its
stability, for use as an engineering construction material. But these materials such as plant fibres,
wood shavings and cotton are bio-degradable and therefore have short service life. In only a few
decades, geosynthetics (geotextiles, geogrids, and geomembranes) have joined the list of
traditional civil engineering construction materials.
With the advent of polymers in the middle of the 20th Century, a much more stable group
of materials became available. These groups of polymer materials, called geosynthetics, have
been employed in civil engineering works due to their stability and durability. Geosynthetics
were first employed in the 1960s as filters in the United States and as reinforcement in Europe.
Geosynthetics have been formulated and are available in a wide range of forms to suit various
engineering applications. Often the use of a geosynthetic can significantly increase the safety
factor, improve performance, and reduce costs in comparison with conventional construction
alternatives. In the case of embankments on extremely soft foundations, geosynthetics can permit
construction to take place at sites where conventional construction alternatives would be either
impossible or prohibitively expensive. (Chen W.F and Liew J.Y, 2003) Geosynthetics are
particularly useful in road pavement construction and the earthworks associated with road
construction. Geosynthetics used for construction projects are manufactured from synthetic
polymers such as polypropylene, polyesters, polyethylene, polyamide (nylon), poly-vinyl
chlorides (PVC), and fibreglass. Polypropylene and polyester are the most used. Compared to
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natural fibres, the polymeric geosynthetics offer long-term durability in the presence of elements
commonly encountered in construction (e.g. moisture and other types of corrosive chemicals)
In developing countries, the use of geosynthetics is relatively new but gaining widespread
popularity in construction. Geosynthetics are becoming rapidly popular in construction because
of their ability to perform certain necessary functions while offering practical advantages such
as:
i. A wide availability of products from the market place
ii. The relative ease of shipping and field handling (flexibility)
iii. Rapid installation techniques, i.e fast speed of construction, without the need for
heavy equipment such as earth-moving machines.
iv. Lightweight in comparison with other construction materials, therefore imposing
less stress upon the foundation
v. Durability and long life when properly selected
vi. General environment safety, since they will not degrade. (However, there is
possibility of degradation if exposed to sunlight and certain highly corrosive
chemicals) (Okunade, 2010)


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2.1 TYPES OF GEOSYNTHETICS
Geosynthetics are usually produced either in sheets or in fabric filaments (fibres) with the
major variations in their composition, thickness and strength. These are then further worked
upon in the production process to produce the construction geosynthetics group. The different
types of this geosynthetics group products are geotextiles (geofabrics), geogrids, geonets,
geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners (GCL), geopipes or geotubes, geocells, geofoams,
drainage/infiltration cells and geocomposites.
Below is the description of the above listed materials:

1. Geotextile or Geofabrics: Geotextiles form one of the two largest groups of geosynthetic
materials. They are indeed textiles in the traditional sense, but consist of synthetic fibres (all are
polymer-based) rather than natural ones such as cotton, wool, jute ` Thus, biodegradation and
subsequent short lifetime is not a problem. These synthetic fibres are made into flexible, porous
fabrics by standard weaving machinery or they are matted together in a random nonwoven
manner. Some are also knitted. The major point is that geotextiles are porous to liquid flow
across their manufactured plane and also within their thickness, but to widely varying degree.
There are at least 100 specific application areas for geotextiles that have been developed;
however, the fabric always performs at least one of four discrete functions: separation,
reinforcement, filtration and/or drainage. According to ASTM, a GEOTEXTILE is any
permeable textile material used with foundation soil, rock, earth, or any other geotechnical
engineering-related material, as an integral part of a man-made project, structure or system.
(Wikipedia, 2011)

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2. Geogrids: they are unitized woven yarns or bonded straps. Geogrids consist of heavy
strands of plastic materials arranged as longitudinal and transverse elements to outline a
uniformly distributed and relatively large and gridlike array of apertures in the resulting sheet.
These apertures allow direct contact between soil particles on either side of the sheet. (Bergado
and Abuel-Naga, 2005)
According to Wikipedia, Geogrids represent a rapidly growing segment within
geosynthetics. Rather than being a woven, nonwoven or knitted textile fabric, geogrids are
polymers formed into a very open, gridlike configuration, i.e., they have large apertures between
individual ribs in the machine and cross machine directions. Geogrids are (a) either stretched in
one or two directions for improved physical properties, (b) made on weaving or knitting
machinery by standard textile manufacturing methods, or (c) by bonding rods or straps together.
There are many specific application areas, however, they function almost exclusively as
reinforcement materials. Modern geogrids were invented by Dr. Brian Mercer (Blackburn, UK)
in the late 1970s. Dr. Mercer devised and patented the stretched sheet method of production
which results in a stiff polymer grid and avoids the bonding of separate elements required in a
woven or knitted grid. Subsequent development by Dr. Mercer led to the uniaxial (single
direction stretch) geogrid with rectangular apertures and the biaxial (two way stretch) geogrid
with virtually square apertures.
3. Geonets: A geosynthetic material consisting of parallel sets of intersecting ribs that form
a three-dimensional net-like material. They are used to improve drainage by creating a thin
plane for water to travel through. (Kercher, 2011)
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4. Geomembranes: A geosynthetic material that is virtually waterproof when used as a
fluid barrier. A common application of this is a landfill liner.
5. Geocomposite: A material made up of a combination of geosynthetic materials that is used to
improve performance by combining the benefits of two types of geosynthetics.
There are virtually hundreds of different types of geosynthetic products available on the market
today. Please remember that all geosynthetic materials work in some type of application, but no
geosynthetic works in all applications. Therefore, make sure that you have the right geosynthetic
product for the right job.
2.2 WHY USE GEOSYNTHETICS?
One common question asked is, Why do geosynthetics need to be used to improve the
performance of the existing soils? In many cases, the existing soil has many inherent flaws
including:
1. Non-Uniform Consistency
Soils are made up of different types of particles such as gravel, sands, silt, clay and possibly
organic materials. Many times, the consistency of the soil (types of particles) can vary
throughout the length of the project. This can have a significant effect on such factors as
drainage, settlement, frost heaves, etc., all of which can create problems.

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2. Unstable Soils
In areas where soils consist of clays, silts and organics, especially in areas that drain poorly, the
subgrade may be unstable. As a result, the unstable soil is not able to provide adequately support
for a road or embankment.
3. Moisture Problems
Depending upon the consistency of the soil, the presence of moisture can create such problems as
loss of strength, swelling/shrinking, and frost heave.
4. Tensile Strength
Most soils can resist forces that compress the material (to a certain level). However, soils cannot
resist forces that pull the soil apart (tensile force).In situations where the existing soils exhibit
one or more of the above-mentioned problems, traditional alternatives include: remove and
replace poor soils, soil stabilization, use of piles or cassions, and/or installation of complex
drainage systems. These solutions can be very costly and time consuming. Another potential
solution is to use geosynthetics. Unlike soils, geosynthetics are manufactured specifically to
provide consistent properties that can be designed by the manufacturer and specified by the
user. Other benefits include ease of construction, increased life of the structure and reduced
maintenance requirements.
In many cases, the use of geosynthetics will allow for the utilization of lower quality fill
materials, less fill material, or reduce the amount of necessary excavation. In these cases,
geosynthetics can reduce the overall cost of the project. However, not all applications of
geosynthetics produce direct cost savings by lowering the initial cost of the project. In some
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situations, the cost savings result from an expected reduction in future maintenance costs and/or
an increase in the life of the project (based on a life cycle cost analysis).
Since geosynthetics can increase the life of a road and reduce the long-term maintenance
requirements, local agencies should consider amending their design and/or construction
ordinances to require the use of geosynthetics in new road construction and rehabilitation
projects, when feasible. Although this requirement will slightly increase the cost of the project, it
should provide long-term cost savings to the agency when it has to maintain the facility(road,
bridgeabutment, embankment, etc.).
2.3 GENERAL USES OF GEOSYNTHETICS
Four of the most common general uses of geosynthetics for local agencies are:
1. Separation
One of the most common uses of geosynthetics is to use a geotextile to provide separation of
two layers with different soil properties. Separation is the placement of a flexible
geosynthetic material, like a porous geotextile, between dissimilar materials so that the
integrity and functioning of both the materials can remain undisturbed or even
improved. Using a road as an example, the separator will prevent the aggregate base course
from sinking into weaker subgrade material (aggregate loss) and preventing fine material in
the subgrade from pumping up into the aggregate base course (pumping). If aggregate loss
or pumping occurs, the strength of the pavement can be drastically reduced as shown in Plate
1 below which shows the reduced effective thickness of the aggregate base course.

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a) Aggregate Loss due to lack of separation b) Separator prevents Aggregate
Loss
Plate 1 - Geosynthetic Separator preventing Aggregate Loss (Kercher et.al)
2. Filtration
In this type of application, the geosynthetic acts as a filter by preventing material from washing
out while allowing the water to flow through. The most common uses of this application are:
geotextiles which wrap around an edge drain (see Plate2), geotextiles placed under erosion
control devices, and geotextiles used behind structures such as retaining walls.
Plate 2 - Edge Drain wrapped with Geotextile (Kercher, et. al)

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3. Drainage
Although filtering applications are commonly referred to as drainage applications, they are
different. Drainage applications refer to situations where the water flows within the plane of the
geosynthetic product (in-plane drainage). In filtration applications, the water flows across the
plane of the material.
Although certain types of geotextiles provide some in-plane drainage, most drainage situations
require a geo-composite drainage product such as prefabricated sheet drains that provide a much
greater drainage capacity.
4. Reinforcement
In this application, the structural stability of the soil is greatly improved by the tensile strength of
the geosynthetic material. This concept is similar to that of reinforcing concrete with
steel. Since concrete is weak in tension, reinforcing steel is used to strengthen it. Geosynthetic
materials function in a similar manner as the reinforcing steel by providing tensile strength that
helps to hold the soil in place. Reinforcement provided by geotextiles or geogrids allows
embankments and roads to be built over very weak soils and allows for steeper embankments to
be built.
Plate 3 Soil Reinforcement of an Embankment using a Geosynthetic (Kercher et.al)

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Plate 4 Earth Reinforced Retaining Wall using a Geosynthetic (Kercher et.al)
5. Barrier (Containment or Sealing)
The barrier or containment function involves the use of an impervious geosynthetic for situations
where structures require a water-proofing membrane, or to function as a no-leak ground lining
for liquid and solid waste disposal sites and the top capping seal. This function is best performed
by a geomembrane. A non-woven geotextile performs this function when impregnated with
asphalt or other polymeric mixes rendering it relatively impermeable to both cross-plane and in-
plane flow. The classic application of geotextile as a liquid barrier is paved road rehabilitation.
Here, the nonwoven geotextile is placed on the existing pavement surface following the
application of an asphalt tack cloth. The geotextile absorbs asphalt to become a waterproofing
membrane minimizing vertical flow of water into the pavement structures. Other appropriate
geosynthetics are geosynthetic clay liners and certain geocomposites.
6. Protection
The protection function relates to including a protective geosynthetic for strength or
resistance to surrounding conditions as part of a geocomposite in a situation where the material
used to provide a major function, for example, drainage, is vulnerable to conditions present in the
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surrounding environment. Some geosynthetic and natural barriers need to be protected against
drainage.
7. Erosion control
The erosion control function is concerned with the geosynthetics to hold surfaces in place and
prevent erosion. Some geosynthetics permit protective vegetation to grow through the fabric so
that a natural (rooted) resistance to erosion develops. The geosynthetic may be designed to
gradually decompose or degrade.

2.4 PRIMARY FUNCTIONS SUITED TO THE GEOSYNTHETIC SUBGROUPS
The primary functions performed by geosynthetics are separation, filtration, drainage,
reinforcement, provision of a fluid barrier, and environmental protection and erosion control, as
detailed above. Geosynthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a
slightly different end use. The function in view for each end use will determine the appropriate
type of geosynthetic to be employed. The primary functions most suited to the various
geosynthetic subgroups are as follows:
i. Geotextiles: The geotextiles have found widespread use in diverse areas of application.
Geotextiles can generally be used for any function, as long as the proper synthetic and
composition are selected. The fabric always performs at least one of the five discrete functions of
separation, reinforcement, filtration, drainage and erosion control.
In separation, they can be used at the boundary between different soil materials to maintain a
separation (hinder the penetration of fine particles into coarse grained soil under load) but still
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permits the movement and passage of water. Also, the use of thick non-woven geotextiles for
cushioning and protection of geomembranes is in this category.
Geotextiles can be used as reinforcement of embankments, slopes, retaining structures against
failure. Geotextiles with high planer permeability (ability to conduct flow within the thickness of
the fabric) can be used for the drainage function by collecting and transporting of water in the
plain of the drainage layer. They can be used in foundation drains and under-drains etc.
For filtration, geotextiles are used to allow the passage of water and protect the soil structure
subjected to hydrodynamic forces. Geotextiles can be used in the protection of surface against
erosion.
ii. Geogrids: The geogrids function almost exclusively as a reinforcement material.
However, they can also be used in some special cases of separation.
iii. Geonets: The geonets are exclusively used for the drainage function and for erosion
control.
iv. Geomembranes: These find application primarily within the containment or barrier
function and within the drainage function. Geomembranes are usually impermeable or with low
permeability. They are therefore used for containment or barrier function as protective liners and
covers. They may be used as buried or exposed linings to prevent seepage or infiltration into
reservoir and impounding areas. Movement of water through an earth dike can be prevented by
installing a geomembrane lining on the dikes upstream side. Seepage beneath a dam can be
reduced by placing an impervious geomembrane to act as an upstream blanket. Geomembranes
are also used to prevent groundwater contamination below solid waste landfills.
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Geomembranes with high planer permeability (ability to conduct flow within the thickness of the
fabric) can be used for the drainage function.
v. Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCL): Being rolls of thinly layered bentonite clay
sandwiched between two geotextiles or bonded to a geomembrane, these products are used as a
composite component beneath a geomembrane or by themselves as primary or secondary liners
(to fulfil the containment or barrier function).
vi. Geopipes: This function is clearly drainage. Buried plastic pipes (geopipes) are being
used in all aspects of geotechnical, transportation and environmental engineering. They are all
the more important because of the critical nature of leachate collection pipes coupled with high
compressive loads.
vii. Geofoams: Geofoams are mainly used as lightweight fill on soft ground. It can
effectively relieve lateral pressure on walls. This application area can be classed under the
separation function.
viii. Geocells: Also known as cellular confinement systems, these find application in the
reinforcement function. They are traditionally used in slope protection and earth retention
applications, while geocells made from advanced polymers are being increasingly adopted for
long-term load support.
ix. Drainage/Infiltration Cells: These find application also within the reinforcement
function. Implementation and application can range from roof garden, hydrostatic pressure relief
for retaining walls, increased catchment area and efficiency for storm water harvesting, among
others.
x. Geocomposites: The geocomposites, being a combination form an exciting area which
brings out the best creative efforts of the engineer. The application areas are numerous and
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growing steadily and they encompass the entire range of functions for geosynthetics: separation,
reinforcement, filtration, drainage and liquid barrier.
Summarizing all the above functionalities of the above explained subgroups of
geosynthetic materials in Table 1 we have:
Table 2.4 Identification of the Usual Primary Function for Each Type of Geosynthetic
(Wikipedia, 2011)
Type of Geosynthetic (GS) Separation Reinforcement Filtration Drainage Containment
Geotextile (GT) X X X X

Geogrid (GG)

X

Geonet (GN)

X

Geomembrane (GM)

X
Geosynthetic Clay Liner
(GCL)
X
Geopipe (GP)

X

Geofoam (GF) X

Geocells (GL)

X

X

Drainage cell (DC)

X X X

Geocomposite (GC) X X X X X

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2.5 APPLICATIONS OF THE GEOSYNTHETIC SUBGROUPS IN
INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
The functions of the geosynthetics subgroups, in conjunction with the advantages they offer,
have made them suitable for a wide range of applications and have caused them to be vastly used
in many, if not all, areas of infrastructure development. The products have been and are currently
being used in many civil, geotechnical, transportation, geoenvironmental, hydraulic and private
development applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments, retaining structures,
reservoirs, canals, dams, erosion control, sediment control, landfill liners, landfill covers, mining,
aquaculture and agriculture. (Wikipedia, 2011)
Within each of the areas mentioned above, geosynthetics have found multiple applications. For
example, geosynthetics have been and continue to be used in all facets of the transportation
industry, including roadways, airports, railroads and waterways. It is expected that in the near
future geosynthetics will be the first choice for all drainage, filtration, and separation designs
(except where soil mass is required to aid stability or to provide volume for other necessary
functions such as aerobic and anaerobic decompositions).
It will be almost impossible to mention all the areas of application of geosynthetics in
infrastructure development, since these are areas run into hundreds in number (Wikipedia 2011).
However, a few of these areas of application of geosynthetics in infrastructure development will
be mentioned here (Meccai and Hassan, 2004; Joint Departments of U.S Army and Airforce,
1995; Guyer, 2009; Geosynthetics Materials Association, 2010; Wikipedia, 2011).

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2.5.1 Geosynthetics in Transportation Engineering
Geofoam has found application in transportation as super lightweight fill, with its density of 24
to 48 kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3), compared to densities of other lightweight materials
ranging from 800 to 1120 kg.m3. Geofoams lightweight makes it viable option for landslide
repair, and for embankments on soft, compressible deposits. Geofoam is also used for thermal
insulation of pavements and foundations. Geogrids have been used for soil reinforcements in
embankments and walls, subgrade stabilization, and embankment base reinforcement. Geogrids
are characterized by integrally connected elements with in-plane apertures (openings) uniformly
distributed between the elements. The apertures allow the soil to fill the space between the
elements, thereby increasing soil interaction with the geogrid and ensuring unrestricted vertical
drainage. All these applications are not only in highway, but also in railroad track construction
and rehabilitation.
2.5.2 Geosynthetics in Pavement Structures
Applications of geosynthetics within pavement structures have been primarily in the areas listed
below:
a) Pavement surface layer reinforcement (asphalt concrete overlays of existing asphalt
concrete and Portland cement concrete surfaces)
b) Rehabilitation of pavement surfaces, reflective crack treatments, spot repairs, etc
c) Geotechnical reinforcement of unbound (flexible) bases, soft subgrade, embankments
on soft foundations etc.
d) Encapsulation and separation of materials
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e) Drainage applications, water control, granular drain performance (filters), piping
resistance, clogging prevention etc,
f) Moisture control.
2.5.3 Geosynthetics in Drains
Geomembranes (suitable for the barrier function) have been successfully used as the
waterproofing element in embankment dams (Cazzuffi, 1987), to rehabilitate old concrete and
masonry dams in order to reduce leakage phenomena that typically appear on these structures
after 30 to 40 years of operation, depending on the accuracy of construction and on conditions of
the damsite (Cazzuffi, 2000). Geosynthetics have also been used as chimney drains, filters
between fine-grained cores and shells of earthfill and rockfiil dams, as drains, as filters between
the foundation of the dam for stability, as protection for the upstream slope facings of the dams,
and as erosion control features on the downstream slope facings
2.5.4 Geosynthetics in Coastal defence installations
Geosynthetics have also found application in coastal defence installations. According to the
Industrial Fabrics Association (2009), geosynthetic technologies have emerged as a major tool in
the battle against shoreline erosion. The Geotube system involves filling a very large tubular
textile containers with local sand and sludge to hold unstable banks in place. Shoreline
stabilization frequently is accomplished with membranes covered by concrete or stone geotube
eliminate the need to transport those materials. In addition, over time the water will gradually
wash away the geotube contents, returning the shoreline to its original ecosystem. This has been
applied in Nigeria. In Nigeria, the Niger Rivers bank and delta are eroding, crumbling houses
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and whole villages into the water. The Niger Delta Development Commission plans to install
scour aprons on the riverbed to prevent it being worn away, use geotubes to hold the aprons in
place.
2.5.5 Geosynthetics in Earth Retention and Slope Stability
Geosynthetics (geocells) have been employed to protect slopes against erosion, stabilize steep
slope surfaces, provide protective linings for channels, support heavy construction traffic on the
weak subgrade soils, and provide multi-layered earth-retaining structures. Geocells are typically
constructed of high-density polyethylene. The cells in the three-dimensional panels are opened
and filled with granular material, which adds weight to make the multi-layer system act as a
gravity retaining wall. Geogrids are also mainly used for reinforcement applications such as
reinforced vertical walls and steep slopes as well as reinforced foundations. Geotextiles can
improve soil strength at a lower cost than conventional soil nailing. In addition, geotextiles allow
planting on steep slopes, further securing the slope.
2.5.6 Geosynthetics in Landfills
Geomembranes serve as hydraulic barriers and have been used in conjunction with geonets in
landfill applications. They have also been used for containment of spills, leaking underground
storage tanks, or hazardous materials. Safe venting of toxic gases is also made possible through
geosynthetics (geonets) with in-plane porosity. Geopipes are used fordrainage of liquids or
gas(including leachate or gas collection in landfill applications). In some cases, the perforated
pipe is wrapped with a geotextile filter.

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2.5.7 Geosynthetics in Water and Liquid Containment Applications
Geomembranes, as well as geosynthetic clay liners (when hydrated), are relatively impermeable
and are used as liners for fluid or gas containment and as vapour barriers. They are used in the
area of potable wastewater treatment, golf and decorative ponds, aquaculture ponds, floating
covers, etc.
2.5.8 Geosynthetics in Drainage Systems
Geocomposites are designed to replace aggregate and or perforated pipe subsurface drainage
systems. A geocomposite consists of a deformed, perforated, or slotted plastic core and a
geotextile (filter) fabric wrap. Geocomposites include geonets, pavement edge drains (drain
mats), and sheet (wall) drains. Wick drains used to expedite drainage of deep, compressible soil
deposits, have also been included in the geocomposite category.
2.5.9 Geosynthetics in Erosion and Sediment Control
Geosynthetics (perforated geopipes) have been placed in drainage channels to collect storm
water, while geonets have been used to line these same channels to permit the growth of
vegetation through them whereby the erosion of the drainage channel is curtailed. Geosynthetics
have also been used for sediment control.

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2.6 EFFECTIVENESS IN REDUCING THE COST OF INFRASTRUCTURE
Geosynthetics can be a better and cost effective alternative to other materials in
infrastructure development but continue to be underutilized, perhaps due to ignorance of
unfamiliarity of civil engineering practitioners with them. The following points merely give
illustrations of how the usage of geosynthetics can contribute immensely to the reduction of
infrastructure if adequately utilized in the vast areas of application across the spectrum of
national development.
The use of geosynthetics permit the usage of local soil materials (though weak), rather
than imported quarry product (which would be costlier), in the place of construction.
Their advantage of rapid installation techniques lead to reduced periods of construction
and therefore, reduced construction costs.
The light weight of geosynthetics, in comparison with other construction materials,
makes them impose less stress upon the foundation, and therefore, less damage over time.
Their durability and long-life preclude shorter design life spans of projects and the need
for rehabilitation and major maintenance operations.
Geosynthetics are generally very cheap and more cost effective than other materials (for
example, when used to fulfil the reinforcement function).
Geosynthetics provide easy and cost effective way out of difficult situations being usable
when other materials are unusable. For example, geogrids may be used as a substitute in
lieu of lime in sulphate laden soils where lime is detrimental or urban areas where lime
may not be tolerated or combinations of these and soft soils.
26

Geotextiles extend the service life of roads. Increase their load carrying capacity, and
reduce rutting (Meccai and Al-Hasan, 2004). These are achieved through the stabilization
and separation functions. When used in pavement applications, geosynthetics help to
restrain base material during compaction or loading; they also serve as a separation layer
to prevent excess migration and intermingling of pavement layers at interfaces. In
pavement overlays, geotextiles provide the added advantages of resisting moisture
intrusion into lower pavement layers, thereby maintaining high material strengths,
retarding reflective cracking in the overlay from existing layers of hot-mix asphalt
concrete or from cracks and joints in rigid pavement by acting as a stress absorbing
membrane interlayer, and increasing the structural stability by providing for more stable
subgrade moisture contents.
When used to fulfil the filtration process in roads, geotextiles have significant advantages
(Meccai and Hasan, 2004). The removal of water is important to the success of many
civil engineering problems. In transportation applications, if the base course does not
drain rapidly enough, stress form the traffic loading is transferred to the subgrade with
little or no reduction, resulting in accelerated road failure. The removal of water must be
performed in a controlled fashion. Otherwise, severe erosion, piping, settlement of soils
may result in undermining adjacent structures. To accomplish this task, the drainage
system should fulfil two criteria: maintenance if the permeability (by providing relatively
unimpeded flow of water), and filtration of the base soil (by preventing the migration of
the soil fines into the drain). These criteria can be met by using several layers of specially
graded aggregates. This often proves to be an extremely expensive requirement to meet.
The same result can be achieved at a fraction of the cost by using selected geotextiles,
27

which act as filters around the aggregate drainage system. The introduction of geotextile
lined drained systems has enhanced the technical properties and economic application of
blanket and trench drains under and adjacent to pavement structures. The excellent
filtration and separation characteristics associated with geotextiles permit the use of a
single layer of open graded aggregate base or trench aggregate enveloped in a geotextile.
Thus, when geosynthetics are used within pavement structures for drainage and moisture
control, they enhance the pavement structure and lengthen its performance by reducing
the influence moisture has on the pavement materials.
When used for soil walls, some advantages of geotextile-reinforced walls over
conventional concrete walls are the following:
(a) They are economical.
(b) Construction usually is easy and rapid. It does not require skilled labour or
specialized equipment. Many of the components are prefabricated allowing
relatively quick construction.
(c) Regardless of the height or length of the wall, support of the structure is not
required during construction as for conventional retaining walls.
(d) They are relatively flexible and can tolerate large lateral deformations and
large differential vertical settlements. The flexibility of geotextile-reinforced walls
allows the use of a lower factor of safety for bearing capacity design than for
conventional more rigid structures (Joint Departments of the U.S Army and Air
Force, 1995).
28

When geosynthetics are used to form embankments under roads, the near-vertical side
slopes obtained greatly reduce the width of the embankments base, thereby reducing the
extent of the road right-of-way and the consequent land acquisition costs. Moreover,
erosion of the slope surfaces is prevented, resulting in more stable pavement structures
and less maintenance costs.



29

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 INTRODUCTION
The designed methodology is based on previous years of research and experience in geotextile
filtration design. The approach presents a logical progression through four steps.
Step 1: Defining the Application Filter Requirements
Step 2: Defining Boundary Conditions
Step 3: Determining the Soil Retention Requirements

Geotextile filters are used between the soil and drainage or armoring medium. Typical drainage
media include natural materials such as gravel and sand, as well as geosynthetic materials such
as geonets and cuspated drainage cores. Armoring material is often riprap or concrete blocks.
Often, an armoring system includes a sand bedding layer beneath the surface armor. The
armoring system can be considered to act as a drain for water seeping from the protected slope.

3.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION
The materials that were used for this investigation are clayey, organic and lateritic soils. For the
laboratory tests, three soil samples were collected. Organic soil and clayey soil were gotten from
Apatapiti layout, Akure and Laterite gotten from Akure-Lagos Expressway opposite FUTA
North Gate. The materials were gotten in polythene to prevent loss of moisture to the
atmosphere. Analysis was carried out in order to ascertain the physical and engineering
properties of the samples.
30


3.2 LABORATORY TEST
Tests implemented or performed on natural clayey, organic and lateritic soils collected for this
project include particle size distribution, grain size analysis, moisture content, Atterberg limits
and California Bearing ratio tests (CBR) in order to assess their geotechnical properties

3.2.1 Soil Particle-Size Distribution
The natural soil samples were crushed respectively and 500grams of each sample was measured.
The sieves were arranged in decreasing order of hole size and the soil samples retained on each
sieve was weighed to determine the individual weight.
Thereafter, the soil was placed in an array of sieves in the manual shaker and shaken for
15minutes. The sieves were then weighed independently along with the soil retained. The
percentage retained in each sieve was determined after which the distribution curves were
plotted.
The particle-size distribution of the soil to be protected should be determined using test method
ASTM D 422. The grain size distribution curve is used to determine parameters necessary for the
selection of numerical retention criteria.

3.2.2 Soil Atterberg Limits
The test was carried out on natural soil samples in order to classify into standard groups and
these limits include: liquid, plastic and shrinkage limits. Some useful information obtained from
knowledge of these limits are:
1. It enables to identify and classify the soil.
31

2. Shear strength of soil can be inferred from these properties.
3. Results of the liquid limit can be useful in assessment of the settlement of soil.
For fine-grained soils, the plasticity index (PI) should be determined using the Atterberg
Limits test procedure BS 1377-2.

(i) Liquid limit
The liquid limit of a soil is defined as the moisture content of which the soil passes from
plastic to liquid state as determined in accordance with the standard procedure, BS 1371,
London, 1961.
This procedure consists of a portion of air-dried soil, which was pulverized in order to make
it pass through sieve 425um. 250grams of the soil passing was mixed with water to form a
thick, homogenous paste. The paste was placed in a casagrande cup and levelled parallel to
the base of the cup. The paste was divided into two halves using the grooving tool and blows
were given to the paste till it closed in. small samples of the paste were collected into
containers and oven-dried for 24hrs. Other pastes were collected by varying the moisture
content of the paste for the three samples.
The relationship between moisture content and the number of blows were plotted and the best
straight line between these points was drawn. The moisture content corresponding to
25blows on the graph was taken as the liquid limit.

32


(ii) Plastic limit
The plastic limit of a soil is defined as the moisture content at which the soil becomes too dry
to be in the plastic condition or the minimum water content at which a soil can be rolled into
threads of 3mm diameter between the palm of the hand. The soil thread at plastic limit
crumbles under the rolling action. At this stage, moisture was added again and the average
value of the moisture content was taken as the plastic limit of the soil.
The numerical value between the liquid and the plastic limits of the soil is known as the
plasticity index. This is a measure of how much water a soil can absorb before dissolving
into a solution. The higher the value, the more plastic and weak the material is. Plastic soil
containing clay has PI of 10 to 50 or more.

(iii) Shrinkage limit
Shrinkage due to drying is significant in clays, but less in silt and sands. These tests enable
the shrinkage limit of clay to be determined i.e the moisture content below which clay ceases
to shrink. They also quantify the amount of shrinkage likely to be experienced by soils in
terms of the shrinkage ratio, volumetric shrinkage and linear shrinkage.


3.2.3 Specific gravity
Natural soils for the three samples were collected and oven-dried and the natural moisture was
determined. Three specific gravity bottles were weighed empty and the bottles were filled with
water and reweighed. 50grams of the soil samples to be used were also weighed and poured
33

inside the bottles. Distilled water was poured inside the three specimens. The particles inside the
water was stirred and left to settle for about 15minutes to get rid of the air bubbles. On settling,
more water was added to the brim of the bottle and it was covered with the lid. The outer part of
the bottles were dried and weighed. The sample was reweighed after 24hours and the values of
their respective specific gravities were determined.

3.2.4 Proctor compaction test
In the standard proctor test, 3000g of the sample was oven-dried. Proctor mould was set and
clamped. The soil was poured in a tray and 8% of water was added to it. It was properly mixed
with the hand and placed in the mould in three layers with 25 blows given to each layer with a
2.5kg rammer. The extension collar of the mould was removed and the excess specimen in the
mould was levelled with the edge of the mould and the specimen was weighed.
The specimen was removed from the mould and part of it was removed from the top and bottom
with the spatula and the moisture content was determined. 10%, 12%, 14% of water was
subsequently added to the sample and equally compacted and weighed. The amount of water
added increased arithmetically till there was a reduction in the weight of the mould and the
sample.

3.2.5 Determination of the Maximum Allowable Geotextile Opening Size
The last step in determining soil retention requirements is evaluating the maximum allowable
opening size (O95) of the geotextile which will provide adequate soil retention. The O95 is also
known as the geotextiles Apparent Opening Size (AOS) and is determined from test procedure
ASTM D 4751. AOS can often be obtained from manufacturers literature.
34


3.2.6 Determination of the Moisture Content of the Soil
Test procedure used was BS 812-109 1990 Part 109: Methods for determination of moisture
content. About 15g of the in-situ soil was placed in a can and weighed. It was then placed in an
oven to remove the moisture. The cans were re-weighed after 24hours and the moisture content
was determined.

3.2.7 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
Test procedure was according to BS 1377-4: Soils for civil engineering purposes: Part 4:
Compaction related tests. Includes:- the California bearing ratio, and the various methods of
determining the dry density, moisture content relationship of soil. 3kg of oven-dried sample was
thoroughly mixed with an appropriate amount of water and placed in a mould. The extension
collar and base plate was fixed. The soil in the mould was compacted in 3 equal layers, each
layer compacted with 25blows of the 2.5kg rammer. The collar was removed and the soil was
trimmed off. The base plate and displacer disc was removed and the mould was weighed with the
compacted soil.
The penetration piston was placed at the centre of the specimen with the smallest possible load
so that full contact between the piston and the sample was established. The strain and stress dial
gauge was set to zero and load was applied on the piston and records were taken after every
30secs. The maximum load corresponding to the penetration was determined when there was no
increase in the value of the dial reading. The mould was detached and about 15g was taken from
the top to determine the moisture content.

35

3.3 PAVEMENT MODELING
In modeling for the pavement, four (4) wooden moulds were constructed, three to contain
the different soil layers and the geosynthetic material and the last one without geotextile. The
mould had dimensions length = 40cm, breadth = 20cm and height = 50cm to accommodate for
the height of the three sections of the pavement which are the base-course, sub-base and sub-
grade all 150mm in height with a camber of 4 percent for drainage.
In compaction of the sub-grades, the moulds were marked with the respective dimensions
and consideration was given to the camber and with the aid of a rammer, it was compacted with
several blows. The compacted soils were left to consolidate for a week and then the geotextile
was laid on the surface on the sub-grade.
The sandcrete which is the sub-base had a mix ratio of 3:1. 3 head-pans of stone dust to 1 head-
pan of cement was thoroughly mixed without the presence of water and placed in the mould and
compacted then sprinkled with water for 7 days to cure and to attain maximum strength.
Finally, the granite chippings used for the base course was placed and compacted also with the
ramming rod with the camber still maintained.
The side of the mould with the lower slope was removed. The moisture content of the sub-grade
was determined to check the effectiveness of the geotextile placed between the soil layers.

36

40CM
20CM
50CM

15CM
SUB-BASE
15CM
SUBGRADE
15CM
BASE COURSE
GEOTEXTILE
Plate 5 Mould showing dimensions of the various cross sections
37

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
For the purpose of identification, classification and determination of engineering characteristics
of the materials used, the laboratory tests were performed on the three samples collected. After
which the samples were used as test sub-grades in the pavement model.
4.0 PARTICLE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION
This test was performed on the natural soils and the results are shown in the appendix. They
were used for the classification of the samples.


Figure 1: Particle size distribution graph for Sample A
38

Figure 2: Particle Size distribution graph for Sample B
Figure 3: Particle Size distribution for Sample C
According to the AASHTO classification, Sample A as shown above ranges between fine sand
and fine gravel, it is therefore an A-2-7 soil (Silty or clayey gravel sand), while Sample B ranges
39

between the sand and gravel sizes. The material is gravelly sand with 1.84% clay fractions, it is
classified as A-2-4. Sample C which ranges from clay to fine sands is A-6 soil (Clayey soil)
4.1 ATTERBERG LIMIT TEST
The Atterberg Limit test was performed on the soil samples. The result for each soil samples are
shown in appendix II. The results show that Sample A has a liquid limit 35.5%, plastic limit
17.9% and plasticity index 17.6%, Sample B has a liquid limit of 38.7%, and plastic limit of
23.4% with plasticity index 15.3% and Sample C has a liquid limit 60.22%, plastic limit 25.9%
and plasticity index 34.32%. The graphs of the liquid limit for the respective soil samples are
plotted in appendix II.
When liquid limit falls between this category below:
L.L < 35 = (L) Low Plasticity
L.L = (35-40) = (I) Intermediate Plasticity
L.L = (50-70) = (H) High Plasticity
This implies that Sample A has intermediate plasticity, Sample B has low plasticity and Sample
C has high plasticity.
4.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST
The specific gravity of a soil is the ratio of a certain volume of the material the weight of an
equal volume of water. This is not suitable for soil containing more than 10% stones retained in
the 37.5mm BS test sieve and such should be broken down to less than this size.
40

The result of the specific gravity test performed on the three samples A, B and C were found to
be 2.82, 1.79 and 2.56 respectively.
Table 4.2: Showing SG values of the soil samples
Soil Samples Sample A Sample B Sample C
Weight of empty glass + Lid W1 (g) 267.1 267.1 267.1
Weight of empty glass + Lid+ water
(g)W4
591.8 591.8 591.8
Weight of empty glass + Lid+ 50g
Soil sample (g) W2
317.1 317.1 317.1
Weight of empty glass + Lid+ water
+ 50g Soil sample (after 24hrs) (g)
W3
624.06 613.9 622.27
Specific Gravity
(W2-W1)
(W2-W1) - (W3-W4)
2.82 1.79 2.56

4.3 MOISTURE CONTENT
Table 4.3: Showing natural moisture content of soil samples
Samples Sample A
Sample B Sample C
M
1
= mass of empty clean
can (g)
29.7
30 29.3
M
2
= mass of can and moist
soil (g)
95.1
94.3 90.1
41

M
3
= mass of can and dry soil
(g)
74.3
82.7 75.02
W = moisture content 0.28
0.22 0.201
W
0
= aggregate moisture
content (%)
28
22 20.1

4.4 COMPACTION TEST
This test was performed on the natural soil samples to specify suitable moisture content for field
compaction. The laboratory results are shown in appendix III with the graphs showing the
relationship between dry density and moisture content for the soil samples. Sample A has a
maximum dry density (MDD) of 1680mg/m
3
and optimum moisture content (OMC) of 23%,
Sample B has MDD of 1525 mg/m
3
and OMC of 32.7% and Sample C has MDD 1452 mg/m
3

and OMC of 31.3%.
4.5 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO
This test was performed on the samples to readily know the true behaviour of the soil and the soil
resistance to shear. The results are shown in appendix III with graphs showing the relationship
between the dry densities and moisture content.
SAMPLES
2.5 mm CBR Penetration Values 5.0 mm CBR Penetration Values
TOP BOTTOM TOP BOTTOM
SAMPLE A 7.6% 4.2% 8.5% 4.6%
SAMPLE B 6.04% 4.5% 6% 5.26%
SAMPLE C 13.62% 15.095% 15.12% 16.29%

42

The low CBR values exhibited by the samples A & B indicates that the sub-grade had a weak
bearing strength and is susceptible to erosion on exposure to precipitation or surface runoff,
thereby encouraging and exacerbating rutting and deformation of pavement.
4.6 PAVEMENT MODEL TEST
After allowing the model to properly compact, each model was tested by leaving them in the
open and letting normal weather conditions such as sunshine and rainfall act on them and then
the moisture content of the sub-grade were taken. Below are the average moisture content for
samples.
4.6.1 DRAINAGE TEST: this test was performed by taking the moisture content of the
varying sample sub-grades. It was observed that the soil without the geotextile had the higher
moisture content after exposure to natural weather conditions

Plate 6 Side view of the pavement models, the 1st on the left without geotextile and the rest with
geotextile incorporated
43

Table 4.6: Showing the moisture content of the soil sample used as sub-grades with and
without geotextile.

4.6.2 SEPARATION TEST: this test to shows that the geotextile material ensures proper
separation of layers in the road section as shown in the plates below.
Plate 7 Proper Separation of sub-grade from the sub-base

Samples
Weight
of can
Weight of can +
wet sample(g)
Weight of can
+ dry
sample(g)
Weight
of wet
sample(g)
Weight of
dry soil(g)
Wt of
moisture(g)
Moisture
content
%
Sample A +
Geotextile layer
29.3 56.2 50.7 24.9 21.4 3.5 25.7
Sample B +
Geotextile
29.7 68.7 62.1 39 32.4 6.6 20.4
Sample C +
Geotextile
29.4 46.7 44 17.3 14.6 2.7 18.5
Sample A without
Geotextile
30 47.5 43.4 17.5 13.4 4.1 30.6

44




Plate 7 shows a proper separation between the subgrade and the sub-base. This helps to prevent
the poor subgrade from pumping up into the aggregate base course and it also prevents the
aggregate base course from sinking into or mixing with the weaker subgrade material. Plate 8 on
the other hand shows an improper separation between the subgrade and the sub-base. From the
plate, it is evident that the sub-base has sunk into the subgrade.
Plate 8 Merging - Improper Separation of sub-grade from the sub-base
45


CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.0 CONCLUSION
From the above analysis taken on both soil sample and material it is of economic benefit to
introduce the use of geotextiles in road construction as it reduces the act of borrowing to fill
when the in-situ soil can easily be enhanced by use of geosynthetics.
Geotextiles are effective tools in the hands of the civil engineer that have proved to solve a
myriad of geotechnical problems. With the availability of variety of products with differing
characteristics, the design engineer needs to be aware of not only the application possibilities but
also more specifically the reason why he is using the geotextile and the governing geotextile
functional properties to satisfy these functions. Design and selection of geotextiles based on
sound engineering principles will serve the long-term interest of both the user and the industry.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
This project has been able to show the beneficial functions of geotextiles in road construction as
sampled on the various soil types. From results gotten it is quite economical to introduce the use
of geosynthetics as a whole into the Engineering industry. The material should be used also in
effective separation of subgrade and sub-base courses in road construction and other engineering
constructions.

46

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