Keir - Thesis Seismicity of The Northern Ethiopian Rift

i
Strain Accommodation by Magmatism and Faulting as Rifting

Proceeds to Breakup: Seismicity of the Northern Ethiopian Rift

Derek Keir

Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Ph.D.
Royal Holloway University of London
Department of Geology
March 2006

The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit
has been given where reference has been made to the work of others

ii
Acknowledgements

The help and support of many people made this research possible. I first thank my supervisors
Cindy Ebinger, Graham Stuart and advisor Dave Waltham for giving me the opportunity to
participate in the unique EAGLE project. Cindys energy, enthusiasm and interest in my
research encouraged me throughout the Ph.D, and Grahams sound, practical advice helped
extract more from the EAGLE dataset than I could ever have imagined. Thanks also to Mike
Kendall and Andy Jackson who facilitated the S-wave splitting and local earthquake magnitude
scale studies. Peter Maguire and all participants of the EAGLE project provided useful
suggestions and ideas for my research.

I am much indebted to Alex Brisbourne at SEIS-UK in Leicester for his clear and concise
training in field deployment and data pre-processing procedures.

Six months of my Ph.D. was spent in Ethiopia, where I was always made to feel welcome during
my travels. Special thanks to members of the Addis Ababa University - Drs Atalay, Laike,
Tesfaye, Dereje, Bekele, and Gezahegn, with whom it has been a pleasure to work with. The
technical staff at the Geophysical Observatory were also a great help during my stay in Addis
Ababa. The assistance offered by Ashenafi and Ewenet is also gratefully acknowledged.
Fortunately, tending to all 50 EAGLE II seismic stations by Toyota Landcruiser gave me the
great opportunity to enjoy the spectacular countryside in Ethiopia. Drivers from both Ethio-Der
and Addis Ababa University made the long journeys great fun. Ian Bastow Bastow, Dave C,
Christel Tiberi, Andy Page and Julie Rowland were fantastic to work with, both in the field, and
back home in England.

All friends and colleagues here at Royal Holloway have offered amazing support at various
stages of my research. Ellen Wolfenden and Richard Gloaguen helped get me on my feet right
at the beginning. The help from Mark and Frank with computing is also much appreciated. On a
more personal note; Nick, Jonas, Blair, Claire, Mike C, Liz, Paul, Simon and Helen, you guys
have been great. Thanks also to Eve for being a great friend for the last three years.

Finally, to my family - you have all been a source of comfort and vital support throughout.
Special thanks to Mom, you have been, and will be in my heart every day.

This research was supported by NERC grant NER/A/S/2000/01004 and NERC studentship
NER/S/A/2002/10547

iii
Abstract

The seismically and volcanically active Main Ethiopian rift (MER) marks the transition
from continental rifting in the East African rift to incipient seafloor spreading in Afar.
New seismicity data is used to investigate the distribution of strain and its relationship
with magmatism immediately prior to continental breakup. From October 2001 to
January 2003, seismicity was recorded by up to 179 broadband instruments that
covered a 250 km x 350 km area. 1957 earthquakes were located within the network, a
selection of which was used for accurate location with a 3-D velocity model, focal
mechanism determination and shear-wave splitting analyses. Border faults are inactive
except for a cluster of seismicity at the structurally complex intersection of the MER
and the older Red Sea rift, where the Red Sea rift flank is downwarped into the
younger MER. Earthquakes are localized to ~20 km-wide, right-stepping en echelon
zones of Quaternary magmatism and faulting, which are underlain by mafic intrusions
that rise to 8-10 km subsurface. Seismicity in these magmatic segments is
characterised by low magnitude swarms coincident with Quaternary faults, fissures and
chains of eruptive centres. Focal mechanisms predominantly show normal dip-slip
motion; the minimum compressive stress is N103
o
E, perpendicular to Quaternary faults
and aligned volcanic cones. The seismogenic zone lies above the 20 km-wide intrusion
zones; intrusion of magma may induce seismicity and faulting in the upper crust. S-
wave splitting from local earthquakes shows the largest amounts of upper crustal
anisotropy are in Quaternary magmatic segments; anisotropy is most likely caused by
melt-filled micro-cracks and dikes aligned perpendicular to the minimum compressive
stress. New and existing data indicate that during continental breakup, magma
intrusion beneath ~20 km-wide magmatic segments accommodates the majority of
strain and controls the locus of seismicity and faulting in the upper crust. The
observations from the MER do not support detachment fault models of lithospheric
extension but instead support a model of magma assisted rifting whereby the combined
effects of lithospheric stretching and heating by magma injection localises strain and
facilitates continental breakup.

iv
Contents

List of figures vii
List of tables viii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 Models of rifting 2
1.3 Along-axis segmentation of continental rifts and mid-ocean ridges 6
1.3.1 Segmentation of discrete continental rifts 7
1.3.2 Segmentation of slow-spreading mid-ocean ridges 9
1.4 Thesis aims and summary 11

2 Tectonic setting 13
2.1 Overview 13
2.2 Crustal and mantle structure 16
2.3 Constraints on the direction of extension 22
2.5 Previous seismicity studies 23

3 Seismic network and earthquake data 27
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 EAGLE seismic stations 27
3.2.1 EAGLE I broadband network 27
3.2.2 EAGLE II broadband network 30
3.2.3 EAGLE III broadband and short-period profiles 30
3.2.4 Permanent broadband network in Ethiopia 31
3.3 Instrumentation 31
3.4 Deployment procedure and station setup 33
3.5 Network management and data collection 35
3.6 Data quality control 36
3.7 Earthquake detection in continuous seismic data 37
3.8 Arrival time measurements 39
3.9 Hypocentre determination methods and errors in earthquake locations 41
3.10 Amplitude measurements and initial magnitude estimation 43
3.11 Summary 45
v
4 Seismicity in the northern Main Ethiopian rift 46
4.1 Introduction 46
4.2 Distribution of seismicity results 46
4.3 Discussion 52
4.3.1 Pattern of seismicity on rift border faults 52
4.3.2 Seismicity in magmatic segments 53
4.3.3 Pattern of along-axis segmentation and episodic rifting 54
4.4 Summary 55

5 Local earthquake magnitude scale and seismicity rate 56
5.1 Introduction 56
5.2 Importance of a calibrated magnitude scale for Ethiopia 56
5.3 Amplitude data 57
5.4 Methodology 60
5.5 Results 61
5.5.1 Magnitude Scale for the MER 61
5.5.2 Local magnitude values and station corrections 65
5.6 Discussion 67
5.6.1 Seismic attenuation 67
5.6.2 Magnitude statistics and annual-cumulative seismicity rate 67
5.6.3 Seismic and volcanic hazards in Ethiopia 69
5.7 Summary 69

6 Style of faulting and stress field orientation determined from earthquake 71
focal mechanisms
6.1 Introduction 71
6.2 Determination of focal mechanisms 71
6.3 Method of inverting focal mechanisms for the regional stress tensor 74
6.4 Focal mechanism results 74
6.5 Stress tensor results 79
6.6 Quaternary volcanoes and faults as strain indicators 79
6.7 Discussion 82
6.7.1 Style of faulting 82
6.7.2 Direction of extension across the MER 83
6.8 Summary 83
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7 Shear-wave splitting in crustal earthquakes 85
7.1 Introduction 85
7.2 Mechanisms for seismic anisotropy in the crust 85
7.3 Determination of shear-wave splitting parameters 86
7.4 Results of shear-wave splitting analysis 91
7.5 Discussion 91
7.5.1 Crustal anisotropy beneath the rift-axis 91
7.5.2 Crustal anisotropy beneath the Ethiopian plateau 92
7.5.3 Model of crustal anisotropy beneath the MER 93
7.6 Summary 93

8 Discussion 95
8.1 Evidence for magma-fed along-axis segmentation of the MER 95
8.2 Temporal variations of magma supply and episodic rift opening 99
8.3 Comparison with slow-spreading mid-ocean ridges 101
8.4 Implications for models of continental breakup 103

9 Conclusions 104

Appendices

A EAGLE broadband seismic stations 106

B Catalogue of earthquakes located with 1-D velocity model 110

C Publications in peer reviewed journals resulting from Ph. D. research 134

References 136

vii
List of Figures

1.1 Location of the Ethiopian rift with respect to the East African rift system. 3
1.2 Locations of EAGLE permanent broadband seismic stations in Ethiopia. 4
1.3 Conceptual models for extension of continental lithosphere. 6
2.1 Zones of Quaternary faulting and magmatism in the Ethiopian rift. 14
2.2 Structural map of the northern Ethiopian rift. 15
2.3 Schematic cross section of the MER. 16
2.4 Horizontal slice of controlled source tomographic model of the MER. 17
2.5 Profile of topography, Bouguer gravity anomaly, and crustal thickness. 18
2.6 2-D model of resistivity structure across the MER. 19
2.7 P-wave velocity models of the EAGLE controlled source experiment. 20
2.8 Depth slice at 75km of a mantle tomographic model beneath Ethiopia. 21
2.9 SKS splitting results in the MER. 22
2.10 3.2 My - present and current plate motions with respect to the Nubian plate. 24
2.11 Seismic activity of the Horn of Africa since 1960. 25
3.1 Locations of EAGLE broadband stations used for earthquake locations. 28
3.2 Locations of EAGLE III short period, single component texan instruments. 29
3.3 EAGLE II CMG-6TD station equipment and construction. 34
3.4 Example of GPS data from station E69 plotted for data quality control. 36
3.5 Example of seismometer Z, E and N mass positions. 37
3.6 Distribution of EAGLE I stations used for earthquake detection. 39
3.7 Example of vertical component recordings of an earthquake in the MER. 40
3.8 Examples of P-wave recordings for various arrival time quality factors. 41
3.9 Minimum 1-D P wave velocity model and Wadati digrams. 43
3.10 Example of processing required for measurement of earthquake amplitude. 44
4.1 Seismicity of the MER from October 2001 to January 2003. 47
4.2 Seismicity located near Quaternary eruptive volcanic centres near Fentale. 48
4.3 Earthquake locations determined using the 3-D P-wave velocity model. 49
4.4 Histograms of earthquakes depths. 50
4.5 Variations of earthquake frequency in sub-areas of the MER. 51
5.1 Distance / magnitude distribution of the earthquake data from the MER. 58
5.2 Distribution of earthquakes and seismic stations (Oct 01 - Jan 03). 59
5.3 Attenuation curves from the literature and new data from the MER. 62

viii
5.4 Magnitude estimated at varying hypocentral distances in the MER. 63
5.5 Variation in magnitude residuals with hypocentral distance. 64
5.6 Spatial variation of station factors in the MER. 65
5.7 Magnitude residuals / hypocentral distance distributions. 66
5.8 Magnitude-frequency, and Gutenburg-Richter distributions for the MER. 68
6.1 Example of a well constrained strike-slip focal mechanism from the MER. 72
6.2 Example of a well constrained normal-slip focal mechanism from the MER. 73
6.3 Selection of focal mechanisms from the MER. 76
6.4 Structural map of the MER with earthquake focal mechanisms. 77
6.5 Orientation of T-axes, slip-planes, and stress axes. 78
6.6 Structural map of the MER showing areas enclosed within Figs. 6.7; 6.8. 80
6.7 Landsat TM image and structural interpretation from Boset-Kone rift segment. 80
6.8 Aster 15m resolution imagery showing the Dofen volcanic edifice. 81
6.9 Orientations of Quaternary faults in two rift segment on the MER. 82
7.1 Examples of shear-wave splitting at EAGLE stations. 87
7.2 Crustal anisotropy measurements at 18 broadband stations in Ethiopia. 89
7.3 Along- and across-axis variations of anisotropy in the MER. 90
8.1 Cartoon sketch of the crustal structure of the MER. 97
8.2 Cartoon sketch of lithospheric structure beneath the MER. 99

List of Tables

3.1 The authors fieldwork timetable. 35
6.1 Earthquake source parameters determined from EAGLE data. 75
6.2 Earthquake source parameters determined in other studies. 76
7.1 Shear-wave splitting measurements. 88

Chapter 1 - Introduction
1
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Overview

Some continental rifts undergo sufficient stretching and strain localisation to rupture the
rigid 150-250 km thick continental lithosphere, leading to production of new oceanic
lithosphere as a mid-ocean ridge (e.g. Ebinger 2005). Models of continental breakup
that assume purely mechanical stretching of the lithosphere predict strain localization
along pre-existing or new shear zones that may accommodate large displacements
(e.g., Lister et al., 1986; Dunbar and Sawyer, 1989). Alternative models of continental
breakup include the influence of magmatism (e.g. Buck 2004). Such models predict
extensional strain accommodation by injection of magma, with small offset faults above
the zone of dyking. Despite the fundamental importance of the processes that control
how continents split apart to form an ocean basin, there is no consensus on how strain
localises to achieve rupture, nor on what proportion of the strain is accommodated by
magmatism and faulting.

The structure of both continental and oceanic rifts provides fundamental constraints on
models of continental breakup. Studies of continental rifts reveal that a series of
discrete kinematically linked basins bounded by large border faults defines a regular
along-axis segmentation of the rift. The dimensions of the basins, uplifted rift flanks,
and the maximum length and depth extent of faults, depends upon the mechanical
properties of the lithosphere, with longer faults correlating with high elastic and/or
seismogenic layer thickness (e.g. Ebinger and Hayward, 1996; Ebinger et al., 1999). In
oceanic rifts the segmentation is dominated by along-axis bathymetric variations
thought to represent variations in the supply of basaltic melts from the underlying
asthenosphere (e.g. Phipps-Morgan and Chen, 1993). The timing and mechanism by
which the along-axis segmentation dominated by mechanical processes in continental
rifts is replaced by the along-axis segmentation controlled by asthenospheric and
magmatic processes at oceanic rifts offers key insights into how continental breakup
occurs. Detailed observations of the relationship between mechanical failure of the
crust shown by seismicity and faulting, and the distribution of intruded magma and
2
extrusive lava in a volcanically active rift setting that is near breakup provides a means
to study the pattern of strain localisation and to assess how strain is partitioned
between faulting and dike injection. It is the aim of this research to analyse the
distribution of seismicity, Quaternary faults and magmatism in the northern Main
Ethiopian rift, a region of incipient continental breakup, to evaluate how and when the
magma-fed along-axis segmentation observed in oceanic rifts replaces the mechanical
segmentation of continental rifts.

The Ethiopian rift forms the third arm of the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden rift-rift-rift triple
junction where the Arabian, Nubian and Somalian plates join in Afar (Fig. 1.1).
Embryonic rifting of the continental lithosphere is observed to the south in the East
African rift system in Kenya and Tanzania (e.g., Nyblade et al., 1996). Northeast of the
Ethiopian rift, incipient sea-floor spreading is evident in the Afar rift and in the Asal-
Ghoubbett rift which is the westward onshore extension of the Gulf of Aden spreading
ridge (e.g., De Chabalier and Avouac, 1994; Ruegg and Kasser, 1987; Stein et al.,
1991).

The seismically and volcanically active northern Main Ethiopian rift (MER) and Afar rifts
are virtually the only places worldwide where the transition between continental and
oceanic rifting is exposed onland. The MER is thus an ideal natural laboratory to study
continental breakup processes. The research that forms the core of this thesis utilised
the wealth of local seismicity data collected by up to 179 broadband seismic stations
deployed as part of project EAGLE (Ethiopia Afar Geoscientific Lithospheric
Experiment) (Fig. 1.2). In addition, the results from this multi-disciplinary project provide
fundamental constraints on crust and upper-mantle structure beneath the MER, set
within a strong regional tectonic framework (e.g. Maguire et al., 2003; WoldeGabriel et
al., 1990; Wolfenden et al., 2004).

1.2 Models of rifting

The simplest kinematic models of extension can be represented using purely
mechanical stretching of the lithosphere (e.g. McKenzie et al., 1978; Dunbar and
Sawyer, 1989). Mechanical stretching models accommodate strain by ductile
deformation in the lower crust and lithospheric mantle and by large offset faults in the
brittle layers (Fig. 1.3). Depending on assumed lithspheric rheology, strain may be
3
distributed across a broad zone, or localised along one large displacement fault, or
detachment faults and shear zones that cross cut the lithosphere (e.g., Buck, 1991;
Ebinger, 2005).

Tanzania
craton INDIAN
OCE AN
T
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r
k
a
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a

D
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s
io
n
Lake
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L. Nyasa
L. Rukwa
L. Turkana
10N
5N
0
5S
M
a
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a
w
i

r
i
f
t
30E
34E 38E
10S
L. Tanganyika
Gulf
Aden
Sea
Red
L. T ana
Ethiopi an
Plateau
W estern
Rift
Eastern
Rift
Plateau
East
African
Som alian
Plate
Nubian
Plate
Arabian
Plate
Afar

Figure 1.1: Location of the Ethiopian rift with respect to the East African rift system. Brown lines
enclose regions with an elevation of >1000m. Purple designates flood basalts and rhyolite
deposits. Dark red shows sea floor spreading centres. The red box marks the EAGLE study
area. Modified after Ebinger (2005).
4
37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
AAE
FURI
WNDE
Aluto-
Gedemsa MS
Boset-
Kone
MS
Fentale-
Dofen MS
Angelele MS
Guraghe BF
Arboye BF
Asella-Sire BF
Ankober
BF
37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
LEME
SHEE
GEWE
ANKE
KOTE
MELE MIEE
BEDE
MECE
CHAE
SENE
AREE
GTFE
BORE
DONE
INEE
AMME
MEKE
DIKE
ADEE
ADUE
DZEE
WOLE
ASEE
BUTE
KARE
HIRE
37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
35 40 45
5
10
15
S
N
A
D
35 40 45
5
10
15
GA
RS
35 40 45
5
10
15
1000 2000 3000
Elevation
m
Addo-do MS

Figure 1.2: EAGLE permanent broadband seismic stations used for earthquake location with
respect to major border faults and magmatic segments of the Main Ethiopian rift (MER). Grey
triangles are Phase 1 stations (Oct 2001 - Jan 2003), white triangles are Phase 2 stations (Oct
2002 - Jan 2003, white circles are Phase 3 stations (Nov 2002 - Jan 2003) and white squares
are the IRIS GSN permanent stations FURI, AAE and WNDE. The top left inset shows the
topographic relief, plates and rift zones: A = Arabia; D = Danakil; N = Nubian Plate; S =
Somalian Plate; RS = Red Sea rift; GA = Gulf of Aden rift.

Most passive margins have been affected by magmatic intrusion and volcanic outflows,
even before the onset of faulting and subsidence that mark stretching (e.g. Sengor and
Burke, 1978). For example, the North American east coast was once regarded as a
classic example of a non-volcanic passive margin (e.g. Steckler and Watts, 1981).
However, offshore seismic data and onshore geologic mapping indicate that similar
5
volumes of lava were produced along the east coast as at volcanic margins (Holbrook
and Kelemen, 1993). Models of the opening of the South Atlantic emphasise the effect
of lithospheric stretching and detachment faulting (e.g. Etheridge et al., 1989; Lister et
al., 1991). However, piles of volcanic flows characterise the South Atlantic margin
(Hinz, 1981; White and McKenzie, 1989) and the 2000 km-long Greenland margin
(e.g., Mutter et al., 1988). Despite evidence for copious magmatism at the onset of
rifting in the Red Sea (e.g., Menzies et al., 1997; Pallister, 1987), thermo-mechanical
rifting models for the region ignore the effects of magmatism (e.g., Buck et al., 1988;
Chery et al., 1992; Martinez and Cochran, 1988; Steckler, 1985; Wernicke, 1985).

Models of rifting that consider purely mechanical stretching of the lithosphere assume
that the average stress or tectonic force required to initiate rifting is available. Several
authors have estimated that the tectonic forces likely to be available for rifting is in the
range of 3-5 TeraNt/m (Forsyth and Uyeda; Solomon et al., 1980). Areas of initially thin
lithosphere should rift at relatively low levels of tectonic force. However, the tectonic
force required for amagmatic rifting of thick continental lithosphere has been estimated
at up to an order of magnitude larger than that available (Kusznir and Park, 1987;
Hopper and Buck; 1993). This raises the question: Is there a missing force ?.

If magma is available during rifting, deformation of the lithosphere resulting from
extensional stresses not only occurs by fault slip and ductile flow but also by dyke
intrusion (Fig. 1.3). Buck (2004) shows that by considering the intrusion of magma into
the lithosphere, the yield stress for the lithosphere is significantly reduced. In a magma
assisted rifting model, magma intrudes the more ductile lower lithosphere, feeding
dykes that intrude higher in the lithosphere. As stretching leads to increased amounts
of lithospheric thinning, the heat transfer from magmatism further reduces plate
strength, allowing magma to intrude to shallower levels. Melt is buoyant to at least mid-
crustal levels and the buoyancy forces effectively reinforce the plate-driving forces.
Friction along fault surfaces competes with plate driving forces. Magma injection
therefore accommodates strain at lower plate-driving forces than faulting, facilitating
continental breakup at relatively low stresses. Therefore, in addition to the variability in
lithospheric properties considered by models involving purely mechanical stretching,
coupled lithosphere-asthenosphere models that consider injection of magma are
required to explain rifting and breakup of thick continental lithosphere and the onset of
sea-floor spreading (Buck, 2004).
6

Figure 1.3: Two general classes of conceptual models for extension of rheologically layered
continental lithosphere. The top panel shows a mechanical stretching model in which strain is
accommodated by large offset faults (e.g. detachment) in brittle layers, and by ductile
deformation in weaker layers. The lower panel shows a magmatic extension model that includes
the effects of magma intrusion and accompanying heating. The strain localisation and strength
reduction of the lithosphere is enhanced by melt intrusion. Modified after Buck (2004).

1.3 Along-axis segmentation of continental rifts and mid-ocean ridges

Systematic along-axis segmentation is a feature of all continental and oceanic rift
systems. The timing and mechanism by which the along-axis segmentation dominated
by mechanical processes in continental rifts is replaced by the along-axis segmentation
controlled by asthenospheric and magmatic processes at oceanic rifts offers key
insights into how continental breakup occurs. This review focuses on the along-axis
7
segmentation observed at discrete continental rifts such as the East African rift system
and at slow and ultra-slow mid-ocean ridges, such as the northern Mid-Atlantic and
Gakkel ridges where extensional velocities are most similar to those observed across
the MER.

1.3.1 Segmentation of discrete continental rifts

Discrete rift systems are localised zones of lithospheric extension less than 100 km
wide, such as the East African system (EAR), the Baikal rift zone, the Rhine graben
and the Rio Grande rift (Ruppel, 1995). The archetypal discrete rift, the EAR, consists
of rift depression bounded by large normal faults with uplifted footwall flanks (e.g.
Karner and Weissel, 1991). Discrete continental rifts comprise a relatively narrow zone
of deformation where basins are deep and broad and are segmented along their length
into individual, characteristically asymmetric basins or half grabens (e.g. Bosworth,
1985; Ebinger et al., 1999). The rift basins are typically 30-120 km-long, 40-70 km-wide
and bounded on one or both sides by steeply dipping (>50
o
) normal faults systems or
border faults (Ebinger et al., 1987; Dunkelman et al., 1989). Tectonic activity on basin
bounding fault systems causes subsidence of the rift floor and uplift of the rift flanks,
generating basins typically 1-7 km-deep (Morley, 1988) with maximum subsidence
adjacent to the centres of the border faults (Ebinger 1989). The majority of strain in the
brittle crust is accommodated by high magnitude earthquakes located along basin
bounding border faults (e.g., Jackson and Blenkinsop, 1997; Langston et al., 1998),
and the seismogenic zone can extend to 35 km depth in regions of strong lithosphere
such as the East African rift in Tanzania (e.g., Nyblade and Langston, 1995; Zhao et
al., 1997; Foster and Jackson, 1998). Extension within individual basin segments is
transferred to adjacent segments by accommodation zones with geometry dependent
on spatial relationship between border faults of adjacent rift segments (e.g. Morley et
al., 1990; Gawthorpe and Hurst 1993).

Although rift segment lengths are variable throughout the EAR, segments in a given rift
province are generally of similar length, with border fault lengths in cratonic parts of the
East African rift 80-120 km, and border fault lengths in younger lithosphere 30-60 km
(e.g. Jackson and Blenkinsop, 1997; Ebinger et al., 1999), indicating that the
dimensions of rift basins are controlled by the mechanical properties of the lithosphere
(Ebinger et al., 1999). Short, narrow basins with narrow uplifted flanks form in young,
8
hot, weak lithosphere, and are characterised by <15 km seismogenic layer thickness
and / or effective elastic thickness. Long, wide, deep basins with broad uplifted flanks
develop in old, cold, strong continental lithosphere with seismogenic layer thickness /
T
e
> 30 km (Ebinger et al., 1999).

Similar patterns are observed in other rifts. For example, the Central Baikal basin is
underlain by strong lithosphere (T
e
45 - 60 km) with little evidence of lithospheric
thinning, heating and weakening (Burov et al., 1994; Grand et al., 1997). The broad
central basin of the rift is bounded by ~120 km-long border faults (Agar and Klitgord,
1995), on which earthquakes occur down to 30 km in the crust and possibly in the
upper mantle down to depths of 40 km (Dverchre et al. 1991; Dverchre et al.,
1993). In contrast, the Rio Grande rift is underlain by relatively hot, weak lithosphere
(Wilson et al., 2005); gravity data suggests thinning of the lithosphere near the rift axis,
seismic tomography models image a broad low velocity anomaly beneath the rift
(Cordell et al., 1991; Slack et al., 1996), and seismogenic layer thickness is less than
20 km (Jaksha and Sanford, 1986). The thermal and mechanical properties of the
lithosphere are broadly similar beneath the Rio Grande rift and the East Afican rift in
Kenya, and reflected near the surface by the similar rift basin width, fault length and
seismogenic layer thickness (Keller et al., 1991), with the higher volumes of rift related
volcanics in the Kenya rift likely due to the presence of a more concentrated vertical
mantle upwelling (Wilson et al., 1994). Similarly, discrete rift basins in the Corinth rift,
which developed over the past 20 Ma in relatively hot lithosphere of a collapsing
orogenic belt, have high angle faults of 25-30 km length and seismogenic layer
thickness and T
e
of 10-15 km (Roberts and Jackson, 1991; McNeill et al., 2005;
Hatzfeld et al., 2000).

The comparison of the variability between border fault dimensions in the East African,
Baikal and Corinth rifts show that long (> 80 km) border fault segments bound deep
broad rift basins that develop in cold thick lithosphere whereas shorter border faults
bound narrow basins within initially weak lithosphere. Border fault length increases with
seismogenic layer thickness and with effective elastic thickness. These patterns
indicate that the fault and flexural response of the continental lithosphere to rifting
processes is largely controlled by the mechanical properties of the lithosphere (Ebinger
et al., 1999).

9
An along-axis variation in rift segmentation is observed along the Ethiopian rift, which
marks the transition between continental rifting in East Africa rift and sea-floor
spreading in Afar (Hayward and Ebinger, 1996; Ebinger and Casey, 2001). The
Ethiopian rift is characterised by a northward decrease in rift basin length and width,
consistent with the northward decrease in crustal thickness and effective elastic
thickness. Hayward and Ebinger (1996) suggest that localisation of strain away from
border faults to intra-rift grabens is initially controlled by the progressive decrease in
lithospheric strength within the rift from a combination of lithospheric thinning and
resultant increased heating during continued extension. As rifting proceeds to breakup
the progressive decrease of lithospheric strength remains the fundamental control on
rift architecture, until the onset of sea-floor spreading when dyke injection
accommodates the majority of strain (Hayward and Ebinger, 1996). However, coupled
lithosphere-asthenosphere models of continental rifting illustrate the importance of
magma injection well before the onset of sea-floor spreading in localising strain to
achieve rupture of continental lithosphere (e.g. Buck 2004). The controls on the along-
axis segmentation of the MER are re-evaluated in light of new seismicity data
presented in this thesis and interpreted with additional constraints on lithospheric and
asthenospheric structure from new geological, geophysical and geochemical data.

1.3.2 Segmentation of slow-spreading mid-ocean ridges

The median valley topography of a slow spreading mid-ocean ridge, such as the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge, results from the creation of new lithosphere through dyke injection,
volcanism and extensional faulting (e.g. Smith and Cann, 1999; Dunn et al., 2005).
Eruption of lava at the surface in a ~10 km-wide inner valley produces magmatic
topography in the form of 200-300 m-high, 10s of km-long axial volcanic ridges aligned
orthogonal with the plate spreading vector, 100-500 m-high volcanoes or seamounts
and large expanses of hummocky pillow lava flows (Smith and Cann, 1990; Smith and
Cann, 1993). The generation of new lithosphere at mid-ocean ridges makes them
fundamentally different from continental rift systems. However, like continental rifts,
mid-ocean ridges exhibit a regular along-axis segmentation that offers clues to controls
on extensional processes.

Segmentation of slow spreading mid-ocean ridges occurs at a series of length-scales
with a complex range of offset morphologies. Transform faults produce first order ridge
10
segments that are 200-800 km-long. The juxtaposition of cold lithosphere against a
spreading centre at an offset results in a decrease in upwelling melt volumes (Phipps
Morgan and Forsyth, 1988), evident as thinner crust at ridge transform discontinuities
(e.g. Blackman and Forsyth, 1991).

Slow-spreading mid-ocean ridges are also segmented by non-transform offsets with an
along-axis spacing of 10-80 km and lateral offsets of up to 30 km (Sempr et al.,
1990). The non transform offsets that define this second order segmentation are
characterised by a range of accommodation structures including zones of en echelon
faulting and interbasinal volcanic ridges (Sempr et al., 1993). Ridge segmentation is
expressed in along-axis variations in bathymetry, with the non-transform offsets
forming local depth maxima whereas ridge segment midsections have the shallowest
bathymetry. The ridge segment midsections are underlain by the thickest crust while
the segment ends exhibit deep and wider axial valleys and thinnest crust, as inferred
from gravity data (Lin et al., 1990; Detrick et al., 1995) and determined seismically
(Tolstoy et al., 1993; Hooft et al., 2000; Hosford et al., 2001; Dunn et al., 2005). Ridge
segment midsections are also underlain by low velocity anomalies in the mid-lower
crust likely indicates the presence of anomalously high temperatures and partial melt
(Dunn et al., 2005). The pattern of seismic anisotropy of the lower crust beneath ridge
segment midsections is also indicative of the presence of partially molten dykes (Dunn
et al., 2005).

Along-axis variations in the amount of seismicity are also observed at slow-spreading
mid-ocean ridges. Monitoring of earthquakes along the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge
shows that earthquakes are concentrated within ~20 km of the ridge axis and that each
discrete ridge segment can experience characteristic low or high level of seismicity
over decade time-scales (Barclay et al., 2001; Smith et al., 2003). Discrete mid-ocean
ridge segments also experience short-lived temporal variations in seismicity as shown
by the 147 M
L
> 3.5 earthquakes and continuous broadband tremor, that occurred
during 16-17 March 2001 along the 50 km-long Lucky Strike segment of the northern
MAR in March 2001 (Dziak et al., 2004). The earthquakes were interpreted as caused
by stress perturbation resulting from emplacement of a dyke beneath the ridge
segment. Similarly, a volcanic eruption and sequence of 252 m
b
> 4.5 earthquakes
occurred over three months along the ultra-slow spreading (full spreading rate of ~1.1
cm/yr) Gakkel ridge in the Arctic Ocean (Tolstoy et al., 2001). Seismicity was located
11
predominantly on faults that bound a ~10 km-wide axial graben, a pattern consistent
with reduction in normal stress at the base of the seismogenic zone from injection of
magma directly from the asthenosphere (Tolstoy et al., 2001).

In oceanic rifts the segmentation observed in along-axis variations in bathymetry are
thought to represent spatial and temporal variations in the supply of basaltic melts from
the underlying asthenosphere (e.g. Lin and Phipps-Morgan, 1992; Phipps-Morgan and
Chen, 1993). Spatial variations in melt flux, with melt preferentially delivered to
segment centres via dikes in the lower crust, are also believed to control crustal
thickness, lithospheric strength, and the partitioning of plate spreading between faulting
and magmatism (e.g. Lin et al., 1990; Sparks et al., 1993; Tucholke and Lin, 1994;
Magde et al., 1997; Parsons et al., 2000; Dunn et al., 2005). Temporal variations in
melt supply result in the great diversity of ridge segment morphologies and along-axis
variations in amount of seismicity (e.g. Cannat, 1993; Grcia et al., 1999; Tolstoy et al.,
2001; Dziak et al., 2004).

1.4 Thesis aims and summary

Observations of rift systems shows that mechanical strength of the lithosphere controls
the along-axis segmentation of continental rifts during the initial stages of formation
whereas the along-axis segmentation at mid-ocean ridges is controlled by
asthenospheric and magmatic processes. Therefore, this thesis aims to constrain
where and how strain is partitioned between faulting and dyking in a rift system which
is transitional between continental and oceanic in style in order to distinguish between
models of strain accommodation prior to continental breakup. A high quality seismicity
dataset from the seismically and volcanically active northern Main Ethiopian rift is
analysed and interpreted within a strong regional framework in order to constrain the
relationship between brittle failure in the crust and injection of magma into the
lithosphere.

In the thesis that follows, Chapter 2 outlines the tectonic setting of the MER,
constrained by previous geological, geophysical and geochemical studies. Chapter 3
describes the data acquisition and pre-processing stages required for the analysis of
seismicity dataset recorded by the EAGLE network of broadband seismic stations.
Chapter 4 aims to constrain the locus of brittle deformation and relationship between
12
faulting and dyking by accurately locating earthquakes in the MER and comparing the
distribution of seismicity to the pattern of Quaternary faulting and volcanism observed
at the surface, and distribution of intrusive magmatism constrained by independent
studies. Chapter 5 aims to quantify the size of local earthquakes in our dataset by
accurately estimating local earthquake magnitude using a calibrated magnitude scale
for the MER. Chapter 6 aims to constrain the style of active faulting and orientation of
the stress field in the MER using earthquake focal mechanisms. Results are compared
to structural data, and to regional and global plate kinematic models. Chapter 7 aims to
use shear-wave splitting from local earthquakes to reveal patterns of seismic
anisotropy of the crust. The results are related to structural and geophysical data,
including SKS-splitting studies. In Chapter 8, the results are integrated with
independent geophysical and geological data. Evidence is presented for magma-fed
along-axis segmentation of the MER and compared to processes at slow-spreading
mid-ocean ridges. The implications that these new observations from the MER have for
models of continental breakup are also discussed in Chapter 8. Conclusions are
presented in Chapter 9.

The tectonic setting (Chapter 2) and discussion (Chapter 8) contain references to
original contributions by the author of this thesis in the form of co-authored publications
in peer reviewed journals; Kendall et al. (2005), Ayele et al. (2006), Casey et al.
(2006), Kendall et al. (2006), Wright et al. (2006). The results chapters 4-7 includes
research that forms three co-authored publications in peer reviewed journals; Keir et al.
(2005); Keir et al. (2006) and Keir et al. (in review). Reprints or the submitted
manuscripts of these papers are bound at the back of the thesis.
Chapter 2 - Tectonic setting
13
Chapter 2

Tectonic setting

2.1 Overview

The Ethiopian rift system is on the Ethiopia-Yemen plateau that is thought to have
developed above a mantle plume (e.g., Schilling, 1973; Ebinger and Sleep, 1998;
George et al., 1998). A ~2 km thick sequence of flood basalts and rhyolites erupted
across the Ethiopian-Yemen plateau region between 45 and 22 Ma (e.g., George et
al., 1998; Kieffer et al., 2004) (Fig. 1.1). The majority erupted at ~30 Ma along the Red
Sea margins (e.g., Hofmann et al., 1997; Ukstins et al., 2002) coincident with the
opening of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (Wolfenden et al., 2005). Anomalously low
P-wave velocities exist in the mantle beneath Afar to depths of at least 410 km, but
their connection with the profound low velocity zone in the lower mantle beneath
Southern Africa is debated (e.g., Debayle et al., 2001; Benoit et al., 2003; Montelli et
al., 2004).

The MER forms one arm of the complex Afar triple junction zone (Fig. 2.1). Rifting
initiated in the southern and central Main Ethiopian rift between 18 Ma and 15 Ma, but
the northern Main Ethiopian rift (MER) only developed after ~11 Ma (WoldeGabriel et
al., 1990; Wolfenden et al., 2004). Between 12 and 10 Ma, the southern Red Sea
margin propagated southward as the MER propagated NE, effectively linking the
southern Red Sea and Ethiopian rifts, and forming a triple junction for the first time
(Wolfenden et al., 2004).

The MER formed within Precambrian metamorphic basement of the Pan-African shield
(Kazmin et al., 1978). Within the study area, however, Precambrian basement is
exposed in only one locality at the base of the footwall to the Guraghe border fault (Fig.
2.2). Hence, the structural grain of metamorphic basement is based on extrapolation
from exposures > 100 km to the southwest and southeast of the study area (e.g.,
Kazmin et al., 1978). Over 1 km of Mesozoic to early Tertiary marine passive margin
sequences overlie basement, and are in turn covered by 1-2 km of Oligocene to early
Miocene basalt-ignimbrite sequences (Abebe et al., 2005). The Mid-Miocene to
14
Recent infill within the MER comprises interbedded basalt and ignimbrite flows, with
isolated pockets of lacustrine and volcaniclastic strata (e.g., WoldeGabriel et al., 1990;
Wolfenden et al., 2004) (Fig. 2.3).

The NE-trending northern Main Ethiopian rift is a series of linked half grabens bounded
by steep NE-striking Miocene (11 - 5.3 Ma) border faults (WoldeGabriel et al., 1990;
Wolfenden et al., 2004) (Fig. 2.1). Structural patterns suggest a change from N130
o
E to
N105
o
E-directed extension sometime in the interval 6.6 to 3 Ma (Boccaletti et al., 1998;
Wolfenden et al., 2004). During this time period extensional strain migrated from border
faults to smaller offset ~N10
o
E-striking faults and aligned eruptive centers in the central
rift valley (Wolfenden et al., 2004) (Fig 2.1). These Quaternary (<1.8Ma) faults and
volcanic centres define a number of ~20 km-wide, ~60 km-long, right-stepping en
echelon magmatic segments (Ebinger and Casey, 2001) (Fig 2.2). Quaternary faults
within magmatic segments show predominantly normal slip and ~50% of faults have
eruptive centres or extrusive lavas along their length (Casey et al., 2006). GPS
measurements show that approximately 80 % of present day extension across the
MER is localized within these magmatic segments (Bilham et al., 1999).

42E
40E
N
8N
TGD
Afar
Arabia
Ankober
border
fault
10N
Arboye
border
fault
S. Red
Sea
rift
Tendaho Gobaad
Discontinuity
Quaternary
magmatic
segment
border fault
incipient plate
boundary zone
Addo-do MS
few
data
F -D
MS
oceanic crust
Angelele
MS
SRS
Aden
Rift
Nubia
Somalia
100 km
Boset
MS
D
H
A-G
MS

Figure 2.1: Zones of Quaternary faulting and magmatism (magmatic segments) with respect to
border faults of the Main Ethiopian rift (MER) and the southern Red Sea rift. Inset shows the
plate kinematic relation of the MER to the Southern Red Sea and Gulf of Aden rifts, and
opening directions between the Nubian, Somalian and Arabian plates. A-G: Aluto-Gedemsa, F-
D: Fentale-Dofen, SRS: Southern Red Sea, DH: Danakil Horst, TGD: Tendaho Gobaad
Discontinuity. Black dots indicate locations of major shield complexes. After Wolfenden et al.
(2004).
15
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
Quaternary faults
and eruptive centres
and mid-Miocene
border faults
Red
Sea
rift
MER
Ankober
BF
Arboye
BF
Guraghe
BF
Addis
Ababa
Nazret
Z
Lake
Koka
Fentale
Fentale -
Dofen
magmatic
segment
Aluto-Gedemsa
magmatic
segment
Asela A -
Sire BF
Boset
magmatic
Dofen
Kone
Boset
Gademsa
Debre Zeit chain D b Z it h i
Butajira
chain
Gadimott G
Ambo lineament
Ataye
BF
Ayelu-
Abida
Yardi
Lake
Awash
R.
Caldera Lakes
<2 My faults
eruptive centers
mid-Miocene-Pliocene
border faults
a
Aluto Aluto

Figure 2.2: Structural map of the northern MER (after Casey et al., 2006). Quaternary faults
are shown black, and Quaternary eruptive centres are displayed red. Miocene border faults
bounding Main Ethiopian rift basins are grey with dip ticks. Fault plane solutions are lower
hemisphere projections, determined by Harvard CMT, Ayele (2000) and Hofstetter and Beyth
(2003) (Table 6.2). The Quaternary faults commonly have aligned eruptive centres and
extrusive lavas along their length. Miocene border faults likely formed under N130
o
E directed
extension. The border faults are ~60 km-long and define a number of half graben rift segments.
These Quaternary faults and volcanic centres define a number of ~20 km-wide, ~60 km-long,
right-stepping en echelon magmatic segments (Figs. 2.1).

Project EAGLE aimed to probe the structure of the magmatic segments, and relate
them to dynamic processes within the upper mantle in a rift at the transition between
continent and oceanic rifting. The following sections summarize EAGLE results within
the context of earlier work.
16
0
2000
6000
s.l.
4000
0 50
100 150
km
NNW
SSE
Megezez
Volcano
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
0 50 100 150 km
m
s.l.
?
?
?
Boset magmatic
segment
3.5 Ma
- 2.5 Ma
10.6 -
6.6 Ma
~10.5 Ma
Keradi
fault
3.5 Ma - 2.5 Ma
6.6 Ma -
Adama
Basin
Megezez
Complex
pre-rift flood
volcanics
Balchi Fm
Kessem Fm
Arboye
Border Fault zone of closely-spaced
small-offset faults
(flexure)
Adama
Basin
28 Ma
1.8 Ma
Wonji Fm
7.8 Ma -
10.6 Ma - 11?

Figure 2.3: Topography (top) and cross section of the MER through the Boset-Kone magmatic
segment illustrating the original half-graben structure of the basin and onlapping patterns along
the NW side of the basin. Note narrow zone of dyke injection and faulting near the centre of the
basin. The stratigraphic column on the right shows the typical Tertiary sequence overlying
Mesozoic strata and metamorphic basement. From Wolfenden et al. (2004).

2.2 Crustal and mantle structure

The <20 km-wide, right-stepping, en echelon magmatic segments in the centre of the
rift are underlain by ~20 km-wide, high velocity (Vp > 6.5 km/s) elongate bodies that
are interpreted as cooled mafic intrusions (Keranen et al., 2004; Mackenzie et al.,
2005; Daly et al., 2006) (Fig. 2.4). These magmatic segments are characterized by
relative positive Bouguer anomalies (Mahatsente et al., 1999; Tiberi et al., 2005) (Fig
2.5). Enhanced conductive anomalies in the upper crust and at ~20 km depth beneath
the Boset magmatic segment shown in magnetotelluric data most likely indicate the
presence of zones of partial melt (Whaler and Hautot, 2006) (Fig. 2.6). Historic fissural
basalt flows at Fentale and Kone volcanoes as recently as 1810 (Harris et al., 1844)
and elevated temperatures at shallow crustal depths in the geothermal fields near
Aluto (Tadesse et al., 2003) indicate ongoing volcanic activity in magmatic segments.
There is also evidence for partial melt outside the fault-bounded rift valley, as
interpreted by Whaler and Hautot (2006) from high conductivity anomalies at 25-30 km
depth beneath the Ethiopian plateau (Fig 2.6).
17

The northern Main Ethiopian rift shows a northward increase in crustal extension and
magmatic modification (Tiberi et al., 2005; Maguire et al., 2006; Stuart et al., 2006).
Crustal thickness estimated from receiver function and wide angle seismic data
beneath the MER decreases from 38 km in the south beneath the caldera lakes to 24
km beneath Fentale volcano in the southern Afar depression (Dugda et al., 2005;
Maguire et al., 2006) (Figs. 2.7). The along-axis thinning is consistent with a northward
along-axis decrease in effective elastic thickness and seismogenic layer thickness
(Ebinger and Hayward, 1996). Seismic refraction / wide angle reflection data show
~40 km-thick crust beneath the southeastern plateau, whereas the western side of the
rift is underlain by 45-50 km-thick crust with a ~10-15 km high velocity (> 7.4 km/s)
lower crust believed to be magmatic underplate (Mackenzie et al., 2005) (Fig. 2.7).

Figure 2.4: Horizontal slice of controlled source tomography model at 10 km subsurface. Thick
contours mark 6 km/s with minor contours at 0.2 km/s intervals. High velocity bodies (red)
interpreted as solidified magma intrusions. From Keranen et al. (2004).

18
- 2000
- 1000
0
1 0 0 0
2 0 0 0
3 0 0 0
4 0 0 0
5 0 0 0
6 0 0 0
0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0
km
m
e
t
e
r
s

2 5 0 3 0 0 3 5 0
Northern MER
MS
- 4 0 0
- 3 0 0
- 2 0 0
- 1 0 0
0
1 0 0
0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0 3 5 0
Bouguer Anomaly
m
G
a
l
s
- 5 0
- 4 0
- 3 0
- 2 0
- 1 0
0
0
k
m

s
u
b
s
u
r
f
a
c
e
5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0
km
3 0 0 3 5 0
Crustal thickness
CHAE
AREE
BORE
E46
Topography

Figure 2.5: Profile of topography, Bouguer gravity anomaly, and crustal thickness estimates
obtained in a 3D inversion of filtered Bouguer anomaly data across the MER 38
o
E, 10
o
N to
41
o
E, 8
o
. White circles indicate depths estimated from receiver function studies (Stuart et al.,
2006). A relative high in the Bouguer anomaly is observed across the Boset-Kone magmatic
segment and the crust is thinnest beneath the magmatic segment (ms). From Tiberi et al.
(2005)

19
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
z

(
k
m

-
s
c
a
l
e

x

2
)
-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance (km)
NW SE
Rift valley
Boset magmatic segment Debre Zeit Chain
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Log Resistivity (.m)

Figure 2.6: 2-D model of the resistivity structure across the MER. The profile follows the same
line as the across rift controlled source experiment. Marked above the profile are the positions
of the rift valley bounded by the Arboye border fault on the eastern margin and by a monoclinal
flexure. The position of the Boset-Kone magmatic segment and the position of the Debre Zeit
volcanic chain are marked. Conductive anomalies are clear at 20-25 km depth, as well as at
shallow levels beneath the Boset-Kone magmatic segment. A deeper anomaly at 25-30 km
depth is observed beneath the Ethiopian plateau. From Whaler and Hautot (2006).

Mantle tomography studies provide information on the geometry of lithospheric
stretching, as well as the role of melt in rift evolution. Bastow et al. (2005) imaged a
low-velocity zone as a narrow sheet rising to 65-75 km beneath the centre of the rift,
and extending to at least 250 km subsurface. Its linkage with the deeply rooted low
velocity zone termed the African superplume remains unclear. This relatively narrow
low velocity zone broadens into the Afar depression towards the Afar triple junction
zone (Bastow et al., 2005) (Fig. 2.8).

20
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
D
e
p
t
h

(
k
m
)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
3.0
5.0 5.0
3.2
5.1
5.90 6.29 6.01
6.20 6.40
6.50
6.40
6.32
6.11
6.42
6.71
6.75
6.60
6.70 6.70
7.00
7.20
7.10
7.00
7.50 7.50
~
(b) Line 2
SW NE
SP21 SP22 SP23 SP24 SP15/25 SP26 SP27 SP28
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
D
e
p
t
h

(
k
m
)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Distance (km)
5.0
4.8
5.2
6.10
6.16
6.33
6.40
6.64
6.82
7.38
7.70
8.05
6.83
6.63
6.38
6.31
6.15
6.07
6.73
6.65
6.54
6.52 6.24
6.23
6.51 6.08
6.13
3.3
~ ~
(a) Line 1
NW SE
SP11 SP12 SP13 SP14 SP15/25 SP16 SP17 SP18
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Vp (km/s)
u.c.
l.c.
HVLC
M
L
u.c.
l.c.
M
L

Figure 2.7: Final ray-trace P-wave velocity models for (a) Line 1 across-axis profile after (after
Mackenzie et al., 2005; Maguire et al., 2006) and (b) Line 2 along-axis profile of the EAGLE
controlled source experiment (after Keller et al. 2003; Maguire et al., 2006). The locations of the
refraction experiments are indicated on Figure 2.5. The crust beneath the southeastern plateau
is ~40 km-thick, whereas the western side of the rift is underlain by 45-50 km-thick crust with a
~10-15 km high velocity lower crust believed to be underplate (labeled HVLC). Crustal thickness
beneath the MER decreases from 38 km in the south beneath the caldera lakes to 24 km
beneath Fentale volcano in the southern Afar depression.

Geochemical and seismic data provide constraints on melting and melt emplacement
beneath the MER. The major element compositions of Quaternary mafic lavas from the
MER show the onset of melting occurs in the lower crust and upper sub-continental
lithospheric mantle (Rooney et al., 2005). This is consistent with P- and S-wave
tomographic models that show anomalous low velocity zones in the upper mantle
beneath the rift, attributed to a combination of higher temperatures and the presence of
partial melt (Bastow et al., 2005).

21

Figure 2.8: Depth slice at 75 km subsurface from the tomographic model of Bastow et al.
(2005). The low velocity is narrow and follows the rift axis, broadening into the Afar depression
where station coverage becomes sparse. Note the limb of low velocity material that extends
towards the Ambo lineament and zone of Quaternary eruptive centres (Fig. 2.2). From Bastow
et al. (2005).

SKS splitting shows the polarization direction of the fast shear-wave rotates from ~NE
at station outside magmatic segments to ~NNE along the axis of the rift (Fig. 2.9). The
splitting direction is along the length of the rift axis, perpendicular to the direction
expected for a strain-related fabric. The correlation between SKS polarisation and
Quaternary volcanic cones, as well as increased splitting in zones of more magmatism,
led Gashawbeza et al. (2004) and Kendall et al. (2005) to propose that partial melt
beneath the MER rises through dikes that penetrate through the thinned lithosphere.
Sv and Sh velocity models derived from surface wave dispersion curves are consistent
with a model of anisotropy due to aligned melt-filled pockets from 20-75 km depth
beneath the rift (Kendall et al., 2006)
22

Figure 2.9: SKS splitting results in the MER. The orientation of arrows shows the alignment of
fast shear waves and the length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of splitting. Yellow
arrows mark results at seismic stations deployed for 16 months, white arrows are for stations
deployed for three months, and red arrows are for the IRIS permanent stations FURI and AAE.
Heavy black lines show major border faults, dashed lines shows monclines and magmatic
segments are marked red. Top left inset shows topography (A, Red Sea; B, Gulf of Aden; C,
Arabian plate; D, Nubian plate; E, Somalian plate). The lower right inset shows the locations of
events used for analysis. From Kendall et al. (2005).

2.3 Constraints on the direction of extension

The orientation of present-day extension across the Ethiopian rift remains
controversial. Laser ranging and GPS data show that the northern Ethiopian rift over
the period 1969-1997 extended in a direction of N108
o
E 10
o
at 4.5 0.1 mm/year
(Bilham et al., 1999). The velocity field calculated from permanent GPS stations on
Africa since 1996 shows opening of ~6-7 mm/year at an azimuth of ~N95
o
E
(Fernandes et al., 2004; Calais et al., 2006) (Fig. 2.10). Global and regional plate
23
tectonic models by Jestin et al. (1994) and Chu and Gordon (1999) average plate
kinematic indicators from the past 3.2 My and find similar extension directions and
extensional velocities of N102
o
E at 5 1 mm/year and N96
o
E 9
o
at 6.0 1.5
mm/year, respectively. Campaign GPS studies indicate an extension direction of
108
o
E, with an extensional velocity of ~ 6 mm/year.

Source parameters of teleseismically recorded earthquakes show normal, normal left-
oblique and sinistral strike-slip motions with the horizontal component of T-axes
between N135
o
E and N90
o
E in orientation (e.g., Ayele and Arvidsson, 1998; Foster
and Jackson, 1998; Ayele, 2000; Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003) (Figs. 2.10, 2.11).
Kinematic indicators on Quaternary faults that dip 70-75
o
and strike N10-35
o
E indicate
a principal dip-slip normal movement with a mean direction of ~N95
o
E (Pizzi et al.,
2006). However, Acocella and Korme (2002) matched pairs of asperities along the
sides of Quaternary extension fractures to show a mean extension direction of
N128
o
E 20
o
. Korme et al. (1997) used the orientation of extension fractures to
determine an extension direction of NW-SE, similar to Wolfenden et al.s (2004)
N130
o
E estimate of Miocene-Pliocene extension direction.

2.4 Previous seismicity studies

Seismicity data is lacking from the Ethiopian rift due to previous sparse station
coverage (Ayele and Kulhnek, 1997). However, written records in Gheez and Arabic
document seismic activity in the Horn of Africa for the last six centuries (Gouin et al.,
1979). The earliest documented seismic event in the Ethiopian rift is a swarm of
earthquakes in 1841-1842 near Debre Birhan which caused the destruction of the town
of Ankober by landslides (Gouin, 1979) (Fig. 2.11). Historical records spanning the
past 150 years show that large magnitude earthquakes are rare in the MER.

The record of seismicity from 1960-2000 compiled from teleseismic and regional
catalogues complete down to M
L
~ 4 shows that the majority of earthquakes are
located along the highly eroded southern Red Sea escarpment north of 9.5
o
N, 38.7
o
E
(e.g., Kebede et al., 1989; Ayele, 1995; Ayele and Kulhnek, 1997; Hofstetter and
Beyth, 2003; Ayele et al., in press) (Fig. 2.11). Seismicity located in the MER north of
the Aluto-Gedemsa magmatic segment is concentrated along the axis of the rift
whereas seismicity south of Gedemsa is distributed across a wider (~40 km) zone.
24

Figure 2.10: 3.2 My - present and current plate motions with respect to the Nubian plate; vector
direction points in direction of plate motion of the Somalian plate with respect to the Nubian
plate and vector length scaled to extensional velocity. Ellipses at vector tips show error
estimates. Vectors from four studies are shown; black - Chu and Gordon (1999), red - Sella et
al. (2002) blue - Fernandes et al. (2004), light orange - Calais et al. (2004). Earthquake focal
mechanisms are from the Harvard CMT catalogue and earthquake epicentres and magnitudes
from the NEIC. Earthquakes are sized and coloured by magnitude. The position of the EAGLE
study area in the northern MER is outlined in red. Top left inset shows major plate boundaries
(solid red) and incipient plate boundaries (speckled line) of Africa, Arabia and the Indian Ocean.
From E. Calais (pers. comm.., 2005).
25
36
36
38
38
40
40
42
42
44
44
6 6
8 8
10 10
12 12
14 14
Ethiopian
Plateau
Southeastern
Plateau
Afar
Depression
Gulf
of
Aden
Red
Sea
Ankober
Debre
Birhan
Addis
Ababa
Dofen
Fentale
Kone
Boset
Gedemsa
Aluto
Ayelu
Abida
36
36
38
38
40
40
42
42
44
44
6 6
8 8
10 10
12 12
14 14
Earthquake Magnitude
2 3 4 5 6
0 30
-30
0
30
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Elevation
m

Figure 2.11: Seismic activity of the Horn of Africa since 1960. Earthquake locations and
magnitudes are from Ayele (1995) for the time period 1960 - 1997 and the NEIC catalogue
(1997 - 2005). Earthquake epicentres are scaled by magnitude. Earthquake focal mechanisms
are lower hemisphere projection and obtained from Harvard CMT catalogue, Foster and
Jackson (1998), Ayele and Arvidsson (1998), Ayele (2000) and Hofstetter and Beyth (2003).
Quaternary volcanoes along the axis of the MER are shown by triangles with names labelled.
Seismicity in the MER north of Gedemsa is concentrated along the axis of the rift whereas
seismicity south of Gedemsa is distributed across a wider (~40 km) zone in the rift.

26
An estimate of seismic moment release since 1960 shows that more than 50% of
extension across the MER is accommodated aseismically (Hofstetter and Beyth,
2003). During this period swarms of low magnitude events have been located near
Debre Birhan (Gouin, 1979), and near Fentale volcano in 1981 and 1989 where NNE-
striking surface fissures developed following earthquake swarms of M
L
<4 (Asfaw,
1982). Similar fissures oriented N20
o
E and N45
o
E are observed elsewhere along the
axis of the MER and attributed to tectonic processes (Asfaw, 1982; 1998). Tension
fractures cut welded tuffs at Fentale and Kone volcanoes and suggest a fissuring
episode within the past 7000 years (Williams et al., 2004). In the year preceding the
EAGLE study, the seismicity was concentrated in the Fentale-Dofen and Angelele
magmatic segments (Ayele et al., 2006). From mid-October 2003, after removal of the
EAGLE seismic network, a ~1 month-long earthquake swarm with a mainshock of
M
L
~5 was recorded by the Geophysical Observatory and reported by local inhabitants
near Dofen volcano (Geophysical Observatory, Addis Ababa University, personal
communication). The epicenter of the mainshock is estimated to be ~9.2
o
N 40.1
o
E
from the locations of damaged buildings and trees, reported scree slides in the area,
and personal accounts of ground-shaking (Fig. 2.11).

Hypocentre depths of 5-10 km have been reported for seismic swarms in the MER and
southern Afar (Asfaw, 1982; Ayele et al., 2006). Teleseismically recorded earthquakes
on the eastern side of the MER have been located between 8-12 km depth (Ayele,
2000).
Chapter 3 - Seismic network and earthquake data
27
Chapter 3

Seismic network and earthquake data

3.1 Introduction

Detailed monitoring of seismicity in the Ethiopian and Afar rifts has previously been
hampered by the sparse distribution of seismic stations in Ethiopia. The network of
seismic stations operational during EAGLE provided a dense distribution of three-
component broadband seismic stations that covered the MER and its uplifted flanks for
a period of 16 months from October 2001 - January 2003. The wealth of local
earthquake data recorded by the EAGLE network provides a unique opportunity to
analyse micro-seismicity at a higher resolution than has previously been possible in
Ethiopia and elsewhere in the East African rift system. This chapter outlines how the
EAGLE seismic data were collected, prepared and processed for earthquake locations
and magnitude. It includes accounts of fieldwork, data conversion, data quality control,
local earthquake detection, and arrival-time and trace amplitude measurements.

3.2 EAGLE seismic stations

EAGLE comprised a number of discrete passive and controlled source studies that
required different distributions of seismic stations that operated over time periods of
between 10 days and 16 months. All EAGLE seismic stations were available for the
microseismicity study.

3.2.1 EAGLE I broadband network

The EAGLE I broadband network was primarily designed to record sufficient
teleseismic earthquakes to map the upper-mantle seismic velocity structure beneath
the MER using body-wave tomography (Bastow et al., 2005). Teleseismic arrivals were
also used for receiver function (Stuart et al., 2006) and SKS-splitting studies (Kendall et
al., 2005). The network consisted of 30 stations (10 Gralp CMG-40TD and 20 Gralp
CMG-3TD instruments) with a nominal spacing of 40 km covering a region 250 x 350
km of the rift and its uplifted flanks (Figure 3.1) (Bastow et al., 2005). The network was
centred on the Boset magmatic segment in the centre of the rift, ~75 km SE of Addis
28
Ababa, and recorded for 16 months between October 2001 and January 2003. The
broad and even distribution of stations was also ideal for monitoring micro-seismicity in
the MER. The EAGLE I network was deployed and managed by Leeds University.

37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
AAE
FURI
WNDE
Caldera
Lakes
Aluto-
Gedemsa MS
Boset-
Kone
MS
Fentale-
Dofen MS
Angelele MS
Guraghe BF
Arboye BF
Asella-Sire BF
Ankober
BF
37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
LEME
SHEE
GEWE
ANKE
KOTE
MELE MIEE
BEDE
MECE
CHAE
SENE
AREE
GTFE
BORE
DONE
INEE
AMME
MEKE
DIKE
ADEE
ADUE
DZEE
WOLE
ASEE
BUTE
KARE
HIRE
37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
35 40 45
5
10
15
S
N
A
D
35 40 45
5
10
15
GA
RS
35 40 45
5
10
15
1000 2000 3000
Elevation
m
EAGLE I
EAGLE II Permanent
EAGLE III

Figure 3.1: EAGLE broadband seismic stations used for earthquake location with respect to
major border faults and magmatic segments of the Main Ethiopian rift (MER). Grey triangles are
Phase 1 stations (Oct 2001 - Jan 2003), white triangles are Phase 2 stations (Oct 2002 - Jan
2003, white circles are Phase 3 stations (Nov 2002 - Jan 2003) and white squares are the IRIS
GSN permanent stations FURI, AAE and WNDE. The top left inset shows topographic relief,
plates and rift zones: A = Arabia; D = Danakil; N = Nubian Plate; S = Somalian Plate; RS = Red
Sea rift; GA = Gulf of Aden rift.
29
EAGLE III
stations
Earthquake
Epicentres
37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
AAE
FURI
WNDE
Caldera
Lakes
Aluto-
Gedemsa MS
Boset-
Kone
MS
Fentale-
Dofen MS
Angelele MS
Guraghe BF
Arboye BF
Asella-Sire BF
Ankober
BF
37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
35 40 45
5
10
15
S
N
A
D
35 40 45
5
10
15
GA
RS
35 40 45
5
10
15
1000 2000 3000
Elevation
m

Figure 3.2: EAGLE III short period, single component texan instruments with respect to major
border faults and magmatic segments of the Main Ethiopian rift (MER). White diamonds are
Phase III short period, single component texan instruments deployed for 8 days from 9 Jan
2002 - 16 January 2002. White stars are epicentres of earthquakes that occurred during the two
hour operating time windows during detonation of controlled sources. The top left inset shows
the topographic relief, plates and rift zones: A = Arabia; D = Danakil; N = Nubian Plate; S =
Somalian Plate; RS = Red Sea rift; GA = Gulf of Aden rift.

30
3.2.2 EAGLE II broadband network

The EAGLE II network was specifically designed to improve station density in the MER
for detailed analysis of micro-seismicity and to improve ray-coverage for local
earthquake tomography. Stations were thus deployed in areas that experience most
seismic activity and where crustal heterogeneity was expected to be greatest. The
EAGLE II network consisted of 50 stations (Gralp CMG-6TD sensors) that were
deployed with nominal spacing of ~15 km mainly within the rift valley (Fig. 3.1). The
network operated between October 2002 and January 2003 and was deployed and
managed by Royal Holloway University of London.

EAGLE I and II stations were located in relatively secure compounds such as schools
and clinics to safeguard the equipment from wild animals and vandalism. Sites were
selected with an unobstructed sky view to allow the GPS system to receive a signal
from as many satellites as possible and provide solar panels with maximum direct
sunlight. Seismometers were commonly close to sources of high levels of cultural noise
during the day.

3.2.3 EAGLE III broadband and short-period profiles

The EAGLE III broadband cross-rift profile was deployed to record teleseismic arrivals
for both receiver function and SKS-splitting studies to assess variations in crustal and
mantle structure across the MER. From November 2002 - January 2003, 91 stations
(Gralp CMG-6TD sensors) were deployed at 5 km intervals along a ~450 km long
profile that traversed the MER between the Blue Nile gorge in the Ethiopian Highlands
and the Bale Mountains on the eastern part of the plateau (Fig. 3.1). The EAGLE III
broadband profile significantly improved the local earthquake tomography ray-coverage
on the Ethiopian and Southeastern plateau.

The EAGLE III controlled source project aimed to image variations in crustal structure
of the MER using wide-angle reflection/refraction and controlled source tomographic
methods. For 8 days in January 2003, the 91 EAGLE III cross-rift broadband stations
were supplemented by short period, single component Reftek texan instruments at 1
km intervals to form the cross-rift wide-angle reflection/refraction profile (Mackenzie et
al., 2005) (Fig. 3.2). A profile of texans were also positioned at 1 km intervals along
31
the axis of the MER between Lake Shala in the central Ethiopian rift to Gewane in the
northern Ethiopian rift (Keller et al., 2004). Texans were also arranged at 2.5 km
nominal spacing as a ~100 km diameter ring centered at the intersection of the cross-
rift and along-rift profiles (Keranen et al., 2004). The texans were powered by an
internal battery and only operated for a two hour window during pre-planned controlled
source detonations. Three earthquakes occurred in the MER during such time windows
(Fig. 3.2).

3.2.4 Permanent broadband network in Ethiopia

In addition to the temporary EAGLE network, local earthquake data was available from
three permanent stations (AAE, FURI and WNDE) that are managed by the
Geophysical Observatory, Addis Ababa University (Fig. 3.1). Three-component
broadband waveform data are available from the permanent IRIS GSN station FURI via
the IRIS WILBER II website (http://www.iris.washington.edu/cgi-bin/wilberII_page1.pl).
In addition, P- and S-waves for earthquakes recorded at AAE and WNDE were
analyzed by technicians at the Geophysical Observatory and incorporated into the
arrival-time data from EAGLE stations.

The names, locations, instrumentation and periods of operation of all EAGLE
broadband stations and the permanent network in Ethiopia are summarized in
Appendix A.

3.3 Instrumentation

The EAGLE I network consisted of 10 Gralp CMG-40TD instruments and 20 CMG-
3TD instruments. These have a near flat velocity response from 0.008 to 50 Hz (120 s -
0.02 s) and from 0.03 to 50 Hz (30 s - 0.02 s) respectively. Each instrument has an in-
built 24-bit digitizer which was pre-configured to record vertical, north-south and east-
west data streams at 50 s.p.s.. These instruments were powered using a 100 Ahr
battery that was continuously recharged, via a regulator box, by 2x36 W solar panels.
Data were recorded by a SAM (Seismic Acquisition Module) onto 9 Gb removable
SCSI disks capable of storing more than 6 months of continuous data.

32
The EAGLE II and EAGLE III broadband networks consisted of Gralp CMG-6TD
seismometers that have a flat velocity response from 0.03 to 50 Hz and recorded at
100 s.p.s.. These instruments were powered using a 12V/10Ah Dryfit500 battery that
was continuously recharged, via a regulator box, by a BP Solar solar panel (Fig. 3.3).
Data were stored on an internal 3 Gbyte FLASH memory card capable of storing 6-8
weeks (depending on noise levels) of continuous data at 100 s.p.s..

The sensors in Gralp seismometers are based on a design of a leaf spring suspended
boom supporting a transducer coil. The boom and the coil form an inertial mass.
Capacitance position sesnors provide a voltage proportional to the displacement of the
masses from their original position. This voltage, after amplification, generates a
current In the force transducer coil which tends to force the mass back to its original
position. The motion of the mass is effectively cancelled and thus provides a force
balance. The feedback voltage is a measure of the force, and thus also of the
acceleration of the mass. A complete account of the operation of all Gralp instruments
used in EAGLE can be found at their company website (http://www.guralp.net).

The digitizer at each station continuously digitized seismometer mass positions and
thus allows sensor stability to be monitored. Tilting of the sensor due to post-
deployment settlement can cause mass positions to depart from the recommended
operational range of 2.5 million counts.

When a seismometer tilts, the vertical component reduced by a factor cos (where
is the angle of tilt from the vertical) whilst the horizontal components pick up a fraction
of the vertical component - given by a factor sin (e.g., Neuberg et al., 2002). For
small tilt angles this is not problematic for the vertical component since cos 1. For
larger tilt angles, however, sin << 1 and the horizontal components are perturbed.
The Gralp CMG-3TD sensors have an autocentre facility that can counter the problem
of tilt up to 2.5
o
of tilt. The CMG-40TD and CMG-6TD sensors do not have this facility
but CMG-6TD sensors suffer no observable variation in performance up to 3
o
of tilt.
Monitoring of sensor mass positions was therefore an important aspect of data quality
control (section 3.6).

Timing on all broadband stations was determined using an internal clock that was
synchronized using a GPS signal (Fig. 3.3). The GPS provided nominal timing
33
precision of 0.5 s. Details of the GPS synchronization were recorded as a log file
which was used to check for data timing errors during data quality control (section 3.6).

3.4 Deployment procedure and station setup

The author participated in EAGLE II station deployment in October 2002 as well as
three equipment service and data retrieval visits from November 2002 - January 2003
(Table 3.1). Therefore, details of deployment procedure, station setup, network
management and data retrieval / archiving related to EAGLE II seismic stations are
discussed here. Details of the EAGLE I network are available in Bastow (2005).

EAGLE phase II Gralp CMG-6TD seismometers were installed in a ~0.5 m deep, ~0.5
m wide pit dug in superficial deposits, with the top of the sensor typically 20-50 cm
beneath the surface. Sensors were typically wrapped in two plastic bags to prevent
damage to the instruments by water, soil and insects. Sensors were oriented to true
north using a hand held compass which has an estimated orientation error of 2
degrees. An air-bubble was used to initially level the sensor within the pit. Prior to
burial, mass-positions, data recording streams and GPS synchronization were all
checked with Gralp shout software run from a handheld palm-pilot. Once the health
of the deployed station was ensured, the sensor pit was filled with sand.

A single BP Solar solar panel was fastened to a wooden stake typically ~1-1.5 m
away from the sensor pit (Fig. 3.3). The solar panel surface was oriented south and
angled ~20
o
from the horizontal. The solar panel charged a 12V/10Ah Dryfit500 battery
wrapped in two plastic bags and buried directly beneath the solar panel. The battery
and solar panel were connected in parallel through a regulator to ensure a steady
supply of power to the station and allow the battery to be charged during periods of
sunshine.

The GPS antenna used to synchronize the internal clock of the sensor was fixed to the
top of the wooden stake used to hold the solar panel in position (Fig. 3.3). The GPS
antenna was typically ~1.5 m above the surface. A 1-1.5 m high chicken or barbed wire
fence, supported by four wooden posts, was constructed around the station to prevent
disturbance by animals and people.

34
The location of the station was determined from the average of three measurements
made with a Garmin handheld GPS. Station locations are estimated to be accurate to
200 m in the horizontal plane and 100 m in the vertical plane.

Figure 3.3: EAGLE II CMG-6TD station equipment and construction. Top left panel shows
equipment made by Gralp A, GPS module; B, breakout box; C, CMG 6TD seismometer. Top
right panel shows a typical scene during data download with the portable SCSI disk, D,
contained within the rucksack. E is a solar panel with attached GPS module. The breakout box,
battery and firewire cable used to transfer data between the sensor and disk are stored in a
plastic bag, F, buried near the solar panel. In this scene the firewire cable is attached to the
SCSI disk, D. Lower panel shows a completed EAGLE II 6TD station at Kiyensho School, E75.
E, solar panel and attached GPS module; F, position of buried breakupout box, battery and
firewire cable; G, position of buried sensor; H, barbed wire fence and wood fence posts.
35
# Dates Details of Fieldwork
1 2002/09/27-
2002/12/09
Deployment of EAGLE II stations
First EAGLE II service and data retrieval
2 2002/12/27-
2003/02/21
Second EAGLE II service and data retrieval
Participated in deployment and retrieval of EAGLE II single
component controlled source geophones
Participated in retrieval of EAGLE III broadband stations
Assisted in retrieval of EAGLE I network
Retrieval of EAGLE II stations and shipment of equipment to U.K.
3 2004/07/12-
2004/07/15
Collaborated with Atalay Ayele (Geophysical Observatory, Addis
Ababa University) for field investigation of earthquake damage from
November 2003 swarm of earthquakes near Dofen volcano.
4 2004/11/15-
2004/12/12
Collaborated with Julie Rowland (University of Auckland, NZ) for
field mapping of faults and fissures in the Ethiopian rift

Table 3.1: The authors fieldwork timetable. Two visits to Ethiopia related to EAGLE comprised
5 months from September 2002 - February 2003. Two visits related to field mapping and
earthquake damage investigation comprised 1 month of 2004.

3.5 Network management and data collection

The 3 Gbyte memory of the CMG-6TD sensors is set as a circular buffer and thus the
oldest data are overwritten when the memory is full. To avoid loss of data, the EAGLE
phase II stations were visited twice between deployment in October and retrieval in late
January (Table. 3.1). During each visit, all 3 Gbyte of data were copied from the sensor
to a portable SCSI disk (DFD unit) via a firewire cable. The general health of the
seismic station was also monitored at this time. Data streams, sensor leveling, and
GPS signal were checked with a palm-pilot. All solar panels were cleaned, cable
connections checked, and wire fences surrounding the station re-enforced.

The raw data, in Gralp Compressed Format (GCF), were copied from the portable
SCSI disks to the SEIS-UK EAGLE II field Sun Workstation in the Department of
Geology and Geophysics, Addis Ababa University. The data were copied from the
workstation to DLT and DAT tapes and transported to the U.K. Tapes were
downloaded onto the SEIS-UK data processing workstation at the University of
36
Leicester and the raw continuous GCF data converted to miniSEED format. A dataless
SEED file containing both network and station specific information not included in the
miniSEED data was also created. This full data volume was subsequently archived at
the IRIS Data Management Center, Seattle. Full details of the data conversion
procedures are available at SEIS-UKs online documentation
(http://www.le.ac.uk/geology/seis-uk).

3.6 Data quality control

An internal clock offset of 0.02 s (the sampling rate of EAGLE I instruments) was used
as the quality control benchmark to minimize the timing error in earthquake arrival time
measurements. The offset and drift of the internal clock at the moment of
synchronization was recorded on a log file, which was used to plot a time series of
GPS health (Fig. 3.4). Periods of time that lacked regular clock synchronization were
noted and seismic data during these time periods was not used for measurements of
arrival times. The one hour clock synchronization interval was generally sufficient to
keep the internal clock drift below 0.02 s. Stations that experienced problems acquiring
a GPS fix were set to continuous clock synchronization (Fig. 3.4).

Figure 3.4: Example of GPS data from station E69 plotted for data QC. The GPS did not
function from mid-Dec02 until 6Jan03.
37
Sensor mass positions were recorded in the data stream which was used to plot a time
series of sensor mass positions for each station (Fig. 3.5). Mass positions for CMG-
6TD seismometers should ideally be less than 2.5 million counts and all EAGLE II
instruments were deployed with mass positions below this quality control benchmark.
EAGLE II stations did not experience significant changes in sensor mass positions after
deployment. A summary of the quality control assessment performed on the EAGLE II
data is in Appendix B.

M
a
s
s

Z
M
a
s
s

N
M
a
s
s

E
Date and Time
349593
406713
867543
993015
414985
470167
10/24/02 10/31/02 11/07/02 11/14/02 11/21/02

Figure 3.5: Example of seismometer Z, E and N mass positions from station E39 plotted for QC
purposes. Mass positions should be below 2.5 million. The small fluctuations in mass positions
are due to daily variations in temperature.

3.7 Earthquake detection in continuous seismic data

Earthquakes were detected in the continuous miniSEED seismic data with the
automatic event detection algorithm datascan. The algorithm used a comparison of
average short term amplitude (STA) and average long term amplitude (LTA) to detect
38
events. The STA was calculated for a sliding 1 sec. time window while the LTA was
calculated for a sliding 60 sec. time window. The data were bandpass filtered at 2-15
Hz and a positive detection was made if the STA/LTA ratio exceeded 20:1 on two or
more stations within a 2 minute time window. The STA/LTA ration was chosen by a trial
and error process. Several test runs were made with different STA/LTA ratios for one
week of data containing a known number of earthquakes found by manual inspection.
The lower the STA/LTA ratio used in the trigger algorithm, the larger the number of
events that are detected. A ratio of 20:1 provided the best balance between detecting
too many events (earthquakes and non-seismogenic signals, e.g. rockfalls, gusts of
wind, cultural noise, etc.) and detecting too few genuine earthquakes.

The trigger algorithm could be applied to four stations at a time. Due to the large spatial
coverage of the EAGLE network, applying the algorithm to just four widely spaced
stations did not detect an acceptable number of the lower magnitude earthquakes. The
network was thus divided into six sub-sections and the algorithm applied to four
relatively quiet stations within each section (Fig. 3.6). The subdivision of the network
increased the time dedicated to pre-processing but was very successful in detected low
magnitude earthquakes throughout the MER.

The trigger algorithm was only applied to stations of the EAGLE I network. Data noise
levels from the EAGLE I CMG-3T and CMG-40TD are much lower than that from the
EAGLE II and III CMG-6TDs. Applying the trigger algorithm to the 6TDs returned fewer
earthquakes and more non-seismogenic events. Secondly, the EAGLE I network was
operational for the full duration of the 16 month experiment, with Phase II and III
stations only deployed for the final 4 months. The trigger algorithm was applied to the
same set of stations for the full duration of the experiment to ensure a homogeneous
dataset that would not be biased from temporal variations in the number of operational
stations.

For each event detected by the algorithm the corresponding seismograms were output
as a postscript plot and genuine seismic events were discriminated by visual
inspection. Many of the earthquakes recorded by the EAGLE project were of regional
or teleseismic origin. Events with S-P travel time differentials of larger than 60 seconds
were immediately discarded. This selection process resulted in a dataset of 2139
earthquakes.
39
41
8
9
10
WE E
TE TE
MIEEE MIEE
EDE EDE
AREE AREE
GTFE EE GTFE
RE RE
INEE INEE
AAA
KE KE KEE KE
ADEE ADEE
DZEE DZEE
WOLE WOLE
BU BU
HIRE HIRE
38 38 39 39 40 40 41
8
9
10
35 40 45
5
10
15
S
N
A
D
35 40 45
5
10
15
GA
RS
35 40 45
5
10
15
1000 2000 3000
SHEE SHEE
GEW GEW
ANKE ANKE
KARE KARE
WE E
KK
EE EE
GTF GTF
NU NU
BOREEE BORE
DONE DO DO DONE
R
F
UR
REE EE
GT GTF
UU
MELE MELE
BE BE
MECE MECE
AWAE AWAE
EE
LEME LEME
A
MEK EE MEK
DZ DZ
UTE UTE
AAA
K EKKK
ZE E
A
K EK
DZ DZ
UU
Z
KO KO
CHAE CHAE
SENE SENE
A
IN IN
OT T
AA
NE E IN INE
MMEE MME
DIKE DIKE
AA
ASEE AASEE
A
A
AMM
AA

Figure 3.6: Distribution of EAGLE I stations used for earthquake detection. The network was
divided into five sections and the datascan algorithm applied to four stations within each
section.

3.8 Arrival time measurements

First arrival times of P- and S-waves on earthquake seismograms were measured
using Seismic Handling Management (SHM) software

(http://www.franken-
online.de/seismosite/) (Fig. 3.7). Arrival time of P- and S- phases were initially
measured on Phase I data bandpass filtered between 2-15Hz. Arrival times from Phase
II and Phase III seismic stations were added to the data for earthquakes that occurred
during the respective operation periods of these arrays. Arrival times for stations AAE,
FURI and WNDE measured by the Geophysical Observatory, Addis Ababa University
were also added to the dataset. The work of measuring phase arrival times was
predominantly by the author but data was processed by three other trained analysts (C.
Ebinger, A. Intawong and J. Pollatos).
40
38 39 40 41
7
8
9
10
11
2003/01/10 12:13:56.13
N 8.6112 E 39.447
ML 3.4
38 39 40 41
7
8
9
10
11
MIEE
CHAE
BORE
E82
1219
1001
38 39 40 41
7
8
9
10
11

Figure 3.7: Example of unfiltered vertical component recordings of an earthquake located near
Boset volcano. Stations BORE, MIEE and CHAE are Phase I CMG-40T instruments, E82 is a
Phase II CMG-6TD, and 1219 and 1001 are Phase III CMG-6TD.

Uncertainty in the measured arrival times of both P- and S- waves caused by noise in
the data was estimated using a scheme of arrival time quality factors. Arrival times of
P-waves were made on vertical components only, and assigned a quality factor of 0, 1,
2 or 3 according to estimated measurement errors of 0.05 s, 0.1 s, 0.15 s and 0.2 s,
respectively (Fig. 3.8). Arrival times of the S-waves were made on the clearest
horizontal or vertical seismogram. Quality factors of 0, 1, 2 and 3 were assigned to
arrivals with estimated measurement errors of 0.1 s, 0.175 s, 0.25 s and 0.3 s,
respectively. A total of ~13388 P-wave and ~12725 S-wave arrivals were measured
from the 2139 earthquakes.

41
P0 P1
P2 P3
A B
C D

Figure 3.8: Examples of P-wave recordings for the various quality factors. A 120 s trace length
is displayed above each 3 s window at the P-wave onset. The bars show the time uncertainty of
the observation.

3.9 Hypocentre determination methods and errors in earthquake locations

The travel of a seismic wave is a non-linear function of both hypocentral parameters
and seismic velocities sampled along the ray path between station and hypocenter. In
standard earthquake location the seismic velocity model remains fixed and the
observed travel times are minimized by perturbing the hypocentre to minimize the root-
42
mean-square residual between observed travel-time and expected travel-time (RMS
travel-time residual) for the given velocity model. This procedure neglects the coupling
between hypocentre location, origin time and seismic velocity model in determining the
travel time of a seismic wave and error estimates will be dependant on choice of
velocity model. Precise hypocenter locations require the simultaneous solution of both
velocity and hypocentral parameters. The velocity model achieved with this method
leads to a minimum average of RMS values for all earthquakes and should reflect a-
priori information obtained by refraction and controlled source tomographic studies.

The 1-D P-wave velocity model and station corrections used to locate earthquakes in
the MER were determined by simultaneously relocating earthquakes and inverting for
velocity structure with VELEST (Kissling et al., 1995) (Fig. 3.9). Only earthquakes with
8 or more P-arrivals, an azimuthal gap of less than 180
o
, and an epicentral distance to
the nearest station of less than twice the focal depth were used to invert for the 1-D P-
wave velocity model. 280 earthquakes satisfied the selection criteria and can be
considered as well-located earthquakes. Additional constraints on the 1-D P-wave
model were provided by the controlled source experiment (Mackenzie et al., 2005).

The 280 well-located earthquakes were subsequently relocated using a 3-D P-wave
velocity model determined with SIMULP (e.g., Eberhart-Philips and Michael, 1998;
Haslinger et al., 1999). Hypocenter accuracy of the earthquakes was tested by
relocating shots and randomly adjusting horizontal and vertical positions of
hypocenters. From these tests we estimate hypocenter accuracy for earthquakes of
about 600 m in horizontal directions and 2000 m in depth. Details of the local
earthquake tomography study are provided in Daly et al. (in review).

The Hypo2000 algorithm, which solves for earthquake location by iteratively converging
on a hypocentre that minimizes the RMS travel-time residual, was used to obtain
locations of all 2139 local earthquakes recorded at four or more stations. The minimum
1-D P-wave velocity model and Vp/Vs ratio of 1.75, calculated from P- and S-wave
travel-times, were employed. Arrival times were weighted according to the quality factor
assigned to the phase, with P-wave quality factors of 0, 1, 2 and 3 given full (1), 0.75,
0.5 and 0.25 weights respectively. S-waves were given half weighting relative to P-
waves of the same quality factor.
43
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
D
e
p
t
h

(
k
m
)
0 2 4 6 8
P-wave velocity (km/s)
0
10
20
30
40
S
-
P

t
r
a
v
e
l
-
t
i
m
e

(
s
)
0 10 20 30 40 50
P-wave travel-time (s)
(a) (b)

Figure 3.9: a) Minimum 1-D P wave velocity model determined by simultaneously inverting for
velocity model and hypocentres of 280 well located earthquakes. The minimum 1-D velocity
model was subsequently used to locate all 2139 earthquakes in the EAGLE dataset. b) Wadati
diagram of S-P travel times versus P-wave travel times for earthquakes in the MER. The
straight line shows the best fit to the data and represents a Vp/Vs ratio of 1.75.

3.10 Amplitude measurements and initial magnitude estimation

A summary of initial processing steps used for magnitude estimation is provided here.
However, chapter 5 describes full account of earthquake magnitude estimation and
magnitude statistics results. Local magnitude was initially estimated using the
maximum body wave displacement amplitudes (zero-to-peak) in mm, measured on a
simulated Wood-Anderson seismograph and distance correction terms of Hutton and
Boore (1987).

Waveforms were thus first corrected for the instrument response of the CMG-3T, CMG-
40TD and CMG-6TD seismometers and convolved with the displacement ground
motions with the nominal Wood-Anderson response using Seismic Analysis Code
(SAC)

(http://www.llnl.gov/sac) (Fig. 3.10). The maximum peak-to-peak amplitude in
mm was measured on both horizontal traces. Peak-to-peak amplitudes were halved to
obtain a close approximation to maximum zero-to-peak amplitude. Stations with
malfunctioning horizontal components were removed from the dataset. The dataset of
2139 earthquakes provided 15456 amplitude measurements on each horizontal
component, a total of 30908 measurements.
44

Figure 3.10: Example of processing required for measurement of earthquake amplitudes. Top
panel: unfiltered velocity response on east-west and north-south components. Middle panel:
simulated Wood-Anderson displacement response on E-W and N-S components. Lower panel:
3 sec. window around maximum peak-to-peak amplitude on simulated Wood-Anderson
displacement response. The vertical scale is in mm.

45
3.11 Summary

The EAGLE network provided a dense distribution of broadband seismic stations that
recorded earthquakes for 16 months from October 2001 - January 2003. The large
data set has been subjected to rigorous quality control procedures and is of high
quality. A trigger algorithm was used to identify local earthquakes in continuous seismic
data. The arrival times of P- and S-waves were measured and assigned quality factors
dependent on the estimated measurement error caused by noise. High quality arrivals
were given more weight during earthquake location and relocation. 2139 earthquakes
were recorded at four or more stations and located using a minimum 1-D velocity
model, determined using local earthquake tomography. Hypocentres of a subset of 280
well located earthquakes were determined using a 3-D velocity model and have
estimated location errors of 600 m in horizontal directions and 2000 m in depth.
Maximum zero-peak amplitudes of the earthquakes were measured on simulated
Wood-Anderson seismograms and then used to estimate earthquake magnitude.

Chapter 4 - Seismicity in the northern MER

46
Chapter 4

Seismicity in the northern Main Ethiopian rift

4.1 Introduction

The distribution of seismicity in an active rift that is transitional between continental and
oceanic in style constrains the pattern of strain localisation in the crust just prior to
continental breakup. Analysis of the broadband seismic data recorded by the dense
network of EAGLE stations in the MER provides a unique opportunity to obtain
accurate earthquake hypocentres in a volcanic rift setting that is near breakup. This
chapter presents the distribution of seismicity in the MER from October 2001 to
January 2003. The results are compared to patterns of Quaternary - Recent
deformation shown by other strain indicators at the surface such as Quaternary faults,
calderas, aligned cones and lava flows. The new seismicity data are also interpreted in
light of structural, seismic refraction / wide-angle reflection, gravity, anisotropy, and
crustal and mantle tomographic studies to propose that extension via magma injection
and minor faulting characterises the late stages of continental rifting prior to breakup.

4.2 Distribution of seismicity results

From October 2001 to January 2003, 2139 local earthquakes were recorded by the
EAGLE network (App. B). Of these, 1957 earthquakes were located within the network
of seismic stations (Fig. 4.1). Concentrated seismic activity occurs in the Fentale-Dofen
magmatic segment, which is a 20 km-wide, 70 km-long zone that extends from Fentale
caldera to Dofen volcano (Fig. 4.1). Earthquakes are located in a 10 km-wide, NNE-
trending zone that extends 40 km north of Fentale volcano where the pattern of
seismicity is mirrored by the surface expression of the closely spaced, small offset
Quaternary faults and fractures (Fig. 4.2). Three distinct earthquake clusters are
located near the Pliocene - Recent Dofen volcano (Figs. 4.1, 4.3). The distribution of
earthquakes located with the 3-D P-wave velocity model show that these clusters are
elongate ~N to ~NNE, parallel to the surface expression of major Quaternary fault
systems that cut lavas erupted from fissures (Fig. 4.3).


47
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
Aluto-Gedemsa MS
Boset-
Kone
MS
Fentale-
Dofen
MS
Angelele MS
Guraghe BF
Arboye BF
Asella-Sire BF
Ankober
BF
Ambo Fault
Addis
Ababa
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
1 2 3 4
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
1000 2000 3000 4000
Elevation
m

Figure 4.1: Seismicity of the MER from October 2001 to January 2003. Earthquakes were
located with the minimum 1-D P-wave velocity model determined from local earthquake
tomography. Only events recorded by at least 4 stations and located within the array of seismic
stations are displayed. Heavy black lines show major border faults; ellipses mark Quaternary
magmatic segments. The star shows the location of the October 2003 earthquake swarm near
Dofen volcano.


48

Figure 4.2: Example of seismicity located near Quaternary eruptive volcanic centres and faults
of the Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment plotted on a grayscale Landsat 741 image. The top left
inset shows the position of the image with respect to border faults and magmatic segments in
the MER.

The frequency-depth distribution of earthquakes within the Fentale-Dofen magmatic
segment located with the 3-D P-wave velocity model shows most earthquakes are 8-14
km depth (Fig. 4.3, 4.4). Hypocentre depths are 8-10 km deep near Fentale and Dofen
volcanoes but are up to 16 km deep in between these major eruptive centres (Fig. 4.3).
The temporal distribution of seismicity in the Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment is
characterised by earthquake swarms that punctuate largely aseismic periods (Fig. 4.5).

Minor seismicity is located within the Boset and Aluto-Gedemsa magmatic segments
(Fig. 4.1). Regions between the right stepping en-echelon magmatic segments are
largely aseismic.


49

Figure 4.3: Earthquake locations determined using the 3-D P-wave velocity model in the
Ankober region and Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment, plotted on 90 m resolution SRTM
topographic data. The earthquakes were recorded with 8 or more P-wave arrivals, have an
azimuthal gap of less than 180
o
, and an epicentral distance to the nearest station of less than
twice the focal depth. Profiles A-A & B-B project earthquakes within 30 km of the line of section
onto the profile. The thickened portions of the profiles show where the profile crosses the
Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment.

50
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
D
e
p
t
h

(
k
m
)
0 5 10 15 20
Number of Events
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
D
e
p
t
h

(
k
m
)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Number of Events
a) b)

Figure 4.4: Histograms of number of earthquakes per 1 km depth bin interval for the a) Fentale
- Dofen magmatic segment, and b) Ankober region. The hypocentres were located with the 3-D
P-wave velocity model and are displayed on Fig. 4.3.

Seismic activity south of the Aluto-Gedemsa magmatic segment is more diffuse than to
the north (Fig. 4.1). This rift sector lacks the narrow zone of localised faults and
eruptive centres characterizing the magmatic segments. Epicentres are located within
a 30-40 km-wide zone of Quaternary faults along the eastern side of the rift valley. The
amount of seismicity in this rift sector is relatively low and lacks the periods of swarm
activity observed further north in the Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment (Fig. 4.5).

The exception to the pattern of correlated seismicity and Quaternary eruptive centres
is the long-lived seismicity at the intersection of the NE-striking Miocene MER and N-
striking Oligocene Red Sea structures near Ankober (Figs. 4.1, 4.3). This intersection
zone has the highest relief in the region, with deeply incised valleys. Earthquakes are
localised in a N-S oriented cluster on the northwest margin of the rift valley at 9.5
o
N
39.75
o
E. The cluster lies at the southern end of the ~N-striking Ankober border fault
system, which is a series of closely spaced high angle normal faults and tight
monoclinal folds (Wolfenden et al., 2004). The rate of seismicity in this area was high
for the first 6 months of the experiment and characterised by frequent swarm activity
(Fig. 4.5). Focal depths are concentrated between 10 and 13 km with activity observed
down to 18 km (Fig. 4.3, 4.4).


51
39 40
8
9
10
11
1
38 38 39 40
8
9
10
11
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
2
1
0
Sep Nov Jan
Nov Jan Mar Jul May Sep Nov Jan
2000
1500
1000
500
2002 2003 2001
2002 2003 2001
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

N
u
m
b
e
r
(a)
(c)
(b)

Figure 4.5: a) Seismicity of the MER recorded by the EAGLE network with the three regions
that experienced the most activity highlighted, 1: Ankober area, 2: Fentale-Dofen magmatic
segment, and 3: south of Aluto-Gedemsa magmatic segment. b) Cumulative number of
earthquakes versus recording time of the regions 1, 2 and 3. c) Cumulative number of
earthquakes versus recording time of all the earthquakes recorded within the EAGLE network.

52
A minor, roughly E-W elongate cluster of earthquakes is located near Addis Ababa
(Fig. 4.1). The structure of this area is dominated by the E-striking Ambo lineament, a
fault zone active since the Late Miocene (Abebe et al., 1998). Isolated but relatively
deep earthquakes (15-21 km) characterise the remaining earthquake activity of the
Ethiopian plateau. The southeastern plateau shows a lack of activity except for a small
cluster on the southern margin of the Gulf of Aden rift at 9
o
N 40.5
o
E (Fig. 4.1).

4.3 Discussion

4.3.1 Pattern of seismicity on rift border faults

A striking feature of the recorded seismicity is the lack of earthquakes located on mid-
Miocene border faults that bound the MER and define the overall ~NE trend of the rift.
The inactivity of mid-Miocene border faults is reflected over longer time periods by the
minor geodetic strain on the rift flanks (Bilham et al., 1999) and lack of large magnitude
earthquakes on border faults over the last ~50 years (Ayele and Kulhnek, 1997). This
inactivity is inferred from historical records spanning the past 150 years (Gouin, 1979),
and morphology of the border faults (Boccaletti et al., 1998; Wolfenden et al., 2004).

The exception is the seismicity observed at the intersection between the N-striking Red
Sea rift and the NE-striking MER. The cluster of earthquakes is located on the N-
striking Ankober fault system that formed at ~11 Ma to link the two oblique rift systems.
Although fault and seismicity patterns show that the locus of strain has shifted to the
Quaternary magmatic segments in the central rift, this high point along the rift flank still
experiences strain (Wolfenden et al., 2004). The strike of the Ankober fault system is
oblique to the NE-trending MER and focused deformation in this complex zone of rift
intersection may be caused by flexure accommodating differential subsidence in the
Red Sea rift relative to the younger MER. Further north of Ankober, the Red Sea rift
margin is seismically active as shown in historical records, regional catalogues and
recent seismicity (Ayele et al., in press). Stress is concentrated in this area by the large
lateral density contrast and difference in lithospheric thickness between the uplifted
western Ethiopian plateau and Afar depression (e.g., Dugda et al., 2005; Tiberi et al.,
2005).


53
4.3.2 Seismicity in magmatic segments

A number of lines of evidence indicate that extensional strain is accommodated by a
combination of dyke injection and faulting within magmatic segments, as outlined
below. For the period 1960-2000, a comparison of the expected released seismic
moment and observed seismic moment shows that less than 50 % of extension across
the MER is accommodated by rapid slip on faults (Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003). At the
surface, GPS measurements show that approximately 80 % of present day extension
across the MER is localised in a ~20 km-wide zone of Quaternary faulting and
magmatism (Bilham et al., 1999). This narrow zone of localised deformation is also
observed in the brittle upper crust from patterns of seismicity. Elongate clusters of
earthquakes are associated with observed faults, fissures and active eruptive centres
in the Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment. The swarms of low magnitude earthquakes
are concentrated at 8-14 km depth which coincides with the top of the ~20-30 km-wide
zone of extensive mafic intrusions at 8-10 km depth (Keranen et al., 2004). Seismic
anisotropy of the upper crust is highest in the magmatic segments and attributed to
melt-filled cracks and dykes aligned perpendicular to the minimum stress (Keir et al.,
2005). Crustal strain across the MER is accommodated within the magmatic segments
by magma intrusion below ~10 km, and by both faulting and dyke intrusion in the brittle
seismogenic zone.

The Debre Zeit and Butajira chains of Quaternary eruptive centres located west of the
magmatic segments are largely aseismic, and they show little structural or
morphological evidence of active strain. Xenolith data and tomographic models show
these chains are underlain by hot asthenosphere (Bastow et al., 2005; Rooney et al.,
2005), but they lack the large relative positive Bouguer anomaly and high velocity crust
of the magmatic segments (e.g., Tiberi et al., 2005). These chains may be either
unfavourably oriented failed magmatic segments, or incipient zones of strain.

In the magmatic segments of the MER, seismicity, geodetic and structural data all
show a localisation of strain in zones of Quaternary magmatism. The earthquakes in
the magmatic segments are concentrated above axial mafic intrusions and may be
induced by dyke injection. Models of the elastic stress field surrounding propagating
fluid-filled cracks show that earthquakes of magnitude > 1 can be induced ahead of a
propagating dyke if the ambient stress field is near to failure, and slip is likely to occur

54
along pre-existing fractures (Rubin and Gillard, 1998). Earthquake swarms are
assumed to occur near the crack tips due to the increasing stress caused by
concentrated internal fluids. Spatially, swarms reflect areas of magma intrusion. The
correlation we observe in the MER between seismic swarms and magma injection has
been documented near active volcanoes in other settings, suggesting the swarms are
causally linked to magma intrusion. For example, seismicity leading to the Mt. Etna
eruption of 2001 was characterised by swarms elongate parallel to surface fractures
and parallel to the maximum compressive stress determined from focal mechanisms
(Musumeci et al., 2004). This seismic activity was interpreted as being caused by dyke
emplacement prior to the eruption. By analogy to these other locales and independent
data from the MER, we propose that the observed seismicity in magmatic segments
above axial mafic intrusions is induced by magma injection into the mid- to upper crust.

4.3.3 Pattern of along-axis segmentation and episodic rifting

The along-axis segmentation of the MER is reflected at the surface by the right-
stepping en-echelon patterns of Quaternary faults and aligned cones within discrete 20
km-wide, 60 km-long magmatic segments. The pattern of seismicity interpreted in light
of other data provides clues as to the origin of this along-axis segmentation. At 8-10
km depth subsurface, the segmentation is evident as discrete axial mafic intrusions
imaged by crustal tomography (Keranen et al., 2004). These mafic bodies correlate
with along-axis velocity variations in the mid- and lower crust, implying that mafic
intrusions extend to the base of the crust (Maguire et al., 2006). Extension in the mid-
to lower crust is thus likely accommodated within a narrow zone of magma injection.
The onset of melting likely occurs in the lower crust and sub-continental lithosphere
(Rooney et al., 2005). The correlation between the orientation of lithospheric
anisotropy and the distribution of Quaternary strain and magmatism shows that
vertically oriented dykes with partial melt cross-cut the lithosphere (Kendall et al.,
2005). The concentrated seismicity in the Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment and
largely aseismic Boset-Kone and Aluto-Gedemsa magmatic segments is indirect
evidence that episodic rifting events within one magmatic segment are independent of
other magmatic segments. This suggests magma source regions are spatially and
temporally discrete.


55
The EAGLE network recorded seismicity for 15 months and thus provides a snapshot
of active deformation in the MER. During this time period, seismicity was particularly
concentrated in the Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment but the pattern of Quaternary
faults and fissures that cut recent lavas and historic earthquake data show that major
episodes of dyke injection and associated seismicity have been concentrated in other
magmatic segments in the past. Asfaw (1982) noted the development of surface
fissures following a swarm of M
L
<4 earthquakes near Fentale in 1981. Similar fissures
are observed in all magmatic segments along the axis of the MER and most likely
formed during previous rifting episodes (e.g. Asfaw, 1998; Williams et al., 2004). The
Boset-Kone magmatic segment was relatively inactive in 2001-2003. However, the
swarm of earthquakes reported near Nazret in 1964 (Gouin, 1979), an M
w
5.3
earthquake near Nazret in 1993 (Ayele, 2000) and fissuring of <10000 year old
ignimbrites at Kone (Williams et al., 2004) highlights the episodic nature of rifting in the
MER.

4.4 Summary

From Oct 2001 - Jan 2003, 1957 earthquakes were located within the EAGLE network
of broadband seismic stations in the northern Main Ethiopian rift and on its uplifted rift
flanks. Excluding the MER - Red Sea rift intersection zone at Ankober, seismicity within
the rift is localised to <20 km-wide, right-stepping, en echelon zones of Quaternary
magmatism. Seismicity in these magmatic segments is characterised by swarms of low
magnitude earthquakes located in clusters that parallel Quaternary faults, fissures and
chains of eruptive centres. The earthquakes in the magmatic segments are
predominantly <14 km deep and may be triggered by dyke injection. Seismic activity at
Ankober may be caused by flexure accommodating differential subsidence at the
oblique intersection of the <11 Ma MER and the older Red Sea rift. From integration of
these results with other geophysical and structural observations we propose that
present-day extension in the MER is localised to discrete <20 km-wide en echelon
magmatic segments, where extensional strain in the upper crust is accommodated by
both dyke intrusion and dyke induced faulting. The individual magmatic segments show
large spatial and temporal variations in level of seismicity over the time period of the
study, suggesting magma source regions for separate magmatic segments are
spatially and temporally discrete.
Chapter 5 - Local earthquake magnitude scale and seismicity rate
56
Chapter 5

Local earthquake magnitude scale and seismicity rate

5.1 Introduction

A calibrated local earthquake magnitude scale is essential for quantitative analyses of
seismicity. In Ethiopia, effective monitoring of earthquakes and resulting assessment of
seismic hazard are especially important as regions with seismic and volcanic activity
coincide with regions of economic significance and population growth. A new
magnitude scale is developed with the aim to quantify the size of local earthquakes in
our dataset by accurately estimating local earthquake magnitude (M
L
). The wealth of
broadband waveforms in the seismicity dataset allows for a direct inversion of
earthquake amplitude measurements for a local magnitude scale based on the original
definition proposed by Richter (1935, 1958). The calibrated magnitude scale is then
used to calculate the annual cumulative frequency-magnitude distribution of seismicity
in the MER.

5.2 Importance of a calibrated magnitude scale for Ethiopia

A calibrated earthquake magnitude scale based on M
L
is of great importance for
seismic hazard studies (Bormann, 2002). Attenuation curves that correct for the
decrease in seismic-wave amplitude with distance differ from region to region and the
use of an inappropriate curve can result in miscalculation of earthquake magnitude by
over 1 M
L
units, even at hypocentral distances of less than 300 km. Probabilistic hazard
analysis requires details of magnitude statistics (e.g. maximum magnitudes and the b-
value of the cumulative frequency-magnitude distribution), which require accurate
magnitude estimates to determine earthquake recurrence relationships. The
combination of the sparse station distribution, lack of a calibrated local magnitude scale
and low number of earthquakes recorded on global, regional and local catalogues has
meant that reliable earthquake magnitude statistics for the MER have not been
calculated (Ayele and Kulhnek, 1997). Earthquake magnitude is also important in
integrated seismic and geodetic studies that aim to understand lithospheric deformation
processes in rift systems by quantifying relative amounts of seismic and aseismic strain
57
(e.g. Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003; Bendick et al., 2006). The attenuation curve derived
from a local magnitude scale is also useful for risk assessment in engineering practice
as the frequency band of the Wood-Anderson seismometer (~0.8-10 Hz) is in the range
of most engineering structures. However, measurements on seismic-wave propagation
in Ethiopia are lacking (Kebede and van Eck, 1997; Mammo, 2005).

Seismic hazard assessment is important in Ethiopia as regions with seismic activity
coincide with regions of economic significance and population growth (e.g. Gouin,
1979; Kebede and Kulhnek, 1991; Kebede and Kulhnek, 1994). The potential
seismic and volcanic hazard in volcanic rift zones in Ethiopia was highlighted by the
recent rifting episode in the northern Afar rift. From 20 September - 8 October 2005,
162 earthquakes of m
b
> 4.0 and a volcanic eruption occurred within a ~ 60 km-long rift
segment. Disruption caused by ground-shaking, surface fissuring and ash deposits
caused the displacement of ~6000 pastoralists from the region (Yirgu et al., 2005).
Radar interferometry (InSAR) shows that ~8 m of horizontal opening occurred during
the rifting event with seismic moment release accounting for only ~9 % of extension
(Wright et al., 2006). The majority of extension was likely accommodated by dyke
intrusion.

Seismicity in Ethiopia is currently monitored by 5 permanent broadband seismic
stations, including the IRIS/GSN station FURI, maintained by the Geophysical
Observatory Addis Ababa University. The Geophysical Observatory record earthquake
coda-length, but they lack a formal method of measuring local earthquake magnitude.
In addition to the permanent stations, seismicity of north Afar is monitored by a network
of 9 three-component broadband seismic stations from October 2005 - April 2006. A
calibrated magnitude scale is critical for accurate quantitative monitoring of past,
ongoing and future seismic activity in Ethiopia.

5.3 Amplitude data

Local magnitude was originally defined by Richter (1935) using ground motions
recorded on a standard horizontal Wood-Anderson torsion seismograph. Therefore, the
EAGLE broadband data were corrected for the instrument response of the CMG-3T,
CMG-40TD and CMG-6TD seismometers. The displacement ground motions were
convolved with the standard Wood-Anderson response: magnification of 2800,
58
damping ratio of 0.8, and natural period of 0.8 sec. (Anderson and Wood, 1925;
Kanamori and Jennings, 1978). We measured the maximum absolute value of the
zero-to-peak amplitude in millimeters of the N-S and E-W horizontal component
seismograms. Stations with malfunctioning horizontal components were removed from
the dataset. The dataset of 2139 earthquakes provided 15456 amplitude
measurements on each horizontal component, a total of 30908 measurements (Figs.
5.1 and 5.2). The hypocentral distances considered range from 5 to 800 km, with the
best represented range being from 5 to 150 km (Fig. 5.1).

Figure 5.1: Distance/magnitude distribution of the data available for the horizontal components.
Magnitudes are estimated with the new distance correction terms for Ethiopia.

59
38 39 40 41
7
8
9
10
11
FURI
Aluto-
Gedemsa MS
Boset-
Kone
MS
Fentale-
Dofen MS
Angelele MS
Guraghe BF
Arboye BF
Asella-Sire BF
Ankober
BF
38 39 40 41
7
8
9
10
11
LEME
SHEE
GEWE
ANKE
KOTE
MELE MIEE
BEDE
MECE
CHAE
SENE
AREE
GTFE
BORE
DONE
INEE
AMME
MEKE
DIKE
ADEE
ADUE
DZEE
WOLE
ASEE
BUTE
KARE
HIRE
38 39 40 41
7
8
9
10
11
36 38 40 42 44
6
8
10
12
14
1 2 3 4 5
1000 2000 3000 4000
elevation m
Magnitude (M
L
)

Figure 5.2: Top panel: Distribution of the 2139 earthquakes recorded from October 2001 to
January 2003 in the MER and Afar rifts. Size of earthquake epicentres is scaled by magnitude.
The white star is the location of NEIC reported earthquake 2002/12/01/11:18 (m
b
PDE = 4.9).
The box encloses the location of the EAGLE network of broadband seismic stations. Lower
panel: Triangles are EAGLE stations (chapter 3). IRIS/GSN permanent broadband station FURI
is shown as a white square. Miocene border faults are shown with thick black lines and dip ticks.
Magmatic segments along the rift axis are shaded grey.
60
5.4 Methodology

We use the equation of Richter (1935, 1958)

M
L
= log(A
WA
) - log(A
o
) + C, (1)

where A
WA
is zero-to-peak amplitude measured on a standard horizontal Wood-
Anderson seismograph, log(A
o
) is a distance correction term and C are correction
terms for individual stations. We determine the attenuation curve, log(A
o
), by using the
parametric approach (Bakun and Joyner, 1984). The major advantages of the
parametric form of the attenuation curve are that it considers simple expressions of
geometrical spreading and attenuation, and is represented by only a few coefficients.
This facilitates straightforward estimation of local magnitude using a single equation at
all hypocentral distances (e.g., Hutton and Boore, 1987; Kim, 1998; Kim and Park;
2005, Langston et al., 1998). On a global scale, the standardization of the local
magnitude calculation using the parametric form of the attenuation curve is
recommended (Ortega and Quintanar, 2005). A drawback of the parametric approach
is that the nonparametric expression of the attenuation curve better represents crustal
and upper-mantle complexities (e.g., Anderson and Lei, 1994; Baumbach et al., 2003;
Bragato and Tento, 2005; Savage and Anderson, 1995).

Richters original local magnitude scale is defined such that an earthquake of M
L
= 3
will cause a 1 mm zero-to-peak deflection of the Wood-Anderson seismogram at 100
km from the epicentre. Hutton and Boore (1987) point out that there are regional
differences in crustal attenuation and wave propagation that influence the attenuation
of S-waves in seismograms of local earthquakes. They suggest that local magnitudes
be normalized to motions at closer distances to avoid most of the regional differences
in wave propagation, using a 10 mm deflection of the Wood-Anderson seismogram at
17 km from the epicentre for a M
L
= 3 earthquake, consistent with the original definition
of the local magnitude scale. The distance correction term is thus defined as

-log(A
o
) = nlog(r/17) + K(r-17) + 2, (2)

where n and K are parameters related to the geometrical spreading and attenuation of
S-waves in the region, respectively.
61
If equation (1) and (2) are combined, the observed amplitude, A
ijk
, is modeled by

log(A
ijk
) + 2 = -nlog(r
ij
/17) - K(r
ij
-17) + M
Li
- C
jk
, (3)

where index i labels events, index j labels stations and index k labels the component
(NS / EW). The objective of the inversion is to determine n, K, M
L
and C. There are two
station factors per station corresponding to the E-W and N-S horizontal components.
The system of equations includes a constraint that the mean of station factors is zero.
The observations on the left-hand side of equation (3) are linearly related to the
unknowns, which we arrange in a model vector m. We have N
e
events and N
s
stations,
and thus have a total of (N
e
+ 2N
s
) + 2 unknowns. The N observations log(A
ijk
) + 2 are
arranged into the N-vector d. We write the overdetermined set of equations (3) in the
form

d = Am, (4)

which we solve using the conventional least-squares criterion; the optimal solution
satisfies

m = (A
T
A)
-1
A
T
d (5)

The linear system (5) has a total of 2385 parameters and the 30908 data; it can be
solved in less than an hour on a modest workstation. Our approach leads directly to an
optimal solution and is different from the iterative procedure used to determine m (e.g.,
Langston et al., 1998). Pujol (2003) tested the direct inversion method on data from
Tanzania previously analyzed with the iterative technique (Langston et al., 1998).
Similar results were achieved but the major advantages of the direct inversion are that
the solution is independent of the starting values for the unknowns.

5.5 Results

5.5.1 Magnitude scale for the MER

The distance correction, log(A
o
), term from the inversion using 17 km distance
normalization is given by:
62

-log(A
o
) = 1.196997log(r/17) + 0.001066(r-17) + 2 (6)

where r is hypocentral distance in kilometers (Fig. 5.3).

The errors on the estimates of n and K can be determined from the posterior
covariance matrix. The two-by-two subsection of the entire 2385 by 2385 covariance
matrix is practically diagonal, showing that the estimates of n and K are virtually
independent. One can rigorously characterize this by calculating the eigenvectors of
the (n, K) section of the matrix; the ellipse describing the 1-standard deviation contour
has a semi-major axis of length 0.025 and semi-minor axis of length 9.7 x 10
-5
and is
oriented with the semi-major axis practically parallel to the n axis (the angle between
them is 0.25
o
). These values for the ellipse lengths are similar to the values for the 1-
sigma standard deviations of the parameters n and K.

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Southern California (Hutton and Boore, 1987)
Ethiopia
Tanzania (Langston et al., 1998)
Southern California (Richter, 1958)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
-
l
o
g
(
A
o
)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Hypocentral Distance (km)

Figure 5.3: Attenuation curves for southern California (Hutton and Boore, 1987) - black
squares, California (Richter, 1935) - grey stars, Tanzania (Langston et al., 1998) - grey
triangles, and that derived for Ethiopia from our study (grey circles).

63
3
4
5
6
Mean = 4.98
mb (PDE) = 4.9
a
3
4
5
6
3
4
5
6
Mean = 4.13
mb (PDE) = 4.9
b
3
4
5
6
3
4
5
6
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Mean = 4.79
mb (PDE) = 4.9
c
3
4
5
6
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
M
L
)
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
M
L
)
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
M
L
)

Figure 5.4: Magnitude estimated at stations of varying hypocentral distances for earthquake
2002/12/01/11:18 (m
b
PDE = 4.9) with three different attenuation curves, a: magnitude
estimated with the distance correction terms of Hutton and Boore (1987) for southern California,
b: magnitude estimated with the distance correction terms of Langston et al., (1998), c:
magnitude estimated with the new magnitude scale for Ethiopia. Straight lines are best-fit to the
data and show that the Hutton and Boore (1987) magnitude scale over-estimates magnitudes
with increasing hypocentral distances whereas the Langston et al. (1998) scale under-estimates
magnitude with increasing hypocentral distance. The new magnitude scale for the MER
estimates consistent magnitudes across varying hypocentral distances and the average local
magnitude (M
L
= 4.79) is that expected for an m
b
= 4.9 earthquake.
64
The new distance correction terms compensate correctly for the reduction in amplitude
with increasing distance (Figs. 5.4, 5.5). For example, earthquake 2002/12/01/11:18
(m
b
PDE = 4.9) was the nearest and most widely recorded earthquake on the EAGLE
network that was reported by NEIC. The earthquake is located ~200 km north of station
KARE and was recorded with a high signal-to-noise ratio by 72 EAGLE broadband
stations at hypocentral distances of 200 - 600 km (Fig. 5.4). Local magnitude was
estimated at each station using the magnitude scale for Tanzania (Langston et al.,
1998), southern California (Hutton and Boore, 1989) and Ethiopia. The magnitude
estimated at each station using the Tanzania magnitude scale decreases with
increasing hypocentral distance and the average magnitude is M
L
= 4.13. In contrast,
the magnitude at each station using the southern California scale increases with
increasing hypocentral distance and the average magnitude is M
L
= 4.98. The new
magnitude scale for Ethiopia estimates consistent magnitude for stations at different
hypocentral distances and the average magnitude is M
L
= 4.81.

-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
M
e
a
n

M
L

R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

Figure 5.5: Mean magnitude residuals per 50 km bin intervals with error bars marked by the
standard deviation in the mean magnitude residuals. Magnitude residuals are the difference
between magnitude assigned by a single station and the average magnitude of the earthquake.

The mean magnitude residual, the difference between magnitude at a single station
and average magnitute, is calculated per 50 km bin interval with error bars marked by
the standard deviation of the mean magnitude residuals (Fig. 5.5). Mean magnitude
residuals vary 0.1 M
L
to hypocentral distance of 700 km. An M
L
residual of 0.18 is
calculated from only 16 measurements at hypocentral distances of >700 km. The lack
of significant variation in mean magnitude residuals with distance shows that possible
65
complexities in crustal and upper mantle structure do not have a systematic effect on
variations in attenuation with distance beneath the MER. Our parametric expression of
the attenuation curve thus represents a simple model that adequately compensates for
the decay of amplitude with increasing distance.

5.5.2 Local magnitude values and station corrections

The inversion procedure solved for correction factors of both N-S and E-W components
at individual stations. The N-S component correction factors vary between 0.41 to -0.34
M
L
units and the E-W component correction factors vary between 0.42 to -0.33 M
L
units
(Fig. 5.6). Most stations have similar correction factors on the two horizontal
components. Station corrections can vary dramatically over distances of ~5km and
there is no consistent difference between corrections at stations in the rift valley and on
the adjacent plateau. Thus, the spatial variation of station factors shows neither a clear
correlation to major tectonic features nor to topographic relief and suggests a strong
influence of local site effects on variations in the amplitude of ground motion.

38 39 40 41
7
8
9
10
11
38 39 40 41
7
8
9
10
11
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
FURI FURI
a b
N-S E-W
Station Correction

Figure 5.6: Spatial variation of station factors on a: N-S component and b: E-W component.
Negative correction factors are shown as squares scaled by magnitude of the correction factor.
Positive correction factors are shown as circles scaled by magnitude of the correction factor.
66
Magnitude residuals were calculated with and without computed station corrections, C,
taken into account (Fig. 5.7). For magnitude residuals calculated without station
correction, the average of residuals on the N-S and E-W components is nearly zero
and the standard deviation is 0.24 (variance,
2
, is 0.058). For magnitude residuals
calculated with station corrections, the average of residuals on the N-S and E-W
components in nearly zero, and the standard deviation is 0.18 (
2
is 0.032). Therefore,
adopting the station corrections reduced variance by 45%.

Figure 5.7: a: Magnitude residuals / hypocentral distance distributions for both the N-S and E-W
components. a: magnitude residuals without taking into account station corrections. The
variance is 0.054. b: magnitudes residuals with station corrections taken into account. The
variance is 0.032. Therefore, adopting the station corrections reduced variance by 45%. The
average of residuals, both with and without station corrections considered, is nearly zero.

67
The station correction factors for the permanent IRIS/GSN station FURI are -0.16 M
L

units on the N-S component and -0.14 M
L
units on the E-W component. Future
permanent and temporary seismic array deployments in Ethiopia are likely to include
earthquake records from FURI, and such studies will now be able to use amplitude
measurements from this permanent station to calibrate new data with our magnitude
scale for the MER.

5.6 Discussion

5.6.1 Seismic attenuation

A comparison of the attenuation curves obtained from Ethiopia, southern California
(Hutton and Boore, 1987), and Tanzania shows that attenuation in Ethiopia is relatively
high. The attenuation curve computed for southern California by Hutton and Boore
(1987) is similar to Ethiopia, particularly at hypocentral distances of less than 300 km.
Rifted regions with elevated geothermal gradients such as the southwestern United
States are generally characterised by high attenuation of seismic waves (e.g., Hutton
and Boore, 1989; Richter, 1958; Savage and Anderson, 1995). In southern California,
high body-wave attenuation is attributed to a combination of high temperatures and
partial melt in the crust resulting from active rifting (Schlotterbeck and Abers, 2001).
Our results of relatively large amounts of attenuation in the MER is thus not surprising
considering the wealth of independent geophysical and geological data that shows
evidence for partial melt and magma intrusions in the crust and upper mantle beneath
the MER and adjacent Ethiopian plateau (e.g., Bastow et al., 2005; Keir et al., 2005;
Kendall et al., 2005; Rooney et al., 2005).

The high attenuation observed in Ethiopia is significantly different to the East African rift
system in Tanzania where the crust and upper mantle have had little to no modification
by rifting processes (Langston et al., 2002). In Tanzania, the combination of crystalline
Archaean and Protorozoic crust, in conjunction with low geothermal gradients typical of
Archaean craton give rise to very efficient wave propagation in the lithosphere
(Langston et al., 1998; Weeraratne et al., 2003).

5.6.2 Magnitude statistics and annual-cumulative seismicity rate

68
The new magnitude scale for Ethiopia is used to investigate seismicity of the MER for
2001-2003. Due to high attenuation in the MER, earthquakes located outside the
network but recorded on EAGLE stations are M
L
> ~3 (Figs. 5.1 and 5.2). Therefore,
we calculated magnitude statistics of the 1957 earthquakes located within the network
of seismic stations. This ensures we sample an earthquake catalogue that is not biased
towards large earthquakes located outside the network and also ensures our
magnitude statistics sample only earthquakes in the MER. The majority of earthquakes
are of M
L
1-2 and the largest earthquake is M
L
3.9 (Fig. 5.8a). The power-law
cumulative frequency-magnitude distribution shows that the seismicity catalog is
complete above M
L
2.1 (Fig. 5.8b) (Gutenberg and Richter, 1954). A b-value of 1.13
0.05 was estimated from earthquakes larger than the M
L
= 2.1 using the maximum
likelihood method (Aki, 1965) and an error estimate determined from the standard
deviation of b (Shi and Bolt, 1982). The cumulative annual seismicity rate is calculated
from an annualized dataset and follows the relation log N = 4.5 - 1.13M
L
. Hofstetter and
Beyth (2003) obtained a b-value of 0.83 0.08 from just 16 earthquakes on global and
regional catalogues that were located across a larger area that encompasses both the
MER and southern Ethiopian Rift as far south as 5
o
N.

0
1
2
3
0 1 2 3 4 5
Mc
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0 1 2 3 4
Magnitude (M
L
) Magnitude (M
L
)
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

E
a
r
t
h
q
u
a
k
e
s
L
o
g

A
n
n
.

C
u
m
u
.

N
u
m
.

o
f

E
a
r
t
h
q
u
a
k
e
s
a b

Figure 5.8: a: Magnitude-frequency distribution of earthquakes recorded within the network of
seismic stations. The majority of earthquakes are of magnitude M
L
1-2 and the highest
magnitude earthquake is M
L
= 3.9. b: Gutenburg-Richter distribution of earthquakes located
within the network of seismic stations. Mc is the cut off magnitude of 2.1 and the slope shows b
= 1.13 0.05. The straight line intersects the y-axis at y=4.5.
69
The relatively high b-value of 1.13 0.05 for seismicity in the MER during 2001-2003
shows that seismic energy is released mostly as swarms of lower-magnitude (M
L
< 4)
earthquakes. Previous studies of seismicity in the MER also report lower-magnitude
seismic swarms and a similar pattern is evident in data from global and regional
catalogues that show relatively few larger magnitude (m
b
> 4.0) earthquakes in the
MER. (e.g. Asfaw, 1982; Gouin, 1979; Kebede and Kulhnek, 1994). The observed
lack of large magnitude earthquakes in the MER is consistent with geodetic data that
show that the majority of strain across the MER is accommodated aseismically
(Bendick et al., 2006; Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003).

An estimated b-value of 1.13 for the MER is similar to b-values of 1.05 - 1.3 calculated
for the southern Red Sea and Gulf of Aden sea-floor spreading centres (Ayele and
Kulhnek, 1997; Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003). Lower b-values of between 0.7-0.9 are
observed in the East African rift system in southern Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania
where moment release as large magnitude earthquakes located on rift bounding border
faults accommodate the majority of extension (e.g., Tongue et al., 1992; Langston et
al., 1998).

5.6.3 Seismic and volcanic hazards in Ethiopia

Despite the lack of large earthquakes recorded over the past ~50 years in the MER,
the recent dyke injection episode and associated swarm of earthquakes, surface
fissuring and volcanic eruption in Afar highlights the potential seismic hazard of rift
zones in Ethiopia. Seismicity within the magmatic segments of the MER is likely
controlled by episodic injection of dykes (Keir et al., 2006). Although a major rifting
event has not yet been directly observed in the MER, structural data suggest that
episodes of surface fissuring and volcanic eruptions have occurred in MER magmatic
segments during the last ~10000 years (e.g., Asfaw, 1982; Asfaw; 1998; Williams et al.,
2004). Despite the current period of quiescence, hazards associated with seismicity
and volcanic eruptions pose a serious risk to life and economy in the MER.

5.7 Summary

A local magnitude scale for Ethiopia has been developed from 30908 amplitude
measurements on simulated Wood-Anderson seismograms from 2139 earthquakes
70
recorded on 122 EAGLE broadband instruments. The new magnitude scale uses a
distance normalization of 10 mm motion at 17 km distance for a M
L
3.0 earthquake and
shows that ground-motion attenuation in Ethiopia is relatively high and is consistent
with the presence of pervasive magma intrusion and partial melt beneath the MER.

The catalogue of events used in this study is complete above M
L
2.1 and the annual
cumulative seismicity rate in the MER is log N = 4.5 - 1.13M
L
. The relatively high b-
value is expressed in the observed pattern of low magnitude M
L
< 4 swarms of
earthquakes in the MER and lack of large magnitude earthquakes reported on global
and regional catalogues over the last ~50 years. The new calibrated magnitude scale is
critical for current and future quantitative analysis of seismicity in Ethiopia, which is
important for scientific, economic and social development.
Chapter 6 - Style of faulting and stress field orientation

71
Chapter 6

Style of faulting and stress field orientation determined from
earthquake focal mechanisms

6.1 Introduction

Despite numerous structural studies (e.g., Acocella and Korme, 2002; Wolfenden et al.,
2004; Casey et al., 2006), the dominant style of faulting and direction of extension in
the MER remains controversial. Prior to EAGLE, the seismic network in Ethiopia was
sparse and thus earthquake source parameters were determined for a low number of
large magnitude earthquakes from recordings at regional and teleseismic distances.
The dense network of EAGLE seismic stations provides a wealth of three-component
broadband seismic data with which to determine well constrained earthquake source
parameters, including hypocentral location and focal mechanism, for earthquakes of
too low a magnitude to be recorded by stations at regional distances. This chapter
presents well constrained focal mechanisms of 33 earthquakes located in the MER that
are then used to invert for the regional stress tensor. Focal mechanisms are related to
structural data and the orientation of the regional stress tensor is compared to geodetic
data, as well as global and local plate kinematic models.

6.2 Determination of focal mechanisms

Focal mechanisms were computed from P- and SH- wave polarities using the grid
search algorithm FOCMEC (Snoke et al., 1984). A double-couple source type is
assumed as all the events selected are characterized by high frequency content, sharp
first-arrivals and clear S-phases at the nearest stations (Figs. 6.1, 6.2). Hypocentre co-
ordinates were determined by locating the event with the 3-D velocity model. A fault
plane solution was only attempted if an earthquake was located within the network, the
nearest station was within an epicentral distance of twice the focal depth, and the
solution had a minimum of 10 P-wave polarities located in at least 3 quadrants of the
focal sphere. Polarity errors of neither P- nor SH-waves were tolerated in the grid
search algorithm. In total, 33 well constrained and unambiguous fault plane solutions
that have a maximum 20
o
uncertainty in either strike or dip of both nodal planes were

72
determined (Table 6.1). This new dataset is supplemented by the 3 well-constrained
focal mechanisms in the MER determined from data at regional and teleseismic
distances (Ayele, 2000; Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003; CMT, Harvard).

b
c
d
k
n
j
a
h
g
i
l
m
f
e
a b
c
d
e
f g h i
j
k
l
m n
b
f
c
e
d
a
a
b
c
d
e
f
P-wave polarities
SH-wave polarities
0 1s
0 2s

Figure 6.1: Unfiltered data used to determine the focal mechanism of earthquake 2003/01/02
08:52:45.77. The earthquake is located at 40.013
o
N, 9.244
o
E and M
L
= 2.4. Fault slip
parameters are strike = 195
o
, dip = 65
o
, rake = -90
o
. Focal mechanisms are lower hemisphere
projections of the focal sphere. P-wave polarities; shaded regions show compressional (upward)
P-wave first motions and unshaded regions are dilatational (downward) P-wave first motions
measured on vertical seismogram. SH-wave polarities; the focal sphere is divided into regions
of downward and upward first motions of the S-wave measured on transverse component
seismograms.

73
w
l
x
g
i
j
m
a
o k
u
n
h
t
v
p
s c
q
f
e
r
b
d
a b c
d e
f g
h i
j k l o
p
r
t
v
n
q
s
u
w
m
x
o
q
c
d
a
p
b
x
w
n
h
r
g
e
im
s
v
k
u
f
t
j
l
a b c
d e
f g
h i
j k l o
p
r
t
v
n
q
s
u
w
m
x
0 1s
0 2s
P-wave polarities
SH-wave polarities

Figure 6.2: Data used to determine the focal mechanism of earthquake 2003/01/10
12:13:56.13. The earthquake is located at 39.447
o
N, 8.6112
o
E and M
L
= 3.4. Fault slip
parameters are strike = 42.64
o
, dip = 85.25
o
, rake = 13.19
o
. Focal mechanisms are lower
hemisphere projections of the focal sphere. P-wave polarities; shaded regions show
compressional (upward) P-wave first motions and unshaded regions are dilatational (downward)
P-wave first motions measured on vertical seismogram. SH-wave polarities; the focal sphere is
divided into regions of downward and upward first motions of the S-wave measured on
transverse component seismograms.

74
6.3 Method of inverting focal mechanisms for the regional stress tensor

The focal mechanisms were used to invert for the regional stress tensor with the linear,
least squares stress inversion method of Michael (1984) that minimizes the angle
between the predicted tangential traction on the fault plane and the observed slip
direction. The 95% confidence regions were determined with the bootstrap re-sampling
method (Michael, 1987a; 1987b) and used as an error estimate of the stress tensor.
The relatively small dataset and estimated focal mechanism errors of this study make
this method most appropriate to both accurately determine the stress orientation and
adequately estimate the confidence limits (Hardebeck and Hauksson, 2001).

The inversion procedure assumes that the four stress parameters are constant over the
spatial and temporal extent of the data set and that earthquakes slip in the direction of
the resolved shear stress on the fault plane (Michael, 1984). The uniform stress tensor
that best explains the mechanisms is expressed by the three principal stress axes
(where
1
,
2
and
3
are the maximum, intermediate and minimum principal
stresses respectively) and the stress ratio. An average misfit angle , which measures
the difference between the observed slip direction and the predicted direction of
maximum tangential traction, is computed and used as a measure of the success of the
inversion. The steepest nodal plane of the normal fault focal mechanisms and ~NE-
striking nodal planes of the strike-slip mechanisms were chosen as fault planes for the
inversion in accord with geological observations (e.g., Abebe et al., 1998; Wolfenden et
al., 2004; Casey et al., 2006; Pizzi et al., 2006).

6.4 Focal mechanism results

In total, 33 well constrained and unambiguous fault plane solutions that have a
maximum 20
o
uncertainty in either strike or dip of both nodal planes were determined
(Table 6.1, Figs. 6.3, 6.4). This new dataset is supplemented by the 3 well-constrained
focal mechanisms determined from data at regional and teleseismic distances (Ayele,
2000; Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003; CMT, Harvard) (Table 6.2, Fig. 6.4).


75
Table 6.1: Earthquake source parameters determined from EAGLE data.

Table 6.1 and 6.2 column header definitions

Date: date of earthquake as year/month/day
Time: origin time of earthquake as hour:minute:second
Lat. (
o
N): latitude of earthquake location
Long. (
o
E): longitude of earthquake location
Z (km): earthquake depth in kilometres
Strike: strike of nodal plane in degrees from north
Dip: dip of nodal plane in degrees from horizontal
Rake: rake of nodal plane in degrees
M
L
: local magnitude

M
W
: moment magnitude

Date
(yr/mo/dy)
Time
(hr:mn:sc)
Lat.
(
o
N)
Long.
(
o
E)
Z
(km)
Strike Dip Rake M
L

2002/01/16 21:22:39.44 9.239 40.021 13.3 180.0 50.0 -90.0 1.7
2002/01/17 01:38:03.91 8.154 39.002 20.3 2.3 60.1 -93.5 2.01
2002/01/18 01:42:40.83 8.998 39.918 10.2 359.7 54.2 -97.4 2.82
2002/02/17 02:38:15.44 9.470 39.692 11.9 171.5 66.0 -90.0 3.21
2002/05/02 21:43:23.17 9.122 39.984 13.2 211.6 56.4 -80.4 2.64
2002/07/04 02:59:42.35 9.173 39.966 15.8 214.4 60.1 -85.4 3.54
2002/07/31 01:54:38.27 9.444 39.677 11.3 172.8 66.1 -85.6 2.34
2002/08/21 01:27:23.93 8.951 39.711 13.9 192.9 60.1 -84.2 2.14
2002/10/08 19:37:43.42 9.199 39.949 12.7 225.7 68.1 -85.7 2.03
2002/10/09 18:19:37.91 9.193 39.987 12.5 223.1 68.2 -64.0 2.14
2002/10/10 19:15:51.93 9.066 39.965 14.6 201.5 58.3 -66.3 1.17
2002/10/19 21:25:25.96 10.130 39.957 15.5 198.1 59.4 -71.3 2.83
2002/11/04 00:17:42.49 8.432 39.673 12.9 2.5 51.2 -83.6 1.17
2002/11/04 00:24:55.49 7.812 38.976 6.9 183.8 63.3 -109.1 1.71
2002/11/05 22:42:14.69 9.728 39.370 14.7 29.3 66.4 -79.1 1.92
2002/11/07 01:24:31.21 9.492 40.040 15.5 216.3 46.0 -74.6 1.89
2002/12/03 16:02:52.26 7.481 38.553 13.6 183.7 68.0 -92.2 2.55
2002/12/03 20:10:01.33 7.700 38.911 12.4 190.0 45.0 -90.0 2.34
2002/12/04 13:41:09.57 8.873 39.836 9.6 209.9 60.0 -90.0 1.97
2002/12/13 17:36:21.66 9.494 40.034 15.8 183.7 64.3 -98.9 2.2
2002/12/15 08:37:35.26 7.428 38.648 8.6 198.0 50.0 -90.0 3.06
2002/12/15 19:15:38.82 7.430 38.657 6.4 210.5 70.4 -78.3 2.89
2002/12/15 20:35:05.22 9.548 40.144 19.0 190.6 66.6 -103.1 1.93
2002/12/17 22:12:36.10 9.001 39.907 8.4 64.5 88.2 -0.8 1.4
2002/12/17 23:15:10.76 8.998 39.901 9.2 72.0 80.7 -3.8 1.55
2002/12/23 06:27:49.95 9.446 39.680 10.4 182.0 60.0 -90.0 2.45

76
2002/12/26 19:47:51.98 9.221 40.014 13.0 213.2 62.0 -87.7 3.17
2002/12/26 19:55:17.90 9.221 40.011 12.7 219.9 60.0 -90.0 2.41
2003/01/02 08:52:45.37 9.246 40.013 13.9 195.0 65.0 -90.0 2.37
2003/01/10 12:13:56.08 8.611 39.447 7.0 42.6 85.3 13.2 3.44
2003/01/13 21:06:00.76 9.491 39.681 11.2 168.5 56.2 -97.2 1.97
2003/01/20 21:16:22.90 7.475 38.823 11.7 206.1 43.0 -104.8 2.52
2003/01/21 08:08:18.85 7.495 38.822 11.4 197.8 37.2 -117.2 2.9

Table 6.2: Earthquake source parameters determined in other studies.

Date
(yr/mo/dy)
Time
(hr:mn)
Lat.
(
o
N)
Long.
(
o
E)
Strike Dip Rake M
w
Data Source
1983/12/28 23:08 7.03 38.60 176 51 -81 5.3 Harvard CMT
1993/02/13 02:25 8.33 39.91 221 87 -7 4.9 Ayele, 2000
1995/01/20 07:14 7.16 38.44 9 49 -119 5.0
Hofstetter & Beyth,2003

020704 02:59
T
P
021203 20:10
T
P
021217 22:12
T
P
021217 23:15
T
P
021226 19:47
T
P
021226 19:55
T
P
030102 08:52
T
P
030110 12:13
T
P

Figure 6.3: A selection of focal mechanisms from this study. Compressional P-wave first
motions are plotted as circles and dilational first motions are plotted as triangles. The
compressional quadrants of the focal sphere are shaded black. Each solution is labelled by
earthquake origin time GMT (year, month, day, hour, minute).


77
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
Quaternary faults
and eruptive centres
and mid-Miocene
border faults
Red
Sea
rift
Ankober
BF
Arboye
BF
Guraghe
BF
Addis
Ababa
Nazr
La
e
Fentale
Fentale -
Dofen
magmatic
segment
segment
Asela A -
Sire BF
Boset
magmatic
Boset Debre Zeit chain D b Z it h i
a
n
Gadimott G
Ambo lineament
Ataye
BF
Ayelu-
Abida
Yardi
Lake
Awash
R.
Caldera Lakes
<2 My faults
eruptive centers
border faults
a
Aluto Aluto

Figure 6.4: Faults that cut <1.9 My lavas, and Quaternary eruptive centres comprising
magmatic segments, relative to the Miocene border faults bounding Main Ethiopian rift basins
(after Casey et al., 2006). Fault plane solutions are lower hemisphere projections. The size of
the solution is scaled to magnitude between M
L
1.17 - 5.3.

Focal mechanisms of earthquakes located along the axis of the MER and in the
Ankober fault system show predominantly normal dip-slip on steep faults that strike ~N
to ~NNE (Figs. 6.4, 6.5). Focal mechanisms are sub-parallel to the dominant N10
o
E
orientation of Quaternary faults in the Ethiopian rift (Boccaletti et al., 1998; Wolfenden
et al., 2004; Casey et al., 2006) (Fig. 6.4). A few of the normal dip-slip focal
mechanisms have slip planes that strike ~NE, parallel to the pre-3.5 Ma, N40
o
E-
striking faults (Fig. 6.5). The exceptions to these normal dip-slip focal mechanisms are

78
the strike-slip earthquakes below Fentale and Boset volcanoes, interpreted as left-
lateral motion on ~NE- to ~ENE-striking faults (Fig. 6.5). However, both normal and
strike-slip focal mechanisms show near horizontal T-axes striking N80
o
E-N130
o
E (Figs.
6.3, 6.5).

0
3
0
6
0
9
0
1
2
0
1
5
0
180
2
1
0
2
4
0
2
7
0
3
0
0
3
3
0
SOUTH
9
EAST WEST
NORTH
0
3
0
6
0
9
0
1
2
0
1
5
0
180
2
1
0
2
4
0
2
7
0
3
0
0
3
3
0
SOUTH
9
EAST WEST
NORTH
0
3
0
6
0
9
0
1
2
0
1
5
0
180
2
1
0
2
4
0
2
7
0
3
0
0
3
3
0
0
3
0
6
0
9
0
1
2
0
1
5
0
180
2
1
0
2
4
0
2
7
0
3
0
0
3
3
0
2
(a) (b)
(c) (d)

Figure 6.5: a) Rose diagram of the orientation of the T-axes of earthquake focal-mechanisms.
b) Rose diagram showing the strike of earthquake slip planes. c) Lower hemisphere plot of the
trend and plunge of fault plane solution T-axes (dark circles) and P-axes (light triangles). d.)
Results of the stress tensor inversion. Circle shows
3
, the minimum compressive stress.
Square shows
2,
the intermediate compressive stress. Triangle shows
3
, the maximum
compressive stress. 95 % confidence limits are shown by regions of grey shading.


79
6.5 Stress tensor results

The results of the stress inversion using the 36 focal mechanisms in the MER show
that the trend / plunge of the minimum principal stress is 283
o
/ 6
o
with a mean misfit
angle ( ) standard deviation of 10.9
o
7.0
o
(Fig. 6.5). This mean misfit angle is
comparable to results of stress tensor inversions from focal mechanisms within uniform
stress fields in other studies: 10-17
o
along fault segments of the San Andreas fault
zone (Jones, 1988); and 6-24
o
for datasets in the Swiss Alps and northern Alpine
foreland (Kastrup et al., 2004). However, a well resolved stress tensor requires that the
dataset contains a diverse range of focal mechanisms. In our dataset, only 4 strike-slip
focal mechanisms differ from the predominant dip-slip on ~N to ~NE-striking faults.
This unavoidable lack of diversity in type of focal mechanism reduces the resolution of
the stress tensor.

6.6 Quaternary volcanoes and faults as strain indicators

Earthquake focal mechanisms show the slip directions of active faults but the relatively
small size of the dataset, errors associated with computing the focal mechanism, and
assumptions made during the inversion for the stress tensor limit the resolution the
results. Quaternary deformation is observed at the surface as faulting and extrusive
volcanism. These strain indicators are thus used as independent data with which
earthquake focal mechanisms are compared and interpreted. Quaternary calderas,
aligned volcanic cones and faults were mapped using Landsat Thematic Mapper (30
m), and ASTER imagery (15 m resolution). Only faults of length greater than 200 m
that were clearly distinguishable from felsic and basaltic flow fronts were included in the
analysis. The orientation of the long-axis of the elliptical Quaternary calderas Boset,
Fentale and Dofen was also estimated.

Quaternary calderas and lava flows in the magmatic segments are predominantly cut
by N10
o
E to N30
o
E striking normal faults (Figs. 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9). A small subset of
faults striking N45-70
o
E link arrays of ~NNE striking faults within the magmatic
segments (Figs. 6.6, 6.8, 6.9) and may utilize ~NE striking Miocene-Pliocene faults.
Fault systems do not link the right-stepping magmatic segments. The long-axes of the
Quaternary calderas are; Boset - N107
o
E , Fentale - N109
o
E, Dofen - N110
o
E (Fig.
6.8).

80
39
39
40
40
8 8
9 9
10 10
Red
Sea
rift
MER
Ankober
BF
Arboye
BF
Addis
Ababa
et
Lake
Koka
Fentale
Fentale -
Dofen
magmatic
segment
Aluto-Gedemsa
magmatic
segment
Asela A -
Sire BF
Boset
magmatic
segment
Dofen en
Kone
Boset Bo t oset
Gademsa
Debre Zeit chain
<2 My faults
eruptive centers
border faults
a
Aluto Aluto
Fig. 6.8 . 6.8
Fig. 6.7 F
37
11
37
11
37
11
35 40 45
5
10
15
S
N
A
D
35 40 45
5
10
15
GA
RS
35 40 45
5
10
15

Figure 6.6: Structural map of the MER with areas enclosed within Fig. 6.7 and Fig 6.8 marked
by black boxes. From Casey et al. (2006)

Figure 6.7: Landsat TM imagery showing the close spatial coincidence of faults and eruptive
centres (fissures, cinder cones, shields) on the central Boset-Kone magmatic segment.
Location shown in Figure 6.6. Note the parallel faults and aligned scoria cones, as well as
fissural flows from some faults. Boset (B) and Kone (K). Most of the relief in this zone is
magmatic construction. From Casey et al. (2006)

81

Figure 6.8: Band 2 of Aster 15 m resolution imagery showing the Dofen volcanic edifice. The
elliptical region with roughly E-W long axis is taken to be the strained volcanic ediface (ellipse
above shows regional extension direction). Fault dips and fault slip directions from field studies
in 1990 shown in line drawing below image. Open circles indicate eruptive centres. From Casey
et al. (2006)

82
a) Fantale-Dofen
Magmatic Segment
b) Boset-Kone
Magmatic Segment
n = 164 n = 123
0
3
0
6
0
9
0
1
2
0
1
5
0
180
2
1
0
2
4
0
2
7
0
3
0
0
3
3
0
SOUTH
90
EAST WEST
0
3
0
6
0
9
0
1
2
0
1
5
0
180
2
1
0
2
4
0
2
7
0
3
0
0
3
3
0
SOUTH
90
EAST WEST

Figure 6.9: Rose diagrams showing orientations of Quaternary faults in a) Fentale Dofen
magmatic segment and b) Boset - Kone magmatic segment. The majority of Quaternary faults
are strike ~NNE but a small population strike from ~NE to ~ENE. From Casey et al. (2006)

6.7 Discussion

6.7.1 Style of faulting

The focal mechanisms provide a uniform picture for the pattern of faulting and stress
field orientation of the Ethiopian rift. Focal mechanisms indicate predominantly normal
dip-slip on faults that strike ~N to ~NNE, parallel to the dominant N10
o
E strike of faults
that cut Quaternary lavas (e.g., Casey et al., 2006). Field observations and geodetic
data of volcanic rift zones in Iceland and Hawaii indicate that dyke intrusions are most
often associated with normal faulting and fracturing at the surface (Rubin, 1992). The
predominance of normal dip-slip, and resulting lack of diversity in our focal mechanism
dataset, is thus consistent with dyke-induced seismicity in the MER.

The normal, oblique, and left-lateral strike-slip displacement on NE-striking fault planes
most likely occurs on pre-3.5 Ma, N40
o
E-striking faults that probably formed under a
NW-SE extension direction. These have most likely been re-activated as N40
o
E-
striking ramps and transfer faults to link N10
o
E-striking fault segments formed under
the ~N105
o
E extension direction during the Quaternary (Wolfenden et al., 2004; Casey

83
et al., 2006). The negligible block rotations about vertical axes in zones in between
magmatic segments suggests no through-going transform faults have developed, thus
supporting our interpretation of the strike-slip focal mechanisms as left-lateral ~NE
striking faults (Kidane et al., 2006).

6.7.2 Direction of extension across the MER

The N103
o
E orientation of the minimum compressive stress from focal mechanisms
parallels, within errors, the extension direction determined from sea-floor spreading
data from the past 3.2 My (Chu and Gordon, 1999) and current extension direction
determined from campaign and permanent GPS data (Bilham et al., 1999; Fernandes
et al., 2004; Calais et al., 2006). The direction of the minimum compressive stress also
agrees with the N105
o
E oriented long axes of elliptical Quaternary calderas (Casey et
al., 2006).

Extension is perpendicular to the strike of Quaternary faults, fissures and aligned
cones and is in agreement with structural studies that show a WNW-ESE direction of
extension during Quaternary times (Boccaletti et al., 1998; Wolfenden et al., 2004;
Casey et al., 2006). The current direction of extension is thus perpendicular to the
strike of Quaternary volcanic chains and faults in the magmatic segments. The right-
stepping en echelon pattern at the surface may be induced by ~N105
o
E directed
extension above a ~NE striking low velocity zone in the upper mantle connecting the
MER to the triple junction in Afar (Benoit et al., 2003; Bastow et al., 2005).

6.8 Summary

Well constrained source parameters were determined for 30 earthquakes located in
the MER. Earthquake focal mechanisms show predominantly normal dip-slip on faults
striking ~N to ~NNE, parallel to the dominant N10
o
E strike of faults that cut Quaternary
lavas. The predominance of normal dip-slip, and resulting lack of diversity in our focal
mechanism dataset is consistent with dyke-induced seismicity in the MER. Strike-slip /
oblique slip earthquakes beneath Fentale and Boset volcanoes are interpreted as left-
lateral motion on ~NE- to ~ENE-striking faults that link N10
o
E-striking fault segments.
The orientation of the minimum compressive stress determined from focal mechanisms
is N103
o
E, consistent with geodetic data and global plate kinematic constraints. The

84
current direction of extension is thus perpendicular to the strike of Quaternary volcanic
chains and faults in the magmatic segments. The right-stepping en echelon pattern of
strain at the surface may be induced by ~N105
o
E directed extension above a ~NE
striking low velocity zone in the upper mantle connecting the MER to the triple junction
in Afar.

Chapter 7 - Shear-wave splitting in crustal earthquakes
85
Chapter 7

Shear-wave splitting in crustal earthquakes

7.1 Introduction

Patterns of seismic anisotropy can be used to constrain style of rifting and is therefore
a useful tool to evaluate models of continental breakup. The wealth of broadband
seismic data acquired by the EAGLE network has afforded a detailed analysis of
seismic anisotropy in the upper mantle beneath the MER. However, such studies
cannot isolate anisotropy in the uppermost crust where patterns of deformation are
expressed as intrusive magmatism, and faulting and volcanism at the surface. This
chapter presents the results from a study of crustal anisotropy beneath the MER using
S-wave splitting measurements from local earthquakes. The results are compared to
independent structural and geophysical studies and this information is used to evaluate
mechanisms of deformation preceding continental break-up.

7.2 Mechanisms for seismic anisotropy in the crust

Anisotropy of the shallow crust is commonly attributed to micro-cracks vertically-
oriented parallel to the direction of maximum horizontal stress (e.g. Crampin, 1994).
For example, crustal shear-wave splitting measurements in rift zones at the Mid-
Atlantic ridge and in Iceland show fast-polarization directions sub-parallel to the
maximum horizontal stress. These patterns are attributed to aligned parallel cracks and
fractures in the uppermost 3-5 km of the crust (e.g. Barclay and Toomey, 2003; Evans
et al., 1996; Menke et al., 1994). S-wave anisotropy has also been attributed to vertical
micro-cracks throughout the crust in which case S-wave splitting is accrued along the
whole ray-path (e.g. Volti and Crampin, 2003b). Fast-polarization directions at active
volcanoes are usually parallel to dykes and the maximum horizontal stress, with 90
o

polarization flips observed prior to volcanic eruption due to increased pore pressure
leading to changes in crack orientation (Miller and Savage, 2001). Crustal anisotropy
has also been linked to other rock fabrics such as vertically dipping foliation of
metamorphic basement (e.g. do Nascimento et al., 2004).

86
7.3 Determination of shear-wave splitting parameters

Shear-wave splitting measurements are made on seismograms where the S-wave
incident-angle is within the shear-wave window (SWW). The SWW is the vertical cone
bound by sin
-1
(Vs/Vp) where S-wave particle motions are not disturbed by S-P
conversions at the free surface (Booth and Crampin, 1985). A Vp/Vs of 1.75 was used,
calculated from P- and S-wave travel-times from earthquakes in the MER (Fig. 3.9),
which corresponds to a SWW that is a cone within 35
o
of the vertical.

Seismic stations are distributed with approximately equal spacing throughout the MER
but the earthquakes are spatially clustered, with 75 % of seismicity located in the
Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment and at the intersection of the MER and Red Sea rift
(Keir et al., 2006). Due to the spatial clustering of earthquakes, S-wave splitting
measurements could only be made at ~10 % of available seismic stations. 24
earthquakes located beneath 18 stations provided 26 three-component seismograms
where the S-wave incident-angle is within the shear-wave window (SWW) (Table 7.1).

The polarization direction of the fast S-wave ( ) and the time delay between the fast
and slow S-waves (t) is determined using the method of Silver and Chan (1991),
adapted for application to micro-earthquakes. In an isotropic radially stratified crust,
near vertically impinging S-waves should exhibit linear particle motion. This phase is
split into orthogonally polarized fast and slow S-waves when it travels through an
anisotropic medium and this splitting produces an elliptical particle motion. To remove
the effects of the anisotropy, the horizontal components are rotated by and their
relative positions shifted by t, thereby linearizing the particle motion (Figure 7.1). To
estimate the splitting, a search for the correction parameters that best linearize the S-
wave motion is conducted. An F-test is performed to assess the uniqueness of the
estimated splitting parameters and thereby produce an error estimate (Silver, 1996).
The splitting parameters are well constrained. We use a cut off error criteria of 0.03 s
for t and 9
o
for (Table 7.1).

87
a) SHEE
c) MELE GTFE INEE
R
R
T
T
R
R
T
T
b) E36

Figure 7.1: Examples of shear-wave splitting at EAGLE stations. Data is bandpass filtered
between 0.5-5 Hz. (a) SHEE. In the left panel the top two waveforms show observed R and T
seismograms, while the lower two waveforms show the result after the correction for splitting
using the estimated parameters ( = 0
o
, t = 0.1 s). Note that energy is minimized on the T-
component after the correction. Middle panel shows the fast (solid line) and slow (dashed line)
shear-waves and corresponding particle motions in the horizontal plane before and after
correction for shear-wave splitting. The right panel shows confidence ellipse intervals of the
solution (innermost contour is the 95% confidence interval and indicates how well the solution is
constrained. (b) Fast (solid line) and slow (dashed line) shear-waves and corresponding particle
motions at stations MELE, GTFE and INEE, before and after the splitting correction.

88
Table 7.1: Shear-wave splitting measurements.

Table 7.1 Column Header Definitions

Station: station name
Lat. (
o
N): latitude of earthquake location
Long. (
o
E): longitude of earthquake location
M
L
: local magnitude
(deg.): solid angle of shear-wave
(deg.): polarisation direction of the fast shear-wave
E
(deg.): error in polarisation direction defined by the 95% confidence interval
t (s): delay-time between the fast and slow shear-waves
t
E
(s): error in delay-time defined by the 95% confidence interval

Stat.
Lat.
(
o
N)
Long.
(
o
E)
Z (km) M
L

(deg.)

(deg.)
E

(deg.)
t
(s)
t
E

(s)
AMME 8.279 39.096 6.80 1.78 19.44 355.0 4.5 0.10 0.020
AMME 8.262 39.091 7.20 1.98 29.66 356.0 4.5 0.12 0.020
ANKE 9.648 39.714 8.50 2.77 34.31 355.0 6.0 0.14 0.020
ANKE 9.674 39.758 8.65 1.38 32.45 4.0 5.5 0.20 0.010
AREE 8.958 39.362 8.63 1.58 34.81 54.0 4.5 0.12 0.020
BORE 8.676 39.569 6.75 1.50 37.61 20.0 2.5 0.24 0.020
CHAE 9.327 38.750 7.35 1.20 14.49 50.0 2.5 0.04 0.010
GTFE 8.992 39.849 6.71 0.94 9.31 50.0 4.5 0.12 0.020
GTFE 8.997 39.894 8.61 0.96 33.04 54.0 0.5 0.16 0.010
INEE 9.927 39.236 18.00 1.20 28.07 56.0 3.0 0.10 0.010
INEE 9.874 39.069 16.50 1.34 24.73 59.0 8.5 0.10 0.030
MELE 9.300 40.184 7.15 1.71 14.88 10.0 1.0 0.06 0.010
MELE 9.291 40.167 6.75 1.04 30.01 12.0 6.5 0.06 0.020
MELE 9.255 40.195 8.15 0.98 34.01 8.0 3.5 0.10 0.010
MELE 9.292 40.172 6.95 1.92 25.40 14.0 6.0 0.06 0.020
SHEE 10.043 39.918 8.50 2.14 30.26 0.0 2.0 0.10 0.010
E36 9.089 40.000 7.80 0.94 16.43 42.0 5.0 0.11 0.025
E36 9.058 39.973 8.54 1.28 36.84 42.0 4.5 0.11 0.010
E53 8.089 39.058 8.02 1.19 39.02 19.0 1.5 0.14 0.010
E77 7.895 38.823 7.85 1.89 29.27 7.0 2.5 0.12 0.015
E79 7.619 38.770 8.01 2.03 38.62 26.0 3.0 0.13 0.010
1018 9.874 38.507 22.00 1.92 29.60 36.0 8.0 0.14 0.015
1030 9.874 38.507 22.00 1.92 26.15 38.0 1.5 0.11 0.010
1155 8.951 39.174 8.69 1.64 33.72 70.0 7.0 0.05 0.015
1163 8.951 39.174 8.69 1.64 21.39 68.0 8.0 0.04 0.010
1219 8.611 39.447 7.00 3.44 24.57 18.0 4.5 0.19 0.015

89
38 39 40
8 8
9 9
10 10
T
T
38 39 40
8 8
9 9
10 10
38 39 40
8 8
9 9
10 10
38 39 40
8 8
9 9
10 10
5 % Anisotropy
38 39 40
8 8
9 9
10 10
1018
1030
1155
1163
1219
AMME
ANKE
AREE
BORE
CHAE
E36
E53
E77
E79
GTFE
INEE
MELE
SHEE
38 39 40
8 8
9 9
10 10
Aluto-
Gedemsa MS
Boset-
Kone
MS
Fentale-
Dofen MS
Angelele MS
Arboye BF
Asella-Sire BF
Ankober
BF
Ambo Fault
38 39 40
8 8
9 9
10 10
35 40 45
5
10
15
SP
NP
AP
DP
35 40 45
5
10
15
GA
RS
35 40 45
5
10
15
38 39 40
8
9
10
38 39 40
8
9
10
38 39 40
8
9
10
200 ms
38 39 40
8
9
10
0 2000 4000
m
NW Plateau
SE Plateau

Figure 7.2: Crustal anisotropy measurements at 18 broadband stations in Ethiopia. White
arrows show the polarization of the fast S-wave ( ) and arrow length is scaled by % anisotropy
along ray-path. Solid black lines with dip ticks are Miocene border faults (BF) and dashed lines
are monoclines. Quaternary magmatic segments (MS) are shaded grey. Dark arrows show the
extension direction and orientation of the minimum horizontal stress (Keir et al., 2006). The
position of the along-axis profile for Figure 7.3b, d is shown by the black line. Top left inset:
Topographic map of the MER, adjacent plateau and Afar depression. NP: Nubia Plate, SP:
Somali Plate, DP: Danakil Plate, AP: Arabian Plate, RS: Red Sea, GA: Gulf of Aden. Top right
inset: White arrows show polarization of fast S-waves scaled by delay-time.
90
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50
Rift-perpedicular distance (km)
t

(
s
)
a)
NW SE
0
2
4
6
8
%

A
n
i
s
o
t
r
o
p
y
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50
Rift-perpedicular distance (km)
b)
NW SE
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
Rift-parallel distance (km)
b)
SW NE
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
Rift-parallel distance (km)
d)
SW NE
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
8 12 16 20 24
Ray-path length (km)
t

(
s
)
e)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
6 7 8 9 10 11
Ray-path length (km)
f)
t

(
s
)

0
20
40
60
-10 0 10 20 30
Orientation of Max Horiz Stress
(
d
e
g
)
g)

Figure 7.3: a) Rift-perpendicular profile of station averaged delay time (t) versus distance from
the rift axis. The two solid lines shows the position of magmatic segments and the dashed line
shows the approximate position of the western boundary of the rift valley. b) Rift-parallel profile
of station averaged t at stations within 20 km of the along rift-axis line on Figure 1. c) Rift
perpendicular profile of % anisotropy versus distance from the rift axis. d) Rift-parallel profile of
% anisotropy versus distance along the rift valley. e) Individual measurements of t versus S-
wave ray-path length at stations on the western Ethiopian plateau. The dashed line is the best
straight line fit to the data. f) Individual measurements of t versus ray-path length at stations in
the rift valley. g) against the average orientation of maximum horizontal stress axes of focal
mechanisms within 25 km of the splitting measurement. The dashed line is the best straight line
fit to the data. The symbols are: white squares = plateau stations; grey triangles = stations at the
Ankober fault; inverted triangles = stations in the MER but outside magmatic segments; dark
grey circles = stations in magmatic segments.

91
7.4 Results of shear-wave splitting analysis

S-wave splitting measurements from local earthquakes near the MER show large
spatial variation in both and t (Figure 7.2). At stations on the NW plateau varies
between 36
o
and 70
o
. t varies between 0.04 s and 0.14 s for earthquakes that
occurred at depths of 12-20 km and t increases linearly with increased ray-path
distance (Figure 3), showing that the crust is anisotropic to at least 20 km depth. This
equates to fairly uniform anisotropy of 1.1 % on average, if splitting is assumed to be
accrued over the full ray-path length (Figures 7.2 & 7.3).

Along the Ankober fault system is oriented ~N, parallel to seismically active faults
(Figure 7.2). t is 0.1 - 0.16 s, equivalent to 2.2-3.6 % S-wave anisotropy.

At stations along the rift axis is mostly oriented ~N to NNE (Figure 7.2). Delay times
are 0.06-0.24 s for earthquakes that are 6-9 km deep, equating to 3-6.2 % anisotropy
(Figure 7.3). The largest values of t (0.19-0.24 s, anisotropy of 5.4-6.2 %) are
recorded at stations 1219 and BORE, both in the Quaternary Boset-Kone magmatic
segment (Figures 7.2 and 7.3).

7.5 Discussion

7.5.1 Crustal anisotropy beneath the rift-axis

Near-vertically propagating S-waves from local earthquakes near the MER show clear
evidence of S-wave splitting. The anisotropy is thus most likely due to foliations, cracks
or inclusions aligned by regional and local stresses in the crust. The magnitude and
orientation of the shear-wave splitting varies dramatically across the EAGLE network,
suggesting a heterogeneous stress field or variations in the underlying cause of
anisotropy. Our results are calibrated with independent geological and seismic studies
in the MER.

Stations along the rift axis show relatively large amounts of splitting despite shallower
earthquake depths (6-9 km). Up to 0.24 s of splitting is observed beneath Boset-Kone
magmatic segment, which equates to over 6 % anisotropy. Stations within the rift valley
but located outside magmatic segments show less splitting (e.g. MELE), but the
92
average magnitude of splitting in the rift valley is still nearly 3 %, much larger than
beneath the NW plateau. The ~N to NNE orientation of in the magmatic segments is
parallel to Quaternary faults and aligned volcanic cones. The along axis variation of
correlates well with local changes in the strike of maximum horizontal stress axes from
focal mechanisms of earthquakes within 25 km of splitting measurements (Figure 7.3)
(Keir et al., 2006).

The largest amounts of upper-crustal anisotropy are in the Quaternary magmatic
segments where independent studies show evidence of pervasive dyke intrusion and
the presence of partial melt in shallow magma chambers. Mackenzie et al. (2005) and
Keranen et al. (2004) interpret cooled mafic intrusions in the mid-crust beneath these
magmatic segments using models derived from wide-angle refraction data and
controlled source tomography respectively. The magnitude of splitting under Boset
volcano is especially pronounced, where melt-related anomalies have been interpreted
in magnetotelluric data (Whaler and Hautot, 2006). The S-wave splitting observations
are consistent with anisotropy due to vertically aligned magma intrusions or melt-filled
cracks beneath the Quaternary magmatic segments, where the majority of strain is
accommodated by dyke injection (Keir et al., in press).

7.5.2 Crustal anisotropy beneath the Ethiopian plateau

The deepest earthquakes lie beneath the largely un-extended NW Ethiopian plateau,
where we observe an increase in delay time with increased ray-path length using S-
wave splitting measurements at different stations. These variations in delay-times can
be explained by relatively uniform anisotropy that extends to at least 20 km depth;
larger delay-times (0.1 - 0.14 s) at stations 1018, 1030 and INEE are caused by
splitting accrued over longer ray-paths (Figure 7.2 and 7.3). Alternatively, these
patterns may be caused by lateral variations in anisotropy of the uppermost few
kilometers with larger upper crustal anisotropy at stations 1018, 1030 and INEE.
However, controlled source seismic images of underplating (Mackenzie et al., 2005),
mid-crustal conductive anomalies in MT data (Whaler and Hautot, 2006), and
Quaternary eruptive centres as far north as Lake Tana all infer the presence of melt in
the lower crust beneath the Ethiopian plateau. Given these independent observations,
we interpret the data to show that melt induced anisotropy extends to at least 20 km
subsurface. The amount of crustal anisotropy beneath the plateau is low (1.1%),
93
consistent with melt decrease away from the rift axis. Splitting at stations on the
plateau is oriented ~NE and may also indicate a contribution from pre-existing
basement foliation or structural trends. Where exposed, Pan-African basement
foliation and Proterozoic ophiolite belts predominantly strike ~N to ~NE (e.g. Berhe,
1990; Kazmin et al., 1978). These have been used to infer a NE-SW trending suture
(Berhe, 1990) but due to limited basement outcrop their interpretation is controversial
(Church, 1991). NE to ENE oriented basement structures are evident in regional
drainage patterns along the Ambo fault, which has been reactivated in Miocene rifting
(Abebe et al., 1998). Beneath the Ethiopian plateau the crustal anisotropy may be due
to a combination of mechanisms associated with aligned melt, pre-existing basement
foliation and structural trends.

7.5.3 Model of crustal anisotropy beneath the MER

The patterns of shear-wave splitting observed in earthquakes beneath both the rift
valley and nearby plateau are most simply explained by crustal anisotropy related to
variable amounts of melt pocket alignment, with a higher degree of magma intrusion in
the crust beneath the rift. The pattern of crustal anisotropy beneath the MER can be
integrated with SKS-splitting and surface-wave anisotropy studies, which probe deeper
into the lithosphere. SKS-splitting constrains anisotropy of the uppermost 100 km.
Beneath the MER, the increased splitting in more magmatic regions and the alignment
of anisotropy along the rift-axis parallel to magmatic segments were used as evidence
to propose that the anisotropy is controlled by oriented pockets of melt (Kendall et al.,
2005). This interpretation is supported surface-wave anisotropy which is consistent with
a model of oriented melt-filled pockets as the primary mechanism for anisotropy
beneath the rift valley from 20-75 km depth (Kendall et al., 2006). The pattern of crustal
anisotropy shows that melt-induced anisotropy at 20-75 km depth (Bastow et al., 2005;
Kendall et al., 2005; Kendall et al., 2006) continues into the uppermost crust, thereby
penetrating the entire plate and facilitating continental breakup. Melt-induced
anisotropy extends from the base of the lithosphere to the upper crust, suggesting that
magma injection helps localize and facilitate extension just prior to continental breakup.

7.6 Summary

94
Along the rift-axis the orientation of the fast S-wave is ~N to NNE, parallel to
Quaternary to Recent faults, aligned cones and the current maximum horizontal stress
axis. The largest amounts of upper crustal anisotropy are in the Quaternary magmatic
segments, where the majority of strain is accommodated by magma injection;
anisotropy is most likely caused by aligned melt-filled micro-cracks and dykes. The low
amount of anisotropy beneath the Ethiopian plateau is consistent with melt decrease
away from the rift axis. These results suggest the anisotropy is related to variable
amounts of melt pocket alignment in the crust, with a higher degree of dyke intrusion in
a narrow zone of Quaternary magmatism. Melt-induced anisotropy extends from the
base of the lithosphere to the upper crust, suggesting that magma injection helps
localize and facilitate extension just prior to continental breakup.

Chapter 8 - Discussion
95
Chapter 8

Discussion

8.1 Evidence for magma-fed along-axis segmentation of the MER

The most striking feature of the recorded seismicity in the MER is the coincidence of
earthquake swarms and the magmatic segments, which are the locus of Quaternary
volcanism (Fig. 4.1). The magmatic segments are also the locus of strain, as
determined from studies of fault patterns (e.g., Williams et al., 2004; Casey et al.,
2006; Pizzi et al., 2006) and the lone geodetic profile (Bilham et al., 1999; Bendick et
al., 2006). The inactivity of mid-Miocene border faults that define the overall ~NE trend
of the MER is reflected over longer time periods by the minor geodetic strain on the rift
flanks (Bilham et al., 1999; Bendick et al., 2006) and lack of large magnitude
earthquakes and border faults over the last ~50 years and inferred from historical
records spanning ~150 years (Gouin, 1979; Ayele and Kulhnek, 1997). The
apparently inactive mid-Miocene border faults do not correlate with the spatial
arrangement of the seismically active Quaternary magmatic segments (Ebinger and
Casey, 2001; Wolfenden et al., 2004) (Fig. 2.2).

The distribution of Quaternary faulting and aligned volcanic cones defines the along-
axis segmentation of the MER near the surface. The pattern of seismicity interpreted in
light of new constraints on crustal and mantle structure from independent geophysical
studies provides clues as to the origin and maintenance of the along-axis
segmentation. Clusters of seismicity within magmatic segments are concentrated within
a <20 km-wide zone and are elongate parallel to Quaternary-Recent faults, fissures
and active eruptive centres (Fig 4.3) This pattern of seismicity is similar to dyke
induced and magma-intrusion induced seismicity in other rift zones worldwide (e.g. Pitt
et al., 2004; Hayes et al., 2004). The swarms of low magnitude earthquakes are
concentrated at 8-14 km depth which coincides with the top of the ~20-30 km-wide
zones of high seismic velocity imaged at 8-10 km depth using controlled source and
local earthquake tomography (Keranen et al., 2004; Daly et al., in review). These zones
are segmented along the axis of the rift and correlate with small wavelength highs in
the observed Bouguer anomaly (Mahatsente et al., 1999; Tiberi et al., 2005; Cornwell
96
et al., 2006); the combination of high seismic velocity and high density suggests
magmatic segments are underlain by gabbro intrusions that rise to 8-10 km subsurface
to accommodate extension (Keranen et al., 2004). The spatial correlation between
earthquake locations, faults with fissural eruptions, aligned cones and axial mafic
intrusions suggests that seismicity is induced by mafic intrusions into the mid- to upper
crust.

The comparison of seismic moment release with total geodetic strain offers additional
insights into crustal deformation processes in the MER. During the period 2001-2003,
seismic moment release within 1
o
of the geodetic profile across the MER
(approximately coincident with the front face of Fig. 8.1) was just 3.04 x 10
14
Nm,
equivalent to one Mw 3.6 earthquake (Bendick et al., 2006). This relatively low seismic
moment release would produce surface displacements several orders of magnitude
smaller than that detectable by the geodetic array, yet an average rift opening of 4.0
0.9 mm/yr was measured 1992-2003 (Bendick et al., 2006). A deficit of seismic
moment is also evident over longer time scales. For the period 1960-2000, a
comparison of the seismic moment release expected for the relative plate motion
shown by global plate kinematic models (e.g. Chu and Gordon, 1998), and the
observed seismic moment shows that less than 50 % of extension across the MER is
accommodated by rapid slip on faults (Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003). The deficit
between observed seismic moment release and that expected from geodetic
measurements and plate kinematic models provides additional evidence that dyke
injection likely accommodates more strain than faulting beneath the MER. However,
the 46 year seismicity catalogue is shorter than the 50 year recurrence intervals of M >
5.5 earthquakes in the MER, predicted from the Gutenberg-Richter relationship from
the 16 months of seismicity recorded by EAGLE. Therefore, the deficit in the scalar
moment rates from seismicity may be caused by a local delay in seismic strain release
rather than a significant contribution from aseismic strain such as dyking.

We can draw insight from theoretical studies of magma injection processes which show
that if magma is available then injection of dykes accommodates strain at lower
stresses than is required for faulting (e.g. Buck, 2004). In the MER, injection of magma
accommodates strain at lower levels of stress than is required to activate large
displacement border faults, and the locus of strain becomes the magma injection zone.
Below ~10km depth, the majority of strain is accommodated by magma injection
97
beneath magmatic segments, whereas strain in the brittle seismogenic zone is
accommodated by a combination of magma injection and faulting (Fig. 8.1).

20 40 60 80 100 120 140
5
10
B
D
Miocene
border fault
system seismogenic
zone
locus of seismicity
FF
K

Figure 8.1: Cartoon sketch of the MER that shows abandoned Miocene border faults and
localisation of strain in <20 km-wide right stepping en echelon magmatic segments that are
zones of Quaternary magma intrusion and faulting. Front face is constrained by topographic
relief along the line of EAGLE controlled source seismic profiles. Letters mark volcanoes: B;
Boset, K; Kone, F; Fentale, D; Dofen.

The along-axis segmentation seen from the surface to 8-10 km subsurface beneath
magmatic segments correlates with the zones of higher velocity in the mid- and lower
crust, implying that mafic intrusions extend to the base of the crust (Maguire et al.,
2006; Daly et al., in review). The seismic models suggest that the segmentation
pattern observed at the surface and in the upper crust continues as discrete zones of
magma injection to the base of crust.

The pattern of seismic anisotropy provides further indirect evidence that the along-axis
segmentation of the MER is controlled by the supply of magma to discrete rift
segments arranged along the axis of the rift. The largest upper crustal anisotropy is in
Quaternary magmatic segments where independent studies show evidence of
pervasive dyke intrusion and the presence of partial melt in shallow magma chambers
(Figs 7.2, 7.3). The magnitude of splitting under Boset volcano is especially
pronounced, where melt-related anomalies have been interpreted in magnetotelluric
data (Whaler and Hautot, 2006). The S-wave splitting observations are consistent with
98
anisotropy due to vertically aligned magma intrusions or melt-filled cracks beneath the
Quaternary magmatic segments, which are the locus of strain.

Intrusion of magma into the lower crust is likely not completely restricted to the rift axis.
A sparse distribution of relatively deep source (15-21 km) earthquakes is observed
beneath the Ethiopian Plateau (Figs. 4.1, 4.3) which shows relatively small shear-wave
splitting delay-times of 0.05-0.15 s (Figs. 6.2, 6.3). The relatively low amount of
anisotropy is consistent with melt decrease away from the rift axis. However, mid-
crustal conductive anomalies in MT data (Whaler and Hautot, in press), and
Quaternary eruptive centres at latitudes of ~12
o
N on the Ethiopian plateau all imply the
presence of melt in the lower crust beneath the Ethiopian plateau. The patterns of
shear-wave splitting observed in earthquakes beneath both the rift valley and nearby
plateau are most simply explained by crustal anisotropy related to variable amounts of
melt pocket alignment, with a higher degree of magma intrusion in the crust beneath
the rift (Fig. 8.2).

The pattern of crustal anisotropy beneath the MER can be integrated with surface-
wave studies and SKS-splitting, which probe deeper into the lithosphere. Surface-wave
anisotropy is consistent with a model of oriented melt-filled pockets as the primary
mechanism for anisotropy beneath the rift valley from 20-75 km depth (Kendall et al.,
2006). SKS-splitting constrains anisotropy of the uppermost ~100 km. The increased
splitting beneath Quaternary magmatic segments and alignment of anisotropy parallel
to Quaternary faults, fissures and aligned volcanic cones was used as evidence by
Kendall et al. (2005) that the anisotropy is controlled by oriented pockets of melt
distributed through the lithosphere (Fig 2.10). The parallelism of SKS, and local
earthquake S-wave splitting beneath the MER indicates that melt induced anisotropy
extends from the base of the lithosphere to the upper crust. If the lithospheric thickness
varies considerably from inside the rift to the rift shoulder, as imaged in tomography
models (Bastow et al., 2005), then the large amounts of SKS-splitting along rift margins
may be caused by a combination of increased melt extraction along steep gradients at
the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary and larger lithospheric thickness beneath the
rift flanks relative to the rift-axis (Fig. 8.2).

Observations from the MER suggest that strain is concentrated in discrete magmatic
segments, and accommodated by a combination of faulting and dyking in the upper
99
crust and by magma intrusion in the lower-mid crust. There is no evidence that crustal
scale detachment faults such as proposed by Corti et al. (2003) and Pizzi et al. (2006)
accommodate strain across the MER.

0 km 200
asthenosphere
magmatic
segments
mantle
lithosphere
crust

Figure 8.2: Cartoon sketch of the MER (After Ebinger, 2005) that shows thinning of the mantle
lithosphere from heating by localized magma injection. Magma injection is localised to the rift
axis where dyke injection accommodates strain at lower stresses than that required for faulting
causing border faults to be abandoned. Localized dyke injection along the rift axis induces
faulting in the brittle upper crust.

8.2 Temporal variations of magma supply and episodic rift opening

The EAGLE network recorded seismicity for 15 months and thus provides a snapshot
of active deformation in the MER. During this time period, seismicity was particularly
concentrated in the Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment whereas the Boset-Kone
magmatic segment to the south was largely quiescent (Fig. 4.1). The pattern of
Quaternary faults and fissures that cut recent lavas and historic earthquake data,
however, show that major episodes of dyke injection and associated seismicity have
been concentrated in other magmatic segments in the past. Asfaw (1982) noted the
development of surface fissures following a swarm of M
L
<4 earthquakes near Fentale
in 1981. Similar fissures are observed in all magmatic segments along the axis of the
MER and most likely formed during previous rifting episodes (e.g., Asfaw, 1998;
Williams et al., 2004). The swarm of earthquakes reported near Nazret in 1964 (Gouin,
1979), an M
w
5.3 earthquake near Boset volcano in 1993 (Ayele, 2000) and fissuring of
100
<10000 year old ignimbrites at Kone caldera (Williams et al., 2004) shows that the
Boset-Kone magmatic segment has experienced episodes of rifting in the recent past.

The snapshot of seismic activity in the MER captured by the EAGLE network shows
that the pattern of seismicity mirrors the structural segmentation observed from the
pattern of Quaternary faults and aligned volcanic cones. Each magmatic segment
experiences increased rates of seismicity at different periods of time, implying that
magmatic segments deform independently of each other. If, as implied from the
integrated geological and geophysical data base from the MER that magmatic
segments are formed by repeated episodes of magma injection, then this suggests
magma source regions are spatially and temporally discrete. With improved
geochronological dating of past volcanic products and long-term seismic and volcano
monitoring, repeat times in the magma replenishment cycle can be established which
will assist seismic and volcanic hazard assessment of volcanic zones such as the
MER.

The segmented pattern of the MER, with deformation concentrated within a narrow
zone of faulting, and aligned volcanic cones is similar to that observed in the ~60 km-
long Dabbahu segment of the Afar rift. Deformation at the surface is concentrated
within a ~25 km wide zone of normal faulting, aligned volcanic cones and fissural
basalt flows. The September / October 2005 major rifting event in the Dabbahu
magmatic segment provides additional clues to the origin of the pattern of along-axis
segmentation and how magmatic segments deform. Between 14 September and 5
October 2005, 163 earthquakes (m
b
> 4) and a volcanic eruption occurred along the
full 60 km-long Dabbahu magmatic segment. The crisis culminated on 26 September
with the opening of a 500 m-long, 60 m-deep, N-S oriented vent, and surface fissuring
and faulting on the northeast flank of Dabbahu volcano. Radar interferometry (InSAR)
data shows that the seismic and volcanic events were accompanied by up to ~6 m of
horizontal opening at the surface, with horizontal and vertical deformation concentrated
in a ~25 km-wide zone (Wright et al., 2006).

Earthquakes during the period 14 September to 4 October, 2005 release a combined
seismic moment of 6.7 x 10
18
Nm, calculated using the empirical m
b
- m
o
relationship
for Afar (Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003). This is an order of magnitude smaller than the
estimate of 7.5 x 10
19
Nm for the total geodetic moment release. Rather, the observed
101
horizontal and vertical deformation along the ~60 km-length of the Dabbahu segment
is consistent with the displacement field expected for intrusion of 2.4-2.6 km
3
of
magma as vertical dyke intrusion with induced faulting (Wright et al., 2006). Models of
the surface deformation indicate that magma was likely sourced from two shallow
magma chambers near the northern tip of the segment (<40 %), as well as deeper
sources beneath the 18-22 km-thick crust and located in the middle of the rift segment.
Structural data suggest that the locations of magma source(s) maintaining the
Dabbahu segment have been stable for 2-4 My (Hayward and Ebinger, 1996). The
Dabbahu rifting event thus provides observational evidence that magma intrusion into
the middle crust, and dyke intrusion and faulting in the upper crust, control and
maintain the along-axis segmentation prior to continental breakup.

8.3 Comparison with slow-spreading mid-ocean ridges

As outlined in section 8.1, the along-axis segmentation of the MER is defined at the
surface by a series of aligned volcanic cones and seismically active Quaternary fault
arrays that define ~20 km-wide, ~60 km-long right-stepping en echelon rift segments
along the axis of the rift. (e.g. Ebinger and Casey, 2001). Seismic and gravity studies
provide evidence that the discrete rift segments are underlain by axial intrusions that
extend from at least the base of the crust to ~10 km subsurface; (e.g. Keranen et al.,
2004; Tiberi et al., 2005; Mackenzie et al., 2005).

The along-axis segmentation of the MER shown in the pattern of Quaternary faults,
active aligned volcanic cones, distribution of intruded magma, along-axis variation in
seismicity, and the coincidence of seismicity with magmatism is remarkably similar to
slow- and ultra-slow spreading mid-ocean ridges such as the northern Mid-Atlantic
ridge and Gakkel ridge in the Arctic ocean. In both marine locales, the spatial and
temporal variations in melt flux preferentially delivered from mantle upwellings to
segment centres via dikes in the lower crust are believed to control the along-axis
segmentation of the ridge (e.g. Lin et al., 1990; Sparks et al., 1993; Tucholke and Lin,
1994; Magde et al., 1997; Parsons et al., 2000; Dunn et al., 2005). This similarity
provides strong evidence that the along-axis segmentation in the MER is controlled by
injection of magma sourced from discrete sources in the mantle, rather than the along-
axis pattern of border faults or their subsurface geometry.

102
Observations of the causal link between dyke injection and seismicity at slow-
spreading mid-ocean ridges provides additional insights to rift processes in the MER.
For example, seismic swarms in the Hengill volcanic area in southwestern Iceland from
1994 -1998 are concentrated at the base of the seismogenic layer and have
predominantly double-couple mechanisms (Feigl et al., 2000). Increased levels of
seismic activity correlates spatially and temporally with continuous uplift at the surface
modelled by inflation of a source due to dyke injection to ~7 km subsurface (Feigl et
al., 2000). Calculations of Coulomb failure stress suggest that inflation from magma
injection induces stresses that exceed the Coulomb failure criterion, triggering
earthquakes. The swarm activity is cyclical which shows that stresses in the brittle
crust rise slowly to failure with continued dyke injection, but drops instantaneously with
seismic swarms.

Geodetic and seismicity observations in the Asal-Ghoubbet rift, Djibouti, five years
following the 1978 volcano-seismic crisis can be explained by continuous dyke
injection into crust of visco-elastic rheology with a thermal structure determined from
heat-flow measurements and constrained by seismicity depths (Cattin et al., 2005).
Inflation from magma injection explain the localised seismicity patterns and high slip
rates on faults close to the rift axis, as well as geodetically measured ground
deformation. An abrupt decrease in opening rate after 1984 -1986 is explained by the
end of magma injection (Cattin et al., 2005).

Alternatively, seismicity can occur after dyke intrusion and likely due to release of
stress as the crust returns to equilibrium near new dykes. In the Krafla spreading
segment, northern Iceland, clusters of seismicity at 1-3 km depth were recorded 5-8
years following dyke injection and surface fissuring (Arnott and Foulger, 1994). No
evidence of geothermal activity is observed at the surface and the seismicity is thus
rather attributed to stress release as lithosphere re-equilibrates near already cooled
dykes (Arnott and Foulger, 1994).

In the MER, the spatial correlation between earthquake locations, faults with fissural
eruptions, aligned cones and axial mafic intrusions, as described in section 8.1,
suggests that seismicity is induced by magma injection into the mid-upper crust.
However, the precise relationship between the timing of magma injection and seismic
103
activity is unclear, as no constraints on ground deformation during seismic swarms are
available during the recording period of the EAGLE network.

8.4 Implications for models of continental breakup

Hayward and Ebinger (1996) suggest that during continental breakup, localisation of
strain away from border faults to intra-rift grabens is initially controlled by the decrease
in lithospheric strength within the rift from a combination of lithospheric thinning and
resultant increased heating during continued extension. The increase in magmatism
with time is caused by progressive thinning of the lithosphere and eventual onset of
adiabatic decompression melting, with dyke injection accommodating the majority of
extension in the early stages of sea-floor spreading (Hayward and Ebinger, 1996).

However, new observations from the MER suggest that injection of magma within a
narrow zone along the rift axis enables the localisation of strain to a narrow zone during
the late stages of continental breakup. Magma injection accommodates the majority of
strain in the mid- upper crust, and a combination of dyking and magma induced faulting
accommodates strain in the brittle layers. Border faults are inactive as dyke injection
accommodates strain at lower stresses than required to initiate slip on large offset
border faults. The pattern of magma fed along-axis segmentation observed in the MER
is similar to slow- and ultra-slow spreading mid-ocean ridges where supply of melt from
zones of upwelling in the asthenosphere controls the along-axis segmentation of the
rift. This suggests that magma-fed along axis segmentation of mid-ocean ridges
initiates during the early stages of continental breakup and is independent of
segmented pattern of rift bounding border faults formed during the initial stages of
extension.

Observations from the MER support a model of magma-assisted rifting whereby the
combined effects of lithospheric stretching and heating by magma injection localises
thinning of the mantle lithosphere and facilitates extension at relatively small plate
driving forces (Buck, 2004). Observations do not support detachment fault models of
lithospheric extension but provide evidence that strain is accommodated by magma
injection within narrow zones (magmatic segments) along the rift axis that mark the
eventual boundary of continental breakup.

Chapter 9 - Conclusions
104
Chapter 9

Conclusions

From Oct 2001 - Jan 2003, 1957 earthquakes were located within the EAGLE network
of broadband seismic stations in the northern Main Ethiopian rift and on its uplifted rift
flanks. Excluding the MER - Red Sea rift intersection zone at Ankober, where seismic
activity may be caused by flexure accommodating differential subsidence at the oblique
intersection of the <11 Ma MER and the older Red Sea rift, seismicity within the rift is
localised to <20 km-wide, right-stepping, en echelon zones of Quaternary magmatism.
Seismicity in these magmatic segments is characterised by swarms of low magnitude
earthquakes located in clusters that parallel Quaternary faults, fissures and chains of
eruptive centres. The earthquakes in the magmatic segments are predominantly <14
km deep and may be triggered by dyke injection.

A local magnitude scale for Ethiopia has been developed from 30908 amplitude
measurements on simulated Wood-Anderson seismograms from 2139 earthquakes
recorded on EAGLE broadband instruments. The new magnitude scale uses a distance
normalization of 10-mm motion at 17 km distance for a magnitude 3.0 earthquake. The
distance correction is given by; -logA
o
= 1.196997 log(r/17) + 0.001066(r-17) + 2.0,
where r is hypocentral distance in kilometres. The distance correction shows that
ground-motion attenuation in Ethiopia is relatively high. The annual cumulative
frequency - magnitude distribution for 2001-2003 follows the relation; log N = 4.5 -
1.13M
L
, where N is the number of earthquakes per year of local magnitude M
c
or
greater. The catalogue of events used in this study is complete above M
L
2.1.

Earthquake focal mechanisms show predominantly normal dip-slip on faults striking ~N
to ~NNE. The orientation of the minimum compressive stress determined from focal
mechanisms is N103
o
E, consistent with elongation of Quaternary Calderas, geodetic
data and global plate kinematic constraints.

Shear-wave splitting from crustal earthquakes shows that the polarization direction of
the fast S-wave along the rift-axis is ~N to NNE, parallel to Quaternary to Recent faults,
aligned cones and the current maximum horizontal stress axis. The largest amounts of
Chapter 9 - Conclusions
105
upper crustal anisotropy are in the Quaternary magmatic segments, where the majority
of strain is accommodated by magma injection; anisotropy is most likely caused by
aligned melt-filled micro-cracks and dykes. The low amount of anisotropy beneath the
Ethiopian plateau is consistent with melt decrease away from the rift axis. These
results suggest the anisotropy is related to variable amounts of melt pocket alignment
in the crust, with a higher degree of dyke intrusion beneath magmatic segments. Melt-
induced anisotropy extends from the base of the lithosphere to the upper crust,
suggesting that magma injection helps localize strain and facilitate continental breakup.

Observations from the MER suggest that injection of magma within a narrow zone
along the rift axis enables the localisation of strain to a narrow zone during the late
stages of continental breakup. Magma injection accommodates the majority of strain in
the mid- upper crust and a combination of dyking and magma induced faulting
accommodates strain in the brittle layers. Border faults are inactive as dyke injection
accommodates strain at lower stresses than required to initiate slip on large offset
border faults. The similarities in along-axis segmentation in the MER and at slow-
spreading mid-ocean ridges suggests that magma-fed along-axis segmentation
initiates during the early stages of continental breakup and is independent of
segmented pattern of rift bounding border faults formed during the initial stages of
extension.

Observations from the MER support a model of magma assisted rifting whereby the
combined effects of lithospheric stretching and heating by magma injection localises
thinning of the mantle lithosphere and facilitates extension at relatively small plate
driving forces (Buck, 2004). Observations do not support detachment fault models of
lithospheric extension but provide evidence that strain is accommodated by magma
injection within narrow zones (magmatic segments) along the rift axis that mark the
eventual boundary of continental breakup.
Appendices
106
Appendix A

EAGLE broadband seismic stations

Column header definitions

Stn. code: abbreviated station code
Lat. (
o
N): latitude of station location
Long. (
o
E): longitude of station location
Elev. (m): station elevation in metres
Stn. name: station name
Start (yr., dy.): date of station deployment in year and julian day
End (yr., dy.): date of station retrieval in year and julian day

Stn. code Lat. (
o
N) Long. (
o
E) Elev. (m) Stn. name Start (yr., dy.) End (yr., dy.)

EAGLE Phase I: IRIS network YJ, Instrument type: Gralp CMG-40T

LEME 8.6115 38.6095 2108 Lemen 2001, 327 2002, 292
SHEE 9.9996 39.8946 1298 Shewa Robit 2001, 298 2003, 028
GEWE 10.006 40.5743 600 Gewane 2001, 324 2002, 344
ANKE 9.5927 39.7339 2981 Ankober 2001, 297 2003, 027
KOTE 9.3875 39.3961 2872 Kotu Gabeya 2001, 295 2002, 346
MELE 9.3106 40.2008 762 Melka Werer 2001, 326 2003, 023
MIEE 9.2416 40.7581 1349 Mieso 2001, 304 2003, 023
BEDE 8.9086 40.7710 1714 Bedesa 2001, 319 2003, 024
MECE 8.5938 40.3241 1775 Mechara 2001, 317 2003, 024
CHAE 9.3118 38.7624 2646 Chancho 2001, 323 2003, 018
SENE 9.1466 39.0166 2560 Sendafa 2001, 299 2003, 018
AREE 8.9285 39.4188 1826 Areriti 2001, 303 2003, 030
GTFE 8.9934 39.8376 1036 Gudina Tumsa 2001, 305 2003, 025
NURE 8.7012 39.7956 1182 Nura Hira 2001, 305 2003, 031
BORE 8.7259 39.5540 1253 Borechota 2001, 312 2003, 031
DONE 8.5090 39.5504 1312 Doni 2001, 306 2003, 031
MEKE 8.1623 38.8330 1897 Meki 2001, 304 2003, 031
DIKE 8.0627 39.5566 2754 Diksis 2001, 303 2003, 023
ADUE 8.5404 38.9019 1750 Adulala 2001, 306 2003, 030
DZEE 8.7803 38.9959 1907 Debre Zeit 2001, 328 2002, 338
WOLE 8.5339 37.9822 2058 Woliso 2002, 103 2003, 019
ASEE 7.9729 39.1317 2333 Asela 2002, 106 2003, 018
AWAE 8.9895 40.1659 956 Awash 2002, 107 2003, 022
BUTE 8.1170 38.3824 2093 Butajira 2002, 109 2003, 031
KARE 10.422 39.9349 1774 Kara Kore 2002, 120 2003, 028
HIRE 9.2221 41.1059 1845 Hirna 2002, 128 2002, 310
DEBE 8.7803 38.9959 1907 Debre Zeit 2001, 302 2001, 329

EAGLE Phase I: IRIS network YJ, Instrument type: Gralp CMG-3T

INEE 9.8954 39.1431 2686 Inewari 2001, 296 2003, 029
AMME 8.3031 39.0934 1670 Amudi 2001, 304 2003, 032
ADEE 7.7909 39.9068 2485 Adele 2001, 313 2003, 019

EAGLE Phase II, IRIS network XJ, Instrument type: Gralp CMG-6TD

Appendices
107
E31 8.7774 39.8644 1009 Abadir Farm 2002, 277 2003, 038
E32 8.8473 40.0089 970 Nat. P.K.H.Q. 2002, 277 2002, 361
E33 8.9255 39.9290 979 Fentale South 2002, 278 2003, 033
E34 7.2143 38.5989 1934 Shashamene 2002, 289 2003, 042
E35 9.1336 40.1682 846 Awash Arba 2002, 277 2003, 033
E36 9.1075 40.0136 771 Hot Springs 2002, 278 2003, 033
E37 8.1744 38.6964 1799 Mukia 2002, 290 2003, 042
E38 8.9253 39.8432 1011 Elala 2002, 281 2002, 282
E39 9.2415 40.1334 770 Melka Sedi 2002, 277 2003, 033
E40 9.3616 40.2172 743 Melka Werer 2002, 277 2003, 033
E41 8.0096 38.5325 1905 Koshe 2002, 289 2003, 042
E42 8.8790 40.0961 1057 Kereyou 2002, 277 2003, 033
E43 9.2549 39.5023 3294 Ilekase 2002, 296 2003, 035
E44 9.6722 39.5249 2831 Debre Birhan 2002, 283 2003, 035
E45 7.7881 38.7948 1932 Aluto Power 2002, 289 2003, 003
E46 8.7090 39.6909 1242 Meki Dela 2002, 278 2003, 034
E47 8.4649 39.4532 1448 Bofa 2002, 280 2003, 038
E48 7.6239 38.9907 2613 Ego 2002, 295 2003, 042
E49 8.3144 39.3212 1711 Dera 2002, 282 2003, 038
E50 8.2739 39.4958 2074 Sire 2002, 282 2003, 038
E51 8.1485 39.3478 2080 Huruta 2002, 288 2003, 039
E52 8.1380 39.2405 2200 Iteya 2002, 282 2003, 039
E53 8.0433 39.0114 1704 Ogolcha 2002, 290 2003, 041
E54 8.1182 39.1385 2084 Danisa 2002, 288 2003, 039
E55 8.2950 38.9492 1683 Alem Tena 2002, 291 2003, 042
E56 8.4622 39.0637 1637 Ejersa 2002,288 2003, 042
E57 8.5848 39.1320 1823 Mojo 2002,280 2003, 036
E58 8.6909 39.1826 2057 Gogli 2002,282 2003, 037
E59 8.7059 39.3516 1680 Wolenchiti 2002, 278 2003, 034
E60 8.6215 39.4488 1626 Boset Track 2002, 282 2003, 034
E61 8.8974 39.6229 1155 Melka Jilo 2002, 278 2003, 034
E62 8.8313 39.7301 1443 Kone 2002, 281 2002, 282
E63 8.2600 39.2359 1781 Dawero 2002, 287 2003, 039
E64 8.5680 39.2907 1753 Nazret 2002, 280 2003, 037
E65 8.4031 39.2114 1550 Wonji Shoa 2002, 283 2003, 037
E66 9.0326 39.5300 1720 Aroge Minjar 2002, 330 2003, 037
E67 8.3844 39.6810 2144 Arboye 2002, 281 2003, 038
E68 8.7821 39.2628 2290 Ejere 2002, 282 2003, 037
E69 7.9296 38.7216 1675 Ziway 2002, 288 2003, 041
E70 8.8823 39.1544 2227 Tulu Dimtu 2002, 291 2003, 036
E71 8.6935 38.8955 1980 Dire 2002, 283 2003, 036
E72 8.4871 39.8329 1577 Abomsa 2002, 281 2003, 038
E73 7.7375 39.0262 2496 Lolee Abosere 2002, 295 2003, 042
E74 8.3564 38.8456 1714 Kile Doyo 2002, 331 2003, 042
E75 7.9141 38.9512 1745 Kiyensho 2002, 294 2003, 041
E76 7.7245 38.6537 1674 Bulbula 2002, 289 2003, 041
E77 7.8643 38.7914 1668 Chefe Jila 2002, 290 2003, 041
E78 8.5931 39.6977 1220 Merti 2002, 280 2003, 038
E79 7.6294 38.7056 1588 Langano 2002, 289 2003, 041
E80 8.4781 39.3106 1655 Adulala Koshe 2002, 280 2003, 037
E81 8.7938 39.6683 1330 Road Camp 2002, 365 2003, 032
E82 8.8459 40.0096 969 Awash Park 2002, 361 2003, 033
E83 7.8019 38.7919 1905 Geotherm 2003, 003 2003, 042
E84 8.6983 39.4005 1536 Eyaya 2002, 341 2003, 016
E85 8.4572 39.5926 1323 Tibila 2002, 336 2003, 016

EAGLE Phase III, IRIS network XM, Instrument type: Gralp CMG-6TD

1001 9.9845 38.2801 2524 1001 2002, 329 2003, 019
1004 9.9600 38.2973 2554 1004 2002, 329 2003, 019
1008 9.9318 38.3222 2544 1008 2002, 329 2003, 019
1011 9.9106 38.3419 2578 1011 2002, 329 2003, 019
1014 9.8891 38.3613 2554 1014 2002, 328 2003, 019
1018 9.8552 38.3819 2584 1018 2002, 328 2003, 019
1023 9.8152 38.4045 2564 1023 2002, 329 2003, 019
1026 9.8005 38.4165 2574 1026 2002, 329 2003, 019
1030 9.7773 38.4588 2588 1030 2002, 332 2003, 019
Appendices
108
1037 9.7380 38.5142 2674 1037 2002, 330 2003, 018
1042 9.6897 38.5300 2557 1042 2002, 330 2003, 018
1046 9.6577 38.5177 2478 1046 2002, 330 2003, 018
1054 9.6150 38.5853 2669 1054 2002, 330 2003, 020
1058 9.5805 38.5966 2555 1058 2002, 330 2003, 019
1062 9.5487 38.5824 2450 1062 2002, 330 2003, 016
1069 9.4889 38.5840 1506 1069 2002, 346 2003, 016
1077 9.4399 38.6462 2385 1077 2002, 345 2003, 019
1081 9.3990 38.6631 2426 1081 2002, 345 2003, 019
1085 9.3667 38.6711 2484 1085 2002, 325 2003, 019
1089 9.3391 38.6930 2602 1089 2002, 325 2003, 019
1094 9.3062 38.7293 2578 1094 2002, 327 2003, 019
1097 9.3025 38.7516 2614 1097 2002, 325 2003, 018
1101 9.2831 38.7820 2717 1101 2002, 327 2003, 018
1105 9.2595 38.8064 2889 1105 2002, 345 2003, 019
1110 9.2552 38.8513 3262 1110 2002, 327 2003, 018
1114 9.2122 38.8926 2968 1114 2002, 340 2003, 017
1120 9.1814 38.9275 2644 1120 2002, 340 2003, 018
1125 9.1478 38.9611 2548 1125 2002, 327 2003, 018
1132 9.1313 39.0029 2538 1132 2002, 340 2003, 018
1138 9.1189 39.0490 2523 1138 2002, 326 2003, 018
1141 9.0946 39.0664 2531 1141 2002, 327 2003, 018
1146 9.0560 39.0930 2525 1146 2002, 326 2003, 018
1151 9.0196 39.1200 2484 1151 2002, 326 2003, 018
1155 8.9825 39.1244 2403 1155 2002, 326 2003, 018
1157 8.9679 39.1301 2348 1157 2002, 338 2003, 018
1163 8.9301 39.1470 2309 1163 2002, 338 2003, 018
1171 8.9084 39.2359 2356 1171 2002, 342 2003, 017
1179 8.8447 39.2442 2415 1179 2002, 342 2003, 017
1182 8.8183 39.2546 2377 1182 2002, 342 2003, 017
1189 9.3391 38.6930 2602 1189 2002, 342 2003, 017
1195 8.7259 39.3352 1746 1195 2002, 341 2003, 016
1204 8.6983 39.4005 1536 1204 2002, 341 2003, 016
1209 8.6562 39.4281 1460 1209 2002, 336 2003, 018
1219 8.5801 39.4548 1870 1219 2002, 341 2003, 016
1226 8.5289 39.4794 1817 1226 2002, 337 2003, 016
1231 8.4882 39.4628 1479 1231 2002, 337 2003, 016
1235 8.4731 39.4822 1449 1235 2002, 337 2003, 016
1238 8.4819 39.5074 1408 1238 2002, 343 2003, 016
1242 8.4961 39.5398 1304 1242 2002, 341 2003, 016
1246 8.5038 39.5704 1267 1246 2002, 341 2003, 016
1252 8.4572 39.5926 1323 1252 2002, 336 2003, 016
1258 8.4177 39.6326 1803 1258 2002, 341 2003, 017
1262 8.3894 39.6572 2087 1262 2002, 341 2003, 017
1266 8.3633 39.6719 2170 1266 2002, 330 2003, 018
1270 8.3269 39.6711 2591 1270 2002, 341 2003, 017
1274 8.2853 39.6596 2606 1274 2002, 342 2003, 017
1278 8.2712 39.6898 2646 1278 2002, 342 2003, 017
1281 8.2488 39.6946 2708 1281 2002, 342 2003, 017
1285 8.2122 39.698 2686 1285 2002, 342 2003, 017
1290 8.1775 39.7186 2687 1290 2002, 342 2003, 017
1296 8.1272 39.7164 2616 1296 2002, 342 2003, 017
1301 8.0962 39.6904 2602 1301 2002, 342 2003, 017
1306 8.0494 39.6922 2549 1306 2002, 342 2003, 017
1310 8.016 39.6868 2531 1310 2002, 342 2003, 017
1315 7.9763 39.6889 2478 1315 2002, 338 2003, 017
1320 7.9671 39.7338 2472 1320 2002, 338 2003, 018
1324 7.9340 39.7520 2476 1324 2002, 338 2003, 018
1329 7.9015 39.7844 2477 1329 2002, 338 2003, 018
1333 7.8732 39.8074 2465 1333 2002, 338 2003, 018
1337 7.8508 39.8356 2489 1337 2002, 338 2003, 018
1340 7.8338 39.8570 2479 1340 2002, 338 2003, 018
1344 7.8059 39.8842 2474 1344 2002, 338 2003, 017
1346 7.7950 39.8979 2472 1346 2002, 338 2003, 019
1351 7.7810 39.9368 2462 1351 2002, 338 2003, 017
1356 7.7539 39.9743 2450 1356 2002, 338 2003, 019
1360 7.7259 40.0091 2458 1360 2002, 340 2003, 019
Appendices
109
1366 7.7252 40.0676 2483 1366 2002, 337 2003, 019
1370 7.706 40.1015 2485 1370 2002, 337 2003, 019
1373 7.7068 40.1353 2490 1373 2002, 337 2003, 019
1377 7.6889 40.1664 2498 1377 2002, 337 2003, 016
1381 7.6726 40.2010 2496 1381 2002, 337 2003, 016
1384 7.3815 40.0146 2342 1384 2002, 332 2003, 017
1387 7.3837 40.0420 2380 1387 2002, 332 2003, 017
1394 7.3886 40.1083 2380 1394 2002, 333 2003, 017
1400 7.3826 40.1661 2383 1400 2002, 333 2003, 017
1403 7.3718 40.1924 2388 1403 2002, 333 2003, 017
1416 7.3163 40.2653 2412 1416 2002, 333 2003, 017
1430 7.2323 40.3608 2361 1430 2002, 333 2003, 017
1435 7.2252 40.4086 2313 1435 2002, 333 2003, 017
1437 7.2309 40.4216 2273 1437 2002, 333 2003, 017
1443 7.2592 40.4743 2214 1443 2002, 333 2003, 017

Permanent Stations, Geophysical Observatory Addis Ababa University

FURI 8.9030 38.6880 Mount Furi
AAE 9.0350 38.7670 Addis Ababa
WNDE 7.0980 38.6350 Wendo Genet

Appendices
110
Appendix B

Catalogue of earthquake epicentres located with 1-D velocity
model

Column header definitions

Date (yr.-mo.-dy.): date of earthquake in year, month and day
Time (hr.:min.:sec.): time of earthquake in hour, minutes and seconds
Lat. (
o
N): latitude of earthquake epicentre
Long. (
o
E): longitude of earthquake epicentre
M
L
: local magnitude

Date (yr.-mo.-dy.) Time (hr.:min.:sec.) Lat. (
o
N) Long. (
o
E) M
L

2001-10-26 20:33:55.32 10.0128 39.8163 2.658
2001-10-26 20:44:33.50 9.5370 39.6125 1.575
2001-10-26 22:00:11.80 9.4445 39.6820 1.774
2001-10-26 22:39:51.20 9.4432 39.6877 1.607
2001-10-27 00:46:35.03 9.6278 39.5843 1.236
2001-10-27 09:07:52.98 9.6327 39.5693 2.419
2001-10-27 15:08:23.81 9.5663 39.6112 2.075
2001-10-27 22:04:51.21 9.6057 39.5875 1.456
2001-10-27 23:20:48.20 9.5542 39.5983 0.689
2001-10-27 23:39:33.15 9.6157 39.5797 1.884
2001-10-28 02:20:42.12 9.6090 39.5793 1.424
2001-10-28 05:24:50.33 9.6010 39.5855 2.113
2001-10-28 17:18:15.05 9.4493 39.6763 2.428
2001-10-28 17:31:28.02 9.7740 39.2892 3.184
2001-10-28 18:17:38.93 9.4668 39.6628 2.099
2001-10-28 19:40:44.93 9.6242 39.5745 1.562
2001-10-28 23:23:21.39 9.6175 39.5810 0.937
2001-10-29 01:47:05.34 9.5792 39.6787 0.912
2001-10-29 01:55:16.40 9.6158 39.5872 1.442
2001-10-29 05:24:50.56 9.5603 39.5948 1.044
2001-10-29 06:33:17.84 9.4457 39.6807 2.154
2001-10-29 10:46:24.87 9.4517 39.6950 3.507
2001-10-29 19:32:07.33 9.6153 39.5785 2.098
2001-10-29 20:44:21.98 9.5977 39.5360 1.198
2001-10-30 09:44:48.96 9.6332 39.5793 2.758
2001-10-30 18:12:30.25 9.5970 39.4623 1.586
2001-10-30 18:34:33.61 9.4638 39.6757 1.632
2001-10-30 19:56:27.23 9.6087 39.5778 1.639
2001-10-30 21:01:19.75 9.4585 39.6687 1.551
2001-10-30 21:27:36.95 9.4592 39.6665 1.891
2001-10-30 22:18:43.44 9.6107 39.5832 1.454
2001-10-30 23:27:43.47 9.4592 39.6733 1.647
2001-10-30 23:45:45.98 9.4618 39.6702 1.799
2001-10-30 23:51:13.19 9.4648 39.6698 1.419
2001-10-31 00:05:04.19 9.6033 39.5843 1.704
2001-10-31 00:46:04.16 9.6090 39.5455 0.923
2001-10-31 01:12:22.06 9.4602 39.6715 2.062
2001-10-31 19:53:07.38 9.4595 39.6730 1.798
2001-10-31 20:32:48.86 9.6073 39.5807 0.716
2001-10-31 20:51:55.14 9.4363 39.6848 1.990
2001-11-01 19:40:12.19 9.5960 39.5278 1.153
2001-11-01 21:02:21.93 9.5778 39.4940 1.621
2001-11-01 21:54:51.76 9.4717 39.6725 1.657
2001-11-01 22:11:25.73 9.4760 39.6698 1.245
2001-11-01 22:46:17.34 9.5563 39.6747 1.029
2001-11-02 01:04:23.78 9.4555 39.6712 1.458
2001-11-02 01:16:27.57 9.5592 39.6242 1.698
2001-11-02 06:35:40.04 9.5290 39.5998 2.472
2001-11-02 08:21:44.54 9.4482 39.7127 1.906
2001-11-02 16:23:44 11.7900 43.1900 5.180
2001-11-02 21:31:22.10 9.6155 39.5592 1.289
2001-11-02 23:04:23.95 9.4733 39.6598 2.297
2001-11-03 00:21:30.21 9.5817 39.6037 1.379
2001-11-03 00:22:35.45 9.8325 39.5002 1.512
2001-11-03 00:42:28.69 9.6198 39.5767 1.296
2001-11-03 08:43:06.26 9.6178 39.5863 1.966
Appendices
111
2001-11-03 16:43:41.17 9.6142 39.5827 1.884
2001-11-03 17:20:19.10 9.4573 39.6718 2.399
2001-11-03 17:46:38.88 9.5973 39.5352 1.637
2001-11-04 01:05:52.41 9.6095 39.5902 1.258
2001-11-04 11:00:31.31 9.6110 39.5850 2.154
2001-11-04 13:32:04.18 9.6133 39.5830 1.885
2001-11-04 15:08:29.60 9.4587 39.6853 1.774
2001-11-04 16:24:15.79 9.9320 39.8035 2.268
2001-11-04 17:41:24.42 9.6202 39.5780 1.389
2001-11-04 19:16:03.31 9.5975 39.5470 1.126
2001-11-04 20:07:50.00 9.6188 39.5837 1.029
2001-11-04 22:23:16.94 9.4433 39.6780 0.939
2001-11-04 23:30:55.98 9.6120 39.5768 1.468
2001-11-04 23:31:48.45 9.4648 39.6582 1.791
2001-11-04 23:51:10.87 9.4633 39.6697 1.670
2001-11-05 00:05:44.33 9.4645 39.6743 0.955
2001-11-05 15:29:11.72 9.6120 39.5783 2.433
2001-11-05 15:55:32.59 9.4578 39.6743 2.354
2001-11-05 16:10:15.17 9.6070 39.5433 1.580
2001-11-05 17:20:56.27 9.6168 39.5795 1.939
2001-11-05 17:52:14.36 9.4640 39.6773 2.654
2001-11-05 20:13:27.90 9.4475 39.6760 1.242
2001-11-05 22:26:31.10 9.4715 39.6800 1.315
2001-11-05 22:36:28.04 9.5963 39.6005 0.753
2001-11-06 01:08:32.59 9.4680 39.6507 1.447
2001-11-06 01:09:03.16 9.5368 39.6007 1.470
2001-11-06 01:10:32.28 9.4793 39.6463 1.571
2001-11-06 01:15:54.37 9.6123 39.5680 1.217
2001-11-06 05:38:15.51 9.4550 39.6753 1.983
2001-11-06 14:21:01.06 9.4533 39.6760 2.231
2001-11-06 18:38:45.04 9.3948 39.8765 2.008
2001-11-06 19:03:21.02 9.6032 39.5590 1.125
2001-11-06 19:23:46.20 9.6645 39.7608 0.872
2001-11-06 19:57:38.45 9.4900 39.7233 1.139
2001-11-06 20:27:40.82 9.6108 39.5853 1.122
2001-11-06 21:38:28.29 9.6213 39.5770 0.822
2001-11-07 18:14:59.39 9.6130 39.5785 1.574
2001-11-07 23:23:11.12 9.6140 39.5777 1.377
2001-11-08 01:36:22.74 9.2408 39.9162 1.253
2001-11-08 07:02:43.45 9.4625 39.6680 2.387
2001-11-08 17:56:17.70 9.6115 39.5767 1.343
2001-11-09 17:54:27.28 9.4622 39.6602 2.049
2001-11-09 22:03:35.52 9.4572 39.6738 1.718
2001-11-10 02:35:10.41 9.6202 39.5777 1.446
2001-11-10 04:38:19.18 9.4573 39.6690 2.484
2001-11-10 09:32:53.39 9.1593 39.8742 2.570
2001-11-10 13:35:29.75 9.2393 39.4203 1.942
2001-11-11 02:19:22.28 9.4475 39.6852 2.200
2001-11-11 21:05:21.95 9.4560 39.6672 2.373
2001-11-11 21:21:51.69 9.6027 39.5855 1.264
2001-11-11 22:32:40.81 9.4563 39.6808 3.253
2001-11-11 22:45:25.24 9.6055 39.5933 1.695
2001-11-11 22:57:13.40 9.4510 39.6847 1.933
2001-11-11 23:00:46.97 9.4653 39.6700 1.999
2001-11-11 23:14:22.98 9.4600 39.6757 2.109
2001-11-11 23:35:43.89 9.4903 39.6752 2.320
2001-11-13 00:50:06.29 9.6517 39.5173 1.007
2001-11-14 01:58:11.77 9.7070 39.7370 1.550
2001-11-14 02:18:25.19 9.4595 39.6828 1.892
2001-11-14 20:57:39.00 9.5108 39.6740 1.786
2001-11-14 21:14:39.19 9.6640 39.5657 1.070
2001-11-14 22:16:00.34 9.5748 39.7055 1.096
2001-11-14 22:53:15.98 9.4545 39.6868 1.927
2001-11-15 00:30:55.96 9.4628 39.6932 1.886
2001-11-15 01:04:34.91 9.2865 39.9927 1.411
2001-11-15 01:15:45.45 9.4283 39.6925 1.238
2001-11-15 02:54:01.97 9.4482 39.7000 1.701
2001-11-15 14:33:40.64 9.3250 40.0337 2.195
2001-11-15 18:22:05.12 9.3513 40.0202 1.705
2001-11-15 20:33:30.74 9.3168 40.0033 1.827
2001-11-16 00:49:56.73 9.2965 39.9970 2.754
2001-11-16 01:54:12.74 9.3148 40.0243 1.538
2001-11-16 02:12:07.81 9.3118 40.0032 2.407
2001-11-16 09:17:37.11 9.3157 40.0058 3.290
2001-11-16 14:39:54.09 9.4293 39.6807 2.415
2001-11-17 03:28:16.74 9.2918 39.9875 2.766
2001-11-17 03:56:21.77 9.5900 39.5490 1.568
2001-11-17 11:34:09.77 9.3130 39.9973 2.624
2001-11-17 13:02:26.13 9.3257 39.9863 1.967
2001-11-17 13:21:13.64 9.2218 40.0310 2.029
2001-11-17 19:17:43.42 10.2715 40.4717 2.317
2001-11-18 00:09:25.77 9.3792 40.0433 0.968
2001-11-18 05:19:59.06 9.0655 39.7825 2.501
2001-11-18 16:29:16.02 9.3097 40.0042 2.266
2001-11-18 18:56:15.33 9.8808 39.5093 1.635
2001-11-18 19:12:10.30 9.3168 40.0037 2.325
2001-11-18 19:57:23.71 9.3158 39.9965 1.846
2001-11-18 21:54:49.21 9.2695 40.0087 1.657
2001-11-18 22:03:37.98 9.2950 39.9922 1.589
2001-11-19 02:13:41.06 9.3268 40.0153 2.240
2001-11-19 03:08:10.42 9.3388 40.0105 2.120
2001-11-19 03:58:20.17 9.3115 39.9777 2.508
2001-11-19 15:44:52.54 9.2990 39.9992 2.426
2001-11-19 21:32:21.89 9.3023 39.9990 2.044
Appendices
112
2001-11-20 02:08:53.41 9.3083 39.9760 1.690
2001-11-20 18:39:27.42 9.2135 39.9978 2.369
2001-11-21 21:12:11.97 9.4093 39.6282 1.105
2001-11-22 21:51:34.84 9.4382 39.6862 0.868
2001-11-23 05:20:37.98 9.4128 39.6788 2.171
2001-11-23 09:04:36.95 9.3058 39.9890 2.791
2001-11-23 14:45:32.93 9.3053 39.9908 3.245
2001-11-23 14:59:13.54 9.3110 39.9825 2.121
2001-11-23 18:33:23.79 9.2980 39.9877 2.510
2001-11-23 18:36:29.37 9.3132 39.9808 2.118
2001-11-23 22:29:55.44 9.2995 39.9898 2.254
2001-11-24 01:12:55.70 9.3068 39.9985 2.197
2001-11-24 01:54:50.02 9.3973 39.5812 1.103
2001-11-24 02:25:26.47 9.2697 40.0212 1.580
2001-11-24 13:03:38.84 9.5492 38.5650 3.121
2001-11-25 00:28:08.81 9.2873 39.9695 1.934
2001-11-25 00:52:16.54 9.2935 40.0183 1.896
2001-11-25 01:30:00.56 9.3227 39.9813 1.608
2001-11-25 09:20:28.80 9.3045 39.9848 2.808
2001-11-25 20:27:16.42 9.3970 39.5330 0.975
2001-11-25 20:42:06.77 9.4477 39.6772 1.644
2001-11-25 23:08:17.00 9.7065 39.5408 1.095
2001-11-26 00:31:39.27 9.2927 40.0200 1.529
2001-11-26 09:18:16.37 9.3845 40.0327 1.064
2001-11-26 18:02:41.69 9.2807 39.9943 1.243
2001-11-26 00:51:43.83 9.2937 39.9955 2.247
2001-11-26 01:31:03.18 9.4963 38.6192 1.670
2001-11-26 13:33:05.68 9.3492 39.6470 2.116
2001-11-26 20:59:49.73 7.5885 38.0228 1.785
2001-11-27 00:46:21.86 9.4438 39.6963 1.127
2001-11-27 01:08:08.18 9.4537 39.6873 1.508
2001-11-27 01:20:30.20 9.4577 39.6827 1.486
2001-11-27 01:21:31.35 9.4612 39.6862 1.570
2001-11-27 10:28:54.56 9.2698 40.1928 1.949
2001-11-27 10:31:17.13 9.2642 40.1965 1.452
2001-11-27 12:31:37.67 8.8783 38.8128 1.443
2001-11-27 19:53:25.27 9.2705 40.1453 1.871
2001-11-27 19:58:13.61 9.2833 40.1690 1.339
2001-11-27 20:02:27.52 9.2557 40.2102 0.932
2001-11-27 20:11:12.37 9.3230 40.1267 0.982
2001-11-27 21:13:26.72 9.4702 39.6863 1.214
2001-11-27 21:35:35.77 9.4652 39.6770 2.648
2001-11-27 22:02:37.28 9.4333 39.6672 0.902
2001-11-27 22:15:26.21 9.4658 39.6647 1.058
2001-11-27 23:51:51.88 9.2940 39.9918 1.723
2001-11-27 23:55:11.40 9.2973 39.9912 1.332
2001-11-28 00:30:27.35 9.2883 39.9918 1.371
2001-11-28 01:08:44.10 9.2645 40.2040 0.808
2001-11-28 05:17:35.04 9.2807 40.0187 2.455
2001-11-28 09:46:07.81 9.2843 39.9877 1.830
2001-11-28 14:18:36.39 9.2830 39.9788 1.740
2001-11-28 16:53:01.46 9.4032 39.6957 1.302
2001-11-28 22:35:10.77 9.4302 39.6625 1.094
2001-11-28 22:49:43.22 9.4560 39.6813 1.273
2001-11-29 01:35:41.85 9.2855 39.9852 1.913
2001-11-29 01:41:27.70 9.2775 39.9762 1.199
2001-11-29 19:06:06.29 9.2895 39.9790 2.563
2001-11-29 19:05:54.63 9.2673 39.9722 2.573
2001-11-29 19:11:42.06 9.2875 39.9835 2.065
2001-11-29 19:50:34.94 9.2822 39.9785 1.764
2001-11-29 19:50:40.71 9.2890 39.9760 1.847
2001-11-29 20:11:27.85 9.3035 39.9870 2.102
2001-11-29 20:27:13.63 9.2837 39.9792 3.080
2001-11-29 21:06:48.79 9.2903 39.9772 1.874
2001-11-29 21:14:26.47 9.2817 39.9815 1.890
2001-11-29 21:51:39.37 9.2820 39.9767 1.457
2001-11-29 21:56:57.51 9.2745 39.9770 1.290
2001-11-29 21:57:22.67 9.2812 39.9867 1.153
2001-11-29 22:09:53.70 9.2775 39.9833 1.834
2001-11-29 22:22:51.01 9.2693 39.9692 1.217
2001-11-29 22:25:12.73 9.4722 39.6560 1.033
2001-11-29 23:46:36.49 9.2797 39.9638 1.174
2001-11-30 00:35:02.39 9.2848 39.9830 1.993
2001-11-30 00:42:59.51 9.2767 39.9808 2.238
2001-11-30 00:44:33.20 9.2853 39.9797 2.407
2001-11-30 00:45:01.64 9.2928 40.0003 1.989
2001-11-30 00:48:22.06 9.2885 39.9863 1.533
2001-11-30 01:01:02.72 9.2938 39.9822 1.392
2001-11-30 01:16:02.84 9.2967 39.9807 1.671
2001-11-30 02:29:15.64 9.2853 39.9727 2.284
2001-11-30 02:58:52.23 9.2705 39.9808 1.538
2001-11-30 06:39:07.95 9.2915 39.9937 2.400
2001-11-30 11:44:06.93 9.2840 39.9758 2.383
2001-11-30 20:21:46.86 9.4232 39.6855 1.342
2001-11-30 23:28:52.33 9.4425 39.6605 1.034
2001-12-01 00:12:38.15 9.4280 39.6575 1.034
2001-12-01 00:23:47.84 9.5793 39.7070 0.759
2001-12-01 00:41:03.71 9.4288 39.6907 0.977
2001-12-01 02:03:42.75 9.4010 39.6333 0.953
2001-12-01 02:26:28.13 7.6967 38.8080 1.275
2001-12-01 03:17:31.05 9.2808 39.9815 1.989
2001-12-01 03:48:18.18 9.1757 39.9100 1.567
2001-12-01 09:17:22.36 9.4045 39.7045 1.540
2001-12-01 12:59:47.38 10.2762 39.8440 2.922
Appendices
113
2001-12-01 18:15:49.60 9.3917 39.6162 0.897
2001-12-01 18:16:21.80 9.4337 39.6982 1.398
2001-12-01 20:43:04.28 9.8803 41.2137 1.440
2001-12-01 21:53:29.19 9.4330 39.6912 1.331
2001-12-03 09:35:24.93 8.9822 38.6978 1.184
2001-12-05 15:52:37 12.6700 40.5300 4.310
2001-12-05 18:49:14.27 9.1790 40.1328 1.811
2001-12-05 19:44:20.97 10.1205 39.7112 1.589
2001-12-05 22:00:16.78 9.3833 39.6648 1.199
2001-12-05 22:41:50.53 9.5202 39.6325 0.810
2001-12-05 22:47:28.42 9.6392 39.5772 0.656
2001-12-06 19:09:29.75 9.4328 39.5148 1.425
2001-12-07 00:52:00.27 9.4633 39.6742 1.781
2001-12-07 01:18:44.88 9.5847 39.5880 0.979
2001-12-08 08:58:40.20 9.6107 39.7973 1.817
2001-12-08 13:51:17.91 9.0723 40.4512 2.215
2001-12-08 15:00:50.06 9.4032 39.3202 1.068
2001-12-08 16:27:43.66 9.4503 39.6865 2.405
2001-12-08 18:01:37.54 10.6725 41.0637 2.268
2001-12-08 21:53:46.94 9.3905 39.6757 1.068
2001-12-08 23:23:56.35 9.4480 39.6853 1.678
2001-12-09 12:03:34.14 9.7773 40.4950 2.320
2001-12-09 19:37:04.96 9.4462 39.6903 1.734
2001-12-09 20:00:52.63 9.1837 40.1412 2.050
2001-12-09 21:48:18.63 10.4868 39.7678 1.769
2001-12-09 22:07:39.93 9.4105 39.6302 1.012
2001-12-10 15:50:52.97 9.1668 40.1642 1.393
2001-12-10 20:06:19.97 9.6528 39.7318 1.304
2001-12-10 20:19:14.74 9.4622 39.6883 2.392
2001-12-11 00:08:45.97 9.4600 39.6820 1.939
2001-12-11 00:27:34.07 9.4545 39.6922 2.002
2001-12-11 00:52:08.90 9.4090 39.6682 1.269
2001-12-11 07:02:13.24 9.4097 39.6903 2.149
2001-12-11 19:32:12.60 9.5848 39.5233 1.048
2001-12-11 21:06:34.89 9.4532 39.6918 1.896
2001-12-11 21:13:55.50 9.4442 39.6890 1.523
2001-12-11 21:36:17.19 9.4425 39.6860 1.747
2001-12-11 23:11:05.09 9.4588 39.6940 2.019
2001-12-11 23:12:25.00 9.4525 39.6785 1.505
2001-12-12 09:40:14.65 9.3503 39.3255 1.267
2001-12-12 13:33:53.10 9.4380 39.6940 2.414
2001-12-12 13:46:34.43 9.4437 39.7007 2.276
2001-12-12 14:03:24.83 9.4235 39.6837 1.652
2001-12-12 14:27:20.99 9.4373 39.6802 2.657
2001-12-12 15:20:37.91 9.4530 39.6707 1.631
2001-12-12 21:45:40.05 9.6072 40.2932 2.044
2001-12-12 22:42:07.03 9.4462 39.6822 1.644
2001-12-12 22:56:15.21 9.4520 39.6892 1.352
2001-12-13 00:39:02.02 9.4938 39.6407 1.118
2001-12-13 01:12:10.49 9.4565 39.6933 2.111
2001-12-13 01:26:29.89 9.4383 39.6838 1.297
2001-12-13 02:14:38.85 9.4565 39.6963 3.214
2001-12-13 03:42:20.48 9.5602 39.6635 1.202
2001-12-13 04:25:45.49 9.4290 39.6933 2.037
2001-12-13 04:33:57.33 8.3562 39.0417 1.930
2001-12-13 21:31:12.71 9.4330 39.6872 1.830
2001-12-13 22:42:17.32 9.3842 39.6372 0.998
2001-12-14 03:18:32.58 9.5093 40.2172 1.838
2001-12-14 03:22:24.25 9.4728 40.2235 1.828
2001-12-14 03:29:40.46 9.5390 39.6050 1.284
2001-12-14 03:39:13.03 9.4258 39.6572 1.300
2001-12-14 04:22:29.30 9.4767 40.2212 1.778
2001-12-14 10:28:44.24 9.4387 39.6988 2.289
2001-12-15 00:59:14.29 9.2568 39.9888 1.157
2001-12-15 01:08:40.08 9.4552 39.6912 2.000
2001-12-15 03:34:39.05 8.4248 39.8313 1.691
2001-12-15 14:07:30.60 9.3940 39.6907 1.764
2001-12-15 15:34:55.00 9.4118 39.6782 1.916
2001-12-15 19:55:14.74 8.8172 40.4670 1.187
2001-12-15 22:40:46.54 8.8260 39.7888 0.736
2001-12-15 22:50:35.59 9.4172 39.6867 1.262
2001-12-15 23:01:55.16 9.4460 39.6868 1.498
2001-12-15 23:44:04.20 9.0022 40.7607 0.617
2001-12-16 00:04:31.20 9.4210 39.6705 1.087
2001-12-16 07:33:00.54 9.3307 39.6743 1.491
2001-12-16 12:44:49.72 9.2632 40.2073 1.166
2001-12-16 20:55:58.58 9.1335 40.0515 0.909
2001-12-16 22:53:14.95 9.4247 39.6862 1.216
2001-12-17 00:01:04.04 9.9058 41.3273 1.481
2001-12-17 02:22:19.69 9.4138 39.6770 1.369
2001-12-17 05:33:45.42 9.4345 39.6955 1.698
2001-12-17 05:41:44.12 9.4443 39.6742 1.744
2001-12-17 14:55:57.86 9.4343 39.6758 1.522
2001-12-17 18:26:13.73 9.4477 39.6823 2.036
2001-12-17 18:36:43.50 9.4330 39.6838 1.337
2001-12-17 20:49:17.97 10.1150 41.5278 2.318
2001-12-17 22:24:13.82 7.4593 38.8908 1.023
2001-12-18 20:01:16.55 9.4373 39.6920 1.859
2001-12-18 20:01:55.52 9.4368 39.6850 1.914
2001-12-18 20:02:32.55 9.4457 39.6782 1.469
2001-12-18 22:07:30.81 9.4398 39.6900 1.373
2001-12-18 23:28:54.62 9.8457 41.1018 2.140
2001-12-19 00:53:11.21 9.4258 39.6865 1.258
2001-12-19 02:55:35.03 9.4452 39.6820 1.490
Appendices
114
2001-12-19 03:03:25.70 9.4397 39.6903 1.378
2001-12-19 05:28:01.66 9.8937 40.7317 2.374
2001-12-19 18:12:48.36 9.4607 39.6667 1.411
2001-12-19 21:03:08.64 8.1573 39.1337 1.176
2001-12-20 00:02:40.75 9.3998 39.6787 1.303
2001-12-20 00:56:04.86 9.4235 39.6922 1.204
2001-12-20 02:45:56.29 7.7353 38.7370 1.550
2001-12-20 04:31:33.10 9.4690 39.7005 2.837
2001-12-20 04:56:16.34 9.4378 39.6980 1.939
2001-12-20 05:29:40.21 9.4413 39.6860 1.503
2001-12-20 07:54:04.59 9.1808 40.1425 2.082
2001-12-20 11:07:40.88 9.4480 39.6978 2.618
2001-12-20 12:35:27.80 9.4498 39.7018 2.459
2001-12-20 19:45:23.10 9.4415 39.6740 1.305
2001-12-20 19:50:27.82 9.4372 39.6800 1.563
2001-12-20 20:57:01.87 7.7493 38.8012 1.436
2001-12-20 21:45:04.36 9.4247 39.6905 1.355
2001-12-20 22:59:01.68 9.4462 39.6877 1.477
2001-12-21 00:36:10.46 7.7445 38.7400 1.529
2001-12-21 00:38:12.66 8.2743 39.0292 0.949
2001-12-21 00:53:53.69 9.4527 39.6927 2.770
2001-12-21 01:13:14.03 9.4345 39.6828 1.408
2001-12-21 01:34:45.96 9.4455 39.7002 2.479
2001-12-21 01:41:54.31 9.4162 39.6875 1.240
2001-12-21 01:52:09.32 9.4532 39.7032 1.619
2001-12-21 02:01:38.26 7.4157 38.6125 1.441
2001-12-21 13:41:59.86 9.7072 39.8110 2.237
2001-12-21 16:47:35.79 9.4333 39.6977 1.742
2001-12-21 20:17:45.04 9.4305 39.6795 1.308
2001-12-21 22:58:41.26 9.4212 39.6882 0.925
2001-12-22 00:57:20.10 9.4678 39.7045 2.376
2001-12-22 01:10:11.14 9.4232 39.6897 1.282
2001-12-22 01:13:03.90 9.4157 39.6877 1.318
2001-12-22 06:46:45.03 9.4153 39.6892 2.070
2001-12-22 06:47:32.38 9.4162 39.6912 2.123
2001-12-22 16:15:33.02 9.4548 39.6510 1.721
2001-12-22 22:07:06.27 9.4607 39.6838 0.909
2001-12-22 23:18:23.15 9.4788 39.6607 0.993
2001-12-23 01:27:43.55 9.2800 40.0893 1.008
2001-12-23 01:45:35.38 9.6297 39.7242 1.419
2001-12-23 02:46:21.63 9.1732 39.9983 1.165
2001-12-23 10:27:27.80 9.0323 39.9222 1.158
2001-12-23 19:25:08.21 9.4218 39.6925 1.377
2001-12-23 22:33:35.60 7.7465 38.7202 1.822
2001-12-23 22:52:56.83 9.0333 39.9713 1.050
2001-12-23 23:42:29.60 7.4982 38.6402 1.447
2001-12-24 01:03:16.26 8.6865 39.9617 0.635
2001-12-24 01:30:11.11 9.9215 40.0057 2.275
2001-12-24 18:56:38.22 9.5480 39.6675 1.766
2001-12-24 23:26:20.37 8.5683 40.0165 0.915
2001-12-25 03:52:51.85 9.6485 39.7138 2.771
2001-12-25 16:41:18.12 9.3365 39.9012 2.044
2001-12-25 22:20:11.90 10.1365 40.4205 2.089
2001-12-26 00:19:54.40 7.6145 38.7655 2.835
2001-12-26 00:20:36.52 7.6547 38.7727 2.801
2001-12-26 00:35:42.80 7.6228 38.8767 1.624
2001-12-26 01:42:18.33 8.0277 38.9963 1.058
2001-12-27 05:35:37.59 7.7667 38.7497 2.792
2001-12-27 08:48:39.55 7.7597 38.7615 2.887
2001-12-27 16:44:41.18 7.7405 38.7290 2.281
2001-12-27 17:59:01.69 9.7210 41.4242 1.977
2001-12-27 18:31:36.91 9.6850 41.4905 2.054
2001-12-28 02:55:17.13 9.4372 39.6935 1.332
2001-12-28 03:00:55.28 9.4598 39.6907 1.517
2001-12-28 15:45:31.66 9.4643 39.6665 1.581
2001-12-28 16:39:23.13 9.4287 39.6820 1.928
2001-12-28 17:01:52.01 9.4305 39.6715 1.271
2001-12-28 21:17:51.02 9.4422 39.6723 1.728
2001-12-28 21:34:50.49 9.4593 39.7062 1.807
2001-12-28 21:37:39.89 9.4630 39.7010 2.340
2001-12-28 21:47:09.60 9.4510 39.6935 1.823
2001-12-28 21:49:14.88 9.4438 39.6987 1.701
2001-12-28 23:39:11.79 9.4712 39.7032 1.006
2001-12-28 23:43:27.46 9.4385 39.6913 1.144
2001-12-28 23:54:06.42 9.4595 39.6847 1.591
2001-12-29 00:15:10.83 9.4485 39.6857 0.830
2001-12-29 01:22:00.71 9.4567 39.6965 2.397
2001-12-29 01:57:51.91 7.6223 38.8315 1.297
2001-12-29 02:39:38.55 9.4533 39.6933 1.569
2001-12-29 03:07:31.28 9.4402 39.6917 1.270
2001-12-29 03:48:58.82 9.4518 39.6993 2.118
2001-12-29 09:53:04.11 9.4522 39.7002 2.058
2001-12-29 13:49:38.37 9.4972 40.0268 2.370
2001-12-30 01:13:45.20 9.2115 40.1253 1.333
2001-12-30 06:16:15.66 9.4682 39.6945 2.988
2001-12-30 18:12:12.37 9.4430 39.6903 1.867
2001-12-30 18:59:57.10 9.4360 39.6953 2.381
2001-12-30 19:05:27.55 9.4478 39.6887 1.544
2001-12-30 22:54:03.97 9.3327 40.1780 1.181
2001-12-30 23:34:20.89 9.2257 40.0810 0.921
2001-12-31 00:07:06.10 9.4790 39.6957 1.725
2001-12-31 01:58:16.45 9.4550 39.7000 2.115
2001-12-31 02:17:11.60 9.4382 39.6985 2.007
2001-12-31 06:07:49.92 9.4387 39.6985 1.923
Appendices
115
2001-12-31 06:09:03.39 9.4332 39.6950 2.127
2001-12-31 06:14:33.31 9.4320 39.6703 1.661
2001-12-31 07:08:37.05 9.4410 39.6608 1.452
2001-12-31 07:18:53.87 7.5970 38.8682 2.454
2001-12-31 08:41:07.44 9.4277 39.6848 1.946
2001-12-31 11:53:09.63 9.4242 39.6767 1.911
2001-12-31 13:32:23.21 9.4333 39.6942 2.008
2001-12-31 20:29:02.74 9.4553 39.6727 1.134
2001-12-31 20:30:02.24 9.4550 39.6978 1.299
2001-12-31 20:36:55.48 9.4542 39.6803 1.066
2001-12-31 22:33:48.76 9.4308 39.7002 1.730
2001-12-31 23:50:46.32 9.4438 39.6982 1.367
2002-01-01 00:20:54.48 9.4445 39.6813 1.256
2002-01-01 00:42:36.84 9.4062 39.6653 1.690
2002-01-01 01:41:09.61 8.2842 39.1502 1.232
2002-01-01 09:56:11.75 9.5590 38.4038 1.635
2002-01-01 23:24:50.47 7.5950 38.7683 1.620
2002-01-02 02:02:12.54 9.2458 40.4685 1.448
2002-01-02 06:24:46.14 9.0787 40.3257 2.016
2002-01-02 10:41:43.07 8.9328 38.3667 1.518
2002-01-02 15:09:58.91 9.0723 40.4527 2.393
2002-01-02 17:40:26.01 10.1590 39.5255 2.240
2002-01-02 21:04:00.34 7.7440 38.7622 1.924
2002-01-02 21:11:19.34 7.7480 38.7345 1.902
2002-01-02 22:42:07.41 7.7135 38.7170 1.993
2002-01-03 03:25:37.74 7.5828 38.7518 1.966
2002-01-03 03:52:29.14 9.4430 39.6915 2.455
2002-01-03 04:03:44.55 9.4492 39.7145 1.559
2002-01-03 10:34:09.84 8.6637 39.5432 2.664
2002-01-03 14:57:06.19 8.6783 39.5753 2.801
2002-01-03 16:05:21.04 9.8263 41.1220 2.477
2002-01-04 03:27:17.44 8.2780 39.0987 1.782
2002-01-04 16:50:29.20 8.2588 39.0927 1.982
2002-01-05 21:06:21.67 9.8955 41.1377 2.364
2002-01-06 19:45:56.29 9.4393 39.6785 1.858
2002-01-07 19:21:47.82 11.2768 39.7498 2.897
2002-01-07 19:54:50.78 9.4325 39.6873 1.612
2002-01-07 21:47:16.17 9.4400 39.6987 1.396
2002-01-07 22:17:23.11 8.6843 39.5807 1.746
2002-01-08 00:09:41.28 11.4885 39.8000 2.819
2002-01-09 22:18:41.09 9.7625 39.7952 2.434
2002-01-11 15:26:28.60 9.8495 40.5462 2.540
2002-01-11 21:37:46.35 9.0300 40.7542 1.173
2002-01-12 16:00:09.91 9.4693 39.7083 1.790
2002-01-12 20:14:48.59 7.2812 38.5368 2.063
2002-01-12 22:31:14.00 10.0387 41.1908 1.865
2002-01-12 23:17:57.51 9.3763 39.6485 1.082
2002-01-12 23:32:12.29 9.4528 40.3417 1.673
2002-01-13 00:05:19.33 9.4562 39.6938 1.917
2002-01-13 00:52:53.56 9.4480 39.6977 1.322
2002-01-13 01:19:19.78 9.4320 39.9713 2.233
2002-01-13 02:07:30.99 9.4077 39.6962 1.225
2002-01-13 23:21:59.81 9.4672 39.6870 1.712
2002-01-14 00:30:38.87 9.4523 39.6945 1.163
2002-01-14 00:36:26.34 9.4538 39.6840 1.065
2002-01-14 07:56:46.58 9.4580 39.6937 2.451
2002-01-14 08:32:12.31 8.9185 40.5888 2.605
2002-01-14 08:42:35.24 8.9140 40.5853 1.996
2002-01-14 17:48:27.74 9.4417 39.6787 2.205
2002-01-14 22:14:08.40 9.4728 39.6995 1.944
2002-01-14 22:16:14.60 9.4740 39.7012 1.458
2002-01-14 22:45:57.50 9.6117 39.5225 2.303
2002-01-14 23:31:31.48 9.4447 39.7035 1.427
2002-01-14 23:34:24.02 9.4548 39.6965 2.212
2002-01-14 23:39:45.10 9.4517 39.6978 1.381
2002-01-14 23:52:09.54 9.4455 39.7037 1.935
2002-01-15 00:22:32.07 9.4705 39.6728 1.212
2002-01-15 00:55:46.93 9.4658 39.6917 2.188
2002-01-15 01:02:40.37 9.4677 39.6855 1.374
2002-01-15 01:14:51.90 9.4722 39.6810 1.393
2002-01-15 03:11:11.83 7.3717 38.6417 1.435
2002-01-15 04:17:22.92 9.4533 39.7033 1.557
2002-01-15 12:37:47.93 9.4460 39.6778 2.086
2002-01-15 21:40:55.86 9.4690 39.6940 1.803
2002-01-16 20:07:48.26 9.4712 39.7017 1.658
2002-01-16 21:22:39.08 9.2332 40.0438 1.698
2002-01-17 01:13:18.82 10.0063 39.9905 2.195
2002-01-17 01:38:04.08 8.1490 39.0142 2.014
2002-01-17 02:43:49.60 9.4332 39.7065 1.624
2002-01-17 03:15:25.53 8.1443 39.0308 2.252
2002-01-17 14:18:13.63 9.4442 39.7062 2.842
2002-01-17 14:20:36.14 9.3843 39.7060 2.167
2002-01-17 14:26:59.16 9.4413 39.6962 2.857
2002-01-17 17:48:20.41 9.4607 39.7045 2.823
2002-01-17 18:35:03.51 9.4493 39.7087 1.492
2002-01-17 19:16:31.08 9.4612 39.6943 2.331
2002-01-17 20:01:05.21 7.4538 38.1222 2.150
2002-01-17 20:07:35.13 9.4762 39.6935 2.398
2002-01-17 20:24:21.07 9.4742 39.6970 2.940
2002-01-17 20:55:55.12 9.4975 39.6565 1.222
2002-01-17 21:30:32.53 9.4607 39.6792 0.992
2002-01-17 22:33:01.48 9.4777 39.6902 1.354
2002-01-17 22:43:58.93 9.4588 39.6982 2.391
2002-01-17 23:00:27.38 9.4512 39.6870 1.578
Appendices
116
2002-01-17 23:16:46.89 9.4472 39.6830 1.303
2002-01-17 23:34:57.53 9.4492 39.6962 1.593
2002-01-17 23:45:55.79 9.4272 39.6635 1.141
2002-01-17 23:53:08.22 9.4800 39.6885 2.045
2002-01-18 00:42:28.03 9.4582 39.6887 1.243
2002-01-18 01:32:50.94 9.4813 39.6780 1.380
2002-01-18 01:42:40.62 8.9935 39.9450 2.824
2002-01-18 01:50:10.15 8.9895 39.9265 0.684
2002-01-18 01:58:11.64 8.9905 39.9232 0.955
2002-01-18 15:43:33.87 7.7647 38.6082 2.894
2002-01-18 21:46:19.95 9.4888 39.6547 1.147
2002-01-19 00:51:10.24 9.4822 39.6895 1.547
2002-01-19 01:02:19.47 9.4648 39.6790 1.043
2002-01-19 06:11:11.58 8.6803 39.5810 1.986
2002-01-19 19:08:34.20 9.5312 39.6923 1.695
2002-01-19 22:21:35.12 11.5325 40.1017 2.702
2002-01-20 02:55:52.29 8.5357 39.3222 1.468
2002-01-20 03:41:08.04 8.9755 39.8607 1.329
2002-01-20 05:06:21.42 9.4093 39.4323 1.774
2002-01-20 22:11:05.26 9.4747 39.6903 2.441
2002-01-20 22:23:31.09 9.4665 39.6812 1.193
2002-01-20 23:34:01.38 7.1230 38.6868 2.175
2002-01-21 12:36:52.97 9.3637 39.6052 2.400
2002-01-21 12:46:50.33 9.0517 40.4282 2.377
2002-01-23 17:36:13.86 9.6663 39.2162 2.152
2002-01-26 21:55:09.62 8.1543 39.0190 1.837
2002-01-27 00:45:36.98 10.2655 40.4722 1.872
2002-01-27 21:20:01.52 9.4430 39.6777 1.396
2002-01-28 03:06:25.75 9.4185 40.7413 1.521
2002-01-28 18:50:13.54 9.4602 39.2795 1.907
2002-01-29 11:21:02.43 7.9335 38.8392 2.242
2002-01-29 13:20:58.10 10.0005 39.8052 2.126
2002-01-30 09:08:07.06 8.9473 38.6045 1.099
2002-01-30 20:13:47.88 6.9048 38.5472 2.115
2002-01-30 21:40:43.00 9.2773 39.9692 1.572
2002-01-30 21:52:05.23 9.2962 40.0013 1.895
2002-01-31 00:04:41.95 9.2882 39.9918 1.417
2002-01-31 00:06:31.88 9.2743 39.9808 1.557
2002-01-31 02:05:55.25 9.4555 39.6967 1.853
2002-01-31 02:15:37.16 9.2953 40.0000 1.712
2002-01-31 02:25:44.71 9.2633 40.0082 1.485
2002-01-31 02:50:59.82 8.9058 39.9340 1.186
2002-01-31 13:09:31.31 9.2328 40.0158 1.753
2002-01-31 15:33:37.65 9.2807 39.9913 1.973
2002-01-31 16:35:56.78 9.2410 39.9720 1.579
2002-01-31 16:44:20.94 9.2743 40.0020 2.207
2002-01-31 19:25:21.68 9.2983 40.0003 1.503
2002-01-31 20:41:45.16 9.4347 39.6932 1.475
2002-01-31 23:54:41.15 9.2763 39.9842 1.751
2002-02-01 08:51:18.22 8.9685 38.8252 2.256
2002-02-01 09:33:22.45 9.0095 38.3762 1.303
2002-02-01 11:05:14.17 8.9238 38.6088 1.368
2002-02-01 19:49:47.74 9.5140 41.8380 2.376
2002-02-01 23:38:11.39 10.3018 39.8520 1.587
2002-02-03 14:06:47.79 9.7732 39.7343 2.118
2002-02-03 22:07:44.61 9.4730 39.5378 1.277
2002-02-04 01:43:12.55 9.1093 40.0150 1.118
2002-02-04 17:56:45.19 9.2143 41.0450 2.482
2002-02-05 00:14:27.85 9.4230 40.6098 1.288
2002-02-05 07:23:42.49 8.8273 39.7952 1.569
2002-02-06 01:10:48.60 7.9695 38.1205 1.628
2002-02-06 18:33:40.41 9.6870 41.3592 2.288
2002-02-07 06:34:38.90 9.4303 39.6697 1.927
2002-02-07 18:44:39.90 10.4383 39.6997 4.333
2002-02-08 01:53:01.59 9.0630 39.9840 1.537
2002-02-08 08:42:20.30 9.1882 38.2562 1.396
2002-02-09 16:52:03.81 9.4413 39.6937 2.170
2002-02-09 23:34:27.89 9.4288 39.7035 1.253
2002-02-10 09:41:34.73 9.0230 38.7002 1.124
2002-02-10 14:18:01.10 10.0530 39.2965 2.191
2002-02-10 14:33:09.95 9.4358 39.7175 1.765
2002-02-10 16:13:20.46 9.4573 39.6858 1.471
2002-02-11 01:47:16.01 9.4472 39.6800 1.429
2002-02-11 01:51:54.07 9.4448 39.6950 2.202
2002-02-11 01:57:19.76 9.4667 39.6808 1.742
2002-02-11 02:54:01.35 9.4327 39.6830 1.376
2002-02-11 04:33:28.06 9.4112 39.6115 1.817
2002-02-11 05:09:10.83 9.4063 39.6962 1.958
2002-02-11 10:16:52.54 9.4157 39.6990 2.006
2002-02-11 17:09:07.70 9.4222 39.6777 2.040
2002-02-11 18:48:27.12 9.4193 39.6840 1.546
2002-02-11 20:19:43.02 9.4850 39.6500 1.043
2002-02-11 21:37:29.47 9.9950 41.6228 3.062
2002-02-11 21:42:32.10 9.4377 39.6758 1.407
2002-02-12 00:07:23.46 9.4503 39.6777 1.134
2002-02-12 00:41:35.62 9.4377 39.6840 1.418
2002-02-12 00:49:53.46 9.4485 39.6940 1.322
2002-02-12 00:50:39.69 9.4365 39.6890 1.205
2002-02-12 01:02:21.57 9.4525 39.6647 1.241
2002-02-12 12:54:06.03 10.3375 39.6272 2.460
2002-02-12 17:18:50.90 9.4322 39.6850 1.947
2002-02-12 21:49:15.81 9.4845 39.6102 1.533
2002-02-13 02:37:28.92 9.2117 39.6730 1.527
2002-02-13 09:11:20.39 9.2657 39.4118 2.107
Appendices
117
2002-02-14 00:04:10.52 7.9128 38.9257 0.870
2002-02-14 00:47:19.85 9.4547 39.7103 1.563
2002-02-14 01:18:35.02 9.2868 39.9953 1.619
2002-02-14 03:08:13.49 11.9815 39.7823 3.205
2002-02-14 22:05:45.72 9.1085 40.0308 1.420
2002-02-15 00:16:54.79 9.1137 40.0260 1.262
2002-02-15 01:11:32.90 8.1122 39.0437 1.001
2002-02-15 01:21:56.77 8.1208 39.0392 1.036
2002-02-15 03:01:53.06 9.4203 39.6782 1.755
2002-02-15 22:30:30.58 8.1062 39.0555 0.979
2002-02-16 22:58:26.00 9.4467 39.7113 1.368
2002-02-16 23:10:17.20 9.4645 39.7000 1.686
2002-02-17 02:38:15.46 9.4695 39.7025 3.211
2002-02-17 02:40:52.33 9.4552 39.7138 1.961
2002-02-17 02:42:18.03 9.4442 39.6920 2.701
2002-02-17 03:00:14.72 9.4753 39.7035 1.663
2002-02-17 03:13:41.41 9.4402 39.7063 1.651
2002-02-17 04:08:49.55 10.3293 39.9337 2.247
2002-02-17 10:38:19.25 7.4592 38.6795 2.516
2002-02-17 11:15:46.75 7.4837 38.7120 2.358
2002-02-17 13:26:22.44 9.4580 39.7070 2.782
2002-02-17 13:45:58.56 9.4663 39.7067 2.122
2002-02-17 14:16:13.46 9.4648 39.6965 2.441
2002-02-17 14:17:31.01 9.4693 39.7067 2.371
2002-02-17 14:16:49.66 9.4688 39.7083 2.010
2002-02-17 14:24:44.63 9.4318 39.6840 2.180
2002-02-17 14:24:18.84 9.4542 39.7067 2.297
2002-02-17 14:29:54.81 9.4698 39.6907 2.394
2002-02-17 15:52:10.27 9.4315 39.6557 1.788
2002-02-17 22:07:19.73 9.4312 39.7023 1.773
2002-02-17 23:33:50.00 9.4778 39.7105 1.645
2002-02-18 00:48:31.93 9.4673 39.6720 1.428
2002-02-18 21:25:28.13 9.4478 39.6810 1.214
2002-02-19 02:04:13.11 8.4500 39.2868 1.271
2002-02-19 03:26:19.03 8.4898 39.2925 1.235
2002-02-19 22:47:35.80 9.4685 39.6998 2.062
2002-02-19 22:57:10.41 8.5228 38.9408 1.261
2002-02-20 00:53:06.35 9.5237 39.6470 1.113
2002-02-20 01:24:10.76 9.2695 40.2053 0.986
2002-02-20 21:03:17.45 9.4702 39.7030 2.018
2002-02-20 21:27:35.02 9.7642 39.7742 1.493
2002-02-20 21:35:04.25 9.4640 39.6430 0.861
2002-02-21 08:21:58.33 7.4360 38.6103 3.212
2002-02-21 08:56:11.35 7.4242 38.6112 2.813
2002-02-21 09:02:06.65 9.2607 39.0002 0.455
2002-02-21 09:26:49.58 9.8492 40.9240 2.179
2002-02-21 12:48:59.11 7.3852 38.6820 2.763
2002-02-21 17:00:28.57 7.4247 38.5782 2.127
2002-02-21 19:20:31.00 7.3633 38.7118 2.031
2002-02-21 22:14:51.47 9.2058 40.0058 1.378
2002-02-21 22:25:25.41 7.4095 38.6078 2.102
2002-02-21 23:25:58.01 8.4237 40.1162 1.027
2002-02-21 23:53:12.07 7.4227 38.8078 1.459
2002-02-22 00:34:11.28 9.2502 39.9793 1.128
2002-02-22 01:55:22.81 8.9515 39.6470 0.974
2002-02-22 02:18:52.35 9.4740 39.7007 0.968
2002-02-22 07:27:22.29 7.3762 38.7157 2.751
2002-02-22 07:30:59.54 7.4137 38.6645 2.693
2002-02-22 09:16:27.14 7.3802 38.7143 2.369
2002-02-22 13:45:32.01 9.4395 39.6910 1.729
2002-02-22 15:01:46.59 9.4363 39.6928 1.626
2002-02-23 02:03:03.94 7.5080 38.6628 2.125
2002-02-23 06:49:13.02 9.4492 39.7588 1.838
2002-02-23 09:07:59.20 9.4773 40.0375 2.027
2002-02-23 15:19:13.07 7.3978 38.6040 2.927
2002-02-23 16:07:08.25 9.1183 39.9508 1.467
2002-02-24 07:12:39.45 7.3275 38.7295 2.285
2002-02-24 10:18:32.27 8.9805 38.7012 1.043
2002-02-24 20:35:42.13 9.4867 38.6248 1.597
2002-02-24 21:35:17.09 9.2685 40.1835 0.797
2002-02-25 03:36:05.78 9.7617 41.4870 2.170
2002-02-25 20:45:34.85 9.4607 39.6968 2.175
2002-02-25 23:57:06.58 9.4645 39.6953 1.228
2002-02-26 00:24:27.18 9.4763 39.7023 1.388
2002-02-26 03:55:15.66 9.4317 39.6507 1.521
2002-02-26 11:09:17.27 8.8888 38.6025 1.480
2002-02-26 23:44:27.03 10.4903 39.5752 1.980
2002-02-27 08:18:06.57 8.2465 39.0702 1.907
2002-02-28 22:32:00.86 9.3965 39.6715 1.064
2002-03-01 12:09:02.95 9.4390 40.0018 1.755
2002-03-01 18:00:07.05 9.4627 39.6950 3.458
2002-03-01 18:01:41.44 9.4687 39.7100 3.890
2002-03-01 19:14:56.05 9.4357 39.6855 2.119
2002-03-01 19:17:16.10 9.4077 39.6150 1.086
2002-03-01 20:27:49.39 9.4493 39.6952 1.924
2002-03-01 20:29:52.51 9.4362 39.6945 1.742
2002-03-01 20:45:17.04 9.4355 39.6763 1.131
2002-03-01 20:56:19.95 9.4557 39.6848 2.877
2002-03-01 20:56:31.90 9.1563 39.7223 2.675
2002-03-01 20:57:47.25 9.4718 39.6870 3.812
2002-03-01 20:59:28.49 9.4093 39.6910 2.912
2002-03-01 21:04:06.96 9.3732 39.6492 1.392
2002-03-01 21:05:00.42 9.4648 39.6578 1.586
2002-03-01 21:06:17.45 9.4473 39.6673 1.968
Appendices
118
2002-03-01 21:07:05.69 9.4452 39.7013 1.975
2002-03-01 21:09:02.02 9.4352 39.6935 2.353
2002-03-01 21:09:07.90 9.4515 39.7040 2.416
2002-03-01 21:13:22.03 9.4463 39.6663 1.098
2002-03-01 21:16:20.05 9.4388 39.6890 2.232
2002-03-01 21:30:08.14 9.4507 39.6952 2.422
2002-03-01 21:35:09.68 9.4710 39.7028 1.263
2002-03-01 22:16:44.13 9.4427 39.6993 1.477
2002-03-01 22:27:25.29 9.5970 39.5597 0.792
2002-03-01 22:54:48.88 9.4795 39.6728 1.559
2002-03-01 23:07:36.13 9.4007 39.6987 1.277
2002-03-01 23:29:10.83 8.9325 40.5678 1.094
2002-03-01 23:37:46.15 9.4742 39.6885 2.931
2002-03-01 23:40:12.44 9.4577 39.6875 2.067
2002-03-01 23:44:16.39 9.4333 39.6683 1.108
2002-03-01 23:49:57.42 9.4542 39.6995 1.647
2002-03-01 23:55:38.37 9.4058 39.6952 0.992
2002-03-02 00:15:17.62 9.4552 39.7017 2.328
2002-03-02 00:17:26.31 9.5648 39.4625 0.943
2002-03-02 00:23:03.48 9.4323 39.6890 1.142
2002-03-02 00:37:04.70 9.4385 39.6467 0.851
2002-03-02 01:15:41.46 9.4618 39.6997 1.685
2002-03-02 02:17:03.20 9.4247 39.6575 1.157
2002-03-02 03:17:08.36 9.4223 39.6648 1.408
2002-03-02 04:12:24.99 9.4517 39.6925 2.470
2002-03-02 04:31:34.24 9.4020 39.6963 2.005
2002-03-02 05:36:46.69 8.4733 40.0897 1.756
2002-03-02 11:45:55.37 9.4295 39.6697 1.706
2002-03-02 14:00:31.56 9.4288 39.6933 1.764
2002-03-02 20:04:08.02 9.4120 39.6027 0.977
2002-03-02 21:35:39.70 9.4103 39.6138 0.834
2002-03-02 21:48:38.22 9.4067 39.5997 1.153
2002-03-02 22:09:59.52 9.2590 39.6133 0.994
2002-03-02 23:00:41.26 9.3780 39.6518 1.046
2002-03-02 23:22:35.93 9.4263 39.7005 1.358
2002-03-03 00:31:12.89 9.4135 39.6598 0.976
2002-03-03 00:32:13.26 9.4375 39.6778 1.542
2002-03-03 03:25:05.79 9.2585 39.5532 1.149
2002-03-03 14:07:56.25 9.4400 39.6967 1.800
2002-03-03 14:21:47.89 9.4237 39.6800 2.071
2002-03-03 14:30:13.76 9.4493 39.6847 1.790
2002-03-03 15:13:54.01 9.9737 40.4965 2.504
2002-03-03 19:53:11.70 9.4543 39.7058 1.395
2002-03-03 19:54:04.70 9.5085 39.3478 0.613
2002-03-03 21:52:08.47 9.3737 39.6440 0.874
2002-03-03 21:52:58.40 9.5972 39.7297 0.931
2002-03-04 01:50:23.17 9.3392 40.1290 1.020
2002-03-04 02:58:51.85 9.3913 39.6373 1.451
2002-03-04 03:10:19.01 9.3913 39.6485 1.289
2002-03-04 07:05:37.96 9.4435 39.7105 2.032
2002-03-04 14:59:00.54 9.4008 39.6912 1.710
2002-03-04 15:13:21.30 9.3523 39.6063 1.448
2002-03-04 16:18:33.33 9.2962 40.1848 1.678
2002-03-04 16:25:56.84 9.2858 40.1768 2.360
2002-03-04 16:29:15.11 9.2797 40.1900 1.784
2002-03-04 16:29:29.21 9.3035 40.1817 1.844
2002-03-04 16:49:34.67 9.2792 40.1685 1.682
2002-03-04 18:12:01.18 9.3008 40.1798 1.296
2002-03-04 18:32:10.30 9.2955 40.1907 1.285
2002-03-04 21:17:09.61 9.2828 40.1995 1.679
2002-03-04 22:24:40.67 9.2877 40.1820 1.106
2002-03-04 23:08:53.95 9.4457 39.6900 1.844
2002-03-04 23:54:39.15 9.1913 40.0217 1.230
2002-03-04 23:57:55.59 9.4235 39.6772 1.300
2002-03-05 00:06:53.78 9.3145 40.1752 1.281
2002-03-05 00:16:12.58 9.3332 40.1768 0.970
2002-03-05 00:37:41.78 9.4903 39.6328 1.110
2002-03-05 00:45:57.24 9.2947 40.1830 1.133
2002-03-05 00:57:59.88 9.2907 40.1912 0.763
2002-03-05 01:35:27.91 9.2490 40.2125 0.826
2002-03-05 01:57:47.58 9.2935 39.5722 1.040
2002-03-05 02:09:20.28 9.3060 40.1715 0.951
2002-03-05 17:13:25.10 9.3435 39.6158 1.281
2002-03-05 18:02:50.39 9.4443 39.6953 1.437
2002-03-06 02:48:40.80 7.4017 38.8447 1.885
2002-03-06 03:45:10.51 9.3958 39.7050 1.759
2002-03-06 16:56:26.53 9.1933 39.9540 1.570
2002-03-06 18:42:50.89 9.1980 39.9310 1.882
2002-03-06 18:56:19.71 9.1798 39.9780 1.529
2002-03-06 19:09:08.70 9.2913 40.1713 1.384
2002-03-06 20:16:54.92 9.1970 39.9478 1.547
2002-03-07 01:07:39.43 9.1970 39.9247 1.425
2002-03-07 10:46:17.40 9.3053 40.1820 2.221
2002-03-07 11:26:08.38 9.4352 39.6915 1.809
2002-03-07 12:03:09.34 9.4427 39.6893 2.133
2002-03-07 12:22:06.34 9.4248 39.6845 1.727
2002-03-07 21:57:13.51 9.4570 39.7093 1.379
2002-03-07 22:44:33.64 9.4482 39.7088 1.778
2002-03-07 23:27:50.43 9.3142 40.1840 1.342
2002-03-08 00:17:14.42 9.4082 39.6552 1.208
2002-03-08 02:00:17.70 9.4300 39.6627 1.198
2002-03-08 06:04:02.59 9.4403 39.6948 2.459
2002-03-08 07:11:45.76 9.4002 39.6345 1.549
2002-03-08 15:06:35.39 9.4483 39.7085 1.858
Appendices
119
2002-03-08 15:28:09.39 9.3678 39.6248 1.431
2002-03-08 18:22:54.09 9.4617 39.6985 2.395
2002-03-08 19:24:24.01 9.4060 39.6632 1.468
2002-03-08 20:45:14.83 9.4397 39.6948 2.099
2002-03-08 23:44:01.74 9.2655 39.3933 1.344
2002-03-09 01:11:04.82 9.4582 39.7087 1.676
2002-03-09 07:50:49.44 9.1462 39.9635 2.259
2002-03-09 09:43:05.15 9.3988 39.6602 2.003
2002-03-09 10:19:22.85 9.4323 39.6825 2.594
2002-03-09 10:19:29.37 9.4998 39.6432 2.586
2002-03-09 10:21:10.35 9.4468 39.6893 2.487
2002-03-09 10:37:13.69 9.5780 39.4722 1.510
2002-03-09 10:38:06.40 9.5042 39.3352 1.317
2002-03-09 10:58:38.68 9.4162 39.7038 2.086
2002-03-09 12:22:50.99 9.4422 39.6627 2.185
2002-03-09 17:50:14.42 9.2450 40.1262 1.325
2002-03-09 23:02:47.73 9.4702 39.6573 0.968
2002-03-09 23:10:30.19 9.4465 39.6868 1.546
2002-03-09 23:46:18.26 9.4493 39.6672 1.478
2002-03-09 23:47:51.63 9.4365 39.6822 0.913
2002-03-09 23:48:57.83 9.4392 39.6612 1.558
2002-03-10 00:01:59.42 9.4088 39.6555 0.958
2002-03-10 00:17:59.77 9.4393 39.6840 1.550
2002-03-10 00:18:36.67 9.4252 39.6758 1.354
2002-03-10 00:19:59.80 9.3887 39.6393 0.982
2002-03-10 01:01:11.02 9.8770 39.3175 2.797
2002-03-10 01:07:04.41 9.8183 39.3055 2.002
2002-03-10 08:41:13.51 9.1497 39.9653 2.029
2002-03-10 20:30:03.92 9.4667 39.6560 0.751
2002-03-10 23:49:20.84 9.4517 39.6878 1.570
2002-03-10 23:51:37.24 9.1087 39.9935 1.470
2002-03-11 00:01:56.34 9.4112 39.6033 0.770
2002-03-11 00:13:00.62 9.1242 39.9938 1.093
2002-03-11 21:54:53.60 9.4422 39.6890 1.682
2002-03-11 22:07:08.94 9.4088 39.6757 1.273
2002-03-11 22:49:46.90 9.4062 39.6718 1.723
2002-03-12 00:12:51.50 9.4502 39.6997 1.788
2002-03-12 01:14:59.22 9.4225 39.6820 1.280
2002-03-12 08:44:10.34 9.4385 39.7000 2.693
2002-03-12 22:28:34.59 9.3985 39.6267 1.169
2002-03-12 22:41:57.33 9.6967 39.7307 1.740
2002-03-12 23:02:52.24 9.7088 39.6962 1.182
2002-03-13 03:32:51.13 9.4515 39.7063 1.697
2002-03-13 10:37:12.24 9.1080 40.0085 1.993
2002-03-13 22:52:11.40 9.5900 39.7293 0.976
2002-03-14 00:48:02.53 8.9938 39.9153 1.542
2002-03-14 12:43:22.02 9.5175 39.6197 1.496
2002-03-14 13:25:05.20 9.4145 39.2953 1.853
2002-03-14 18:16:37.36 9.4562 39.6757 1.400
2002-03-15 01:34:39.83 9.4573 39.6562 1.113
2002-03-15 01:49:39.65 8.9952 39.9283 1.423
2002-03-15 23:22:39.29 11.1723 39.7282 2.721
2002-03-16 19:43:07.21 8.0963 39.0490 1.296
2002-03-16 20:15:44.93 7.5035 38.8523 1.812
2002-03-16 21:02:23.39 9.1213 39.9862 0.830
2002-03-16 21:52:52.51 9.4687 39.2903 1.750
2002-03-17 13:51:17.71 7.8397 38.6665 2.254
2002-03-17 19:24:17.13 8.9190 39.7287 0.818
2002-03-18 01:36:32.79 9.4867 40.0138 1.686
2002-03-18 06:50:00.25 9.4803 39.7062 2.392
2002-03-18 19:18:57.02 10.0648 39.8828 1.608
2002-03-19 10:04:09.56 8.4425 39.2363 1.787
2002-03-19 23:12:43.95 9.8043 39.1758 1.718
2002-03-20 08:06:34.93 9.4542 39.6985 1.848
2002-03-20 23:13:43.42 8.9548 39.9292 0.648
2002-03-21 01:41:49.72 9.4483 39.7012 1.847
2002-03-21 01:51:06.73 9.4777 39.6997 2.933
2002-03-21 02:26:39.09 9.4588 39.6825 2.148
2002-03-21 02:39:53.83 9.3922 39.6440 1.467
2002-03-21 05:04:47.78 9.4518 39.6928 2.129
2002-03-21 05:31:39.74 9.4548 39.6977 2.862
2002-03-21 05:36:23.38 9.4557 39.7088 2.288
2002-03-21 09:38:42.75 9.4440 39.6523 1.526
2002-03-21 09:53:39.17 9.4617 39.6962 2.415
2002-03-21 11:38:40.13 9.4627 39.7083 1.813
2002-03-21 19:30:30.90 9.4555 39.7018 1.632
2002-03-22 08:55:48.91 9.4222 39.6535 1.533
2002-03-22 09:51:59.36 9.3602 39.3112 1.183
2002-03-22 12:47:00.27 9.4323 39.6798 2.994
2002-03-22 12:48:28.32 9.3363 39.6100 2.061
2002-03-23 16:44:04.43 9.4308 39.6900 1.312
2002-03-24 08:34:16.83 10.7410 39.7432 2.573
2002-03-24 16:33:43.38 10.3308 40.5295 2.595
2002-03-24 17:14:31.87 9.4473 39.6855 1.447
2002-03-24 19:50:50.68 9.3968 39.6157 0.755
2002-03-24 20:42:29.63 9.8342 39.2988 2.265
2002-03-24 21:07:17.29 9.2898 40.1785 2.032
2002-03-24 21:16:57.33 9.2747 40.2172 0.673
2002-03-24 21:29:28.42 9.3050 40.1630 1.247
2002-03-24 21:44:46.28 10.1327 39.8230 1.650
2002-03-24 23:07:31.40 9.2757 40.2197 0.643
2002-03-25 12:55:39.40 9.3230 40.1820 1.524
2002-03-25 20:47:09.76 9.4092 39.6385 0.910
2002-03-25 21:48:12.86 9.2560 40.1995 1.129
Appendices
120
2002-03-26 01:30:31.32 9.2952 40.1975 0.809
2002-03-28 09:03:35.94 9.4943 40.0270 2.515
2002-03-28 16:53:11.90 9.3890 39.6403 1.360
2002-03-28 20:11:43.88 8.1773 39.1607 1.576
2002-03-28 23:02:44.61 9.6170 39.4225 0.629
2002-03-29 21:09:56.18 9.4178 39.6852 1.459
2002-03-29 22:22:11.41 9.3568 39.6428 1.333
2002-03-30 05:46:24.96 9.7768 39.7497 2.311
2002-03-30 10:21:16.52 8.8247 38.8292 1.107
2002-04-01 18:02:32.01 9.6822 39.7665 2.038
2002-04-02 01:15:00.19 9.4282 39.6860 1.221
2002-04-02 20:22:41.91 10.0387 41.6420 2.736
2002-04-03 06:09:58.29 9.3802 39.6583 1.353
2002-04-04 00:37:11.69 9.1335 39.9757 1.194
2002-04-04 20:55:38.64 9.4358 39.6958 1.373
2002-04-04 22:06:42.43 9.3560 39.6517 1.094
2002-04-05 08:49:01.39 9.4105 39.6570 1.715
2002-04-05 08:50:21.79 9.4092 39.6518 1.811
2002-04-06 14:31:00.83 9.4015 39.6568 1.653
2002-04-06 19:39:10.82 9.4143 39.6457 1.107
2002-04-07 00:19:44.07 9.4187 39.6555 0.880
2002-04-07 03:19:00.88 9.4283 39.6948 1.600
2002-04-07 12:58:17.98 9.4837 39.6915 1.656
2002-04-07 19:08:02.85 9.4045 39.6640 1.241
2002-04-07 20:38:41.82 9.5592 39.6602 1.208
2002-04-08 01:41:37.26 9.5078 39.7343 1.114
2002-04-09 04:56:39.87 9.4193 39.6752 1.750
2002-04-09 07:28:53.58 8.9900 39.8840 2.147
2002-04-09 12:25:56.21 9.4460 39.6967 2.623
2002-04-09 16:41:17.29 9.4243 39.6817 1.476
2002-04-09 17:17:21.16 9.3735 39.6237 1.345
2002-04-09 21:25:30.71 8.9868 39.8667 0.689
2002-04-09 21:28:03.83 8.9915 39.8557 0.943
2002-04-09 23:52:01.67 9.4750 40.0058 1.099
2002-04-10 22:53:20.58 9.4140 39.6330 1.144
2002-04-11 04:50:24.55 8.9463 39.2513 2.815
2002-04-11 22:44:40.74 9.2338 40.1747 1.006
2002-04-12 09:16:46.60 9.4160 39.6875 1.942
2002-04-12 10:31:47.75 9.4333 39.7032 2.088
2002-04-12 18:06:33.04 8.9747 39.1418 1.327
2002-04-12 22:41:48.25 9.2532 39.5962 1.073
2002-04-13 00:23:46.14 9.4462 39.6810 1.268
2002-04-13 01:25:56.81 9.4257 39.7035 1.393
2002-04-13 01:30:30.21 9.4027 39.7087 1.219
2002-04-13 14:28:33.30 9.4600 39.6582 2.474
2002-04-13 14:42:00.28 9.5245 39.3705 1.213
2002-04-13 18:42:53.70 9.3592 39.6522 1.487
2002-04-13 20:31:27.04 9.3913 39.6270 0.891
2002-04-13 21:39:44.69 9.4890 39.7425 1.934
2002-04-13 22:57:43.67 9.1373 40.0100 1.252
2002-04-13 23:17:14.18 9.3570 39.3115 0.726
2002-04-13 23:17:26.63 9.4065 39.6688 1.356
2002-04-13 23:27:49.03 9.1132 40.0072 0.949
2002-04-14 00:20:11.96 9.4328 39.6840 0.946
2002-04-14 00:27:39.06 9.4387 39.6788 1.842
2002-04-14 00:31:01.25 9.1322 39.9950 1.340
2002-04-14 01:53:44.96 9.4375 39.6863 1.364
2002-04-14 21:13:36.48 7.7023 38.9710 2.021
2002-04-14 21:59:42.58 9.4713 38.5900 2.407
2002-04-14 22:56:12.06 9.1190 39.9995 0.975
2002-04-15 10:21:59.99 9.4513 39.6947 2.868
2002-04-15 11:01:35.23 9.4155 39.6693 2.145
2002-04-15 11:44:51.88 9.3732 39.6352 1.532
2002-04-15 11:46:08.12 9.4678 39.6858 1.478
2002-04-15 18:53:37.07 9.4200 39.7020 1.203
2002-04-15 20:11:40.75 9.2368 39.5427 0.993
2002-04-15 21:26:00.62 9.4833 39.3310 0.780
2002-04-15 22:41:04.66 9.1675 39.9553 0.967
2002-04-16 00:21:58.96 9.5905 39.7583 2.019
2002-04-16 00:24:03.27 9.5780 39.7605 1.996
2002-04-16 03:21:33.97 9.1660 39.9385 1.617
2002-04-16 08:26:49.93 9.4215 39.6752 1.634
2002-04-17 02:20:31.55 9.4322 39.6792 1.761
2002-04-17 02:42:36.46 9.3782 39.6583 1.345
2002-04-17 10:44:54.72 9.1013 40.0073 1.820
2002-04-17 12:16:31.84 9.1210 40.0073 1.601
2002-04-17 19:30:39.28 9.3033 40.1852 1.713
2002-04-17 20:31:49.77 9.5278 39.3753 0.522
2002-04-17 20:49:13.11 9.5243 39.3655 0.733
2002-04-17 21:41:09.31 9.4073 39.6063 0.843
2002-04-17 23:54:08.45 9.4920 40.0070 1.312
2002-04-18 00:31:30.66 9.2927 40.1678 1.041
2002-04-18 03:53:10.23 10.1995 40.7278 2.520
2002-04-18 10:04:31.63 7.3687 38.7040 2.562
2002-04-18 17:46:19.79 7.3878 38.6552 2.135
2002-04-18 17:58:43.92 9.4298 39.6920 1.951
2002-04-18 18:50:55.77 9.3862 39.6502 1.552
2002-04-18 20:12:18.83 9.4557 39.7037 1.712
2002-04-18 20:42:44.44 9.4452 39.6988 2.317
2002-04-18 21:22:19.31 9.4190 39.6788 1.468
2002-04-18 23:05:42.84 7.0463 38.1053 2.098
2002-04-19 00:06:00.94 9.2847 40.2027 0.916
2002-04-19 03:51:40.24 9.4298 39.6920 1.936
2002-04-19 04:08:59.66 9.4072 39.6948 2.463
Appendices
121
2002-04-19 04:10:32.41 9.4132 39.6895 2.143
2002-04-19 04:54:32.43 9.3595 39.3102 1.309
2002-04-19 05:14:16.95 9.3830 39.6407 2.053
2002-04-19 20:14:17.40 9.3997 39.6482 1.170
2002-04-19 22:34:31.94 9.4232 39.6285 1.115
2002-04-19 23:42:12.62 9.4435 39.6910 2.167
2002-04-19 23:43:23.64 9.4408 39.6695 1.349
2002-04-20 02:03:17.75 9.4415 39.6857 2.215
2002-04-20 02:05:01.25 9.4410 39.6885 1.515
2002-04-20 02:06:00.66 9.4222 39.6872 1.255
2002-04-20 05:19:42.09 9.3672 39.6288 1.617
2002-04-20 14:39:15.77 9.4327 39.6973 1.797
2002-04-20 14:59:22.82 9.3820 39.6400 1.897
2002-04-20 17:29:42.83 9.4083 39.6522 1.461
2002-04-20 21:29:09.98 9.6583 39.2825 1.663
2002-04-20 22:56:42.53 9.1352 39.9887 1.213
2002-04-20 22:57:26.91 9.1115 39.9967 1.102
2002-04-21 19:00:41.28 9.3860 39.6920 1.145
2002-04-22 01:48:53.51 9.1965 39.3870 0.903
2002-04-22 22:58:40.04 9.3638 39.6647 1.040
2002-04-23 00:15:30.83 9.4510 39.6863 2.404
2002-04-23 12:26:40.91 9.2972 40.2030 1.838
2002-04-23 18:01:09.69 9.3653 39.6792 1.142
2002-04-23 18:02:42.64 9.4067 39.6002 1.261
2002-04-23 18:48:15.07 9.4357 39.6885 1.309
2002-04-24 01:12:44.85 7.4642 38.6360 1.275
2002-04-24 23:24:05.36 7.3270 38.4633 2.722
2002-04-25 14:36:50.32 9.5443 40.3888 1.759
2002-04-26 01:10:04.25 7.7792 38.2758 1.529
2002-04-26 09:09:00.05 8.9145 38.8122 1.417
2002-04-26 17:41:52.40 9.2273 39.5350 1.082
2002-04-26 19:48:52.45 9.4358 39.9650 1.503
2002-04-27 01:30:38.50 9.2745 40.2215 0.931
2002-04-27 01:54:45.31 9.9387 39.9025 1.572
2002-04-27 09:57:24.66 9.3427 40.0652 1.618
2002-04-27 17:23:27.94 8.9770 39.8770 1.006
2002-04-27 17:30:23.00 9.0102 39.9197 1.344
2002-04-27 21:32:37.69 9.4192 39.7058 1.198
2002-04-27 23:24:10.00 8.9963 40.6563 0.850
2002-04-28 07:24:09.11 8.9018 39.8062 1.883
2002-04-28 07:32:35.15 9.1452 40.0050 2.616
2002-04-28 09:03:16.38 9.1353 40.0037 1.867
2002-04-29 01:12:32.90 9.4947 39.6285 1.285
2002-04-29 20:26:44.22 9.5272 39.3727 0.642
2002-04-29 20:55:13.15 9.2917 39.5780 1.183
2002-04-29 21:05:52.81 9.4215 39.6833 1.527
2002-04-29 22:13:00.65 8.9100 40.6650 1.052
2002-04-30 10:21:32.52 8.9127 38.6353 1.582
2002-05-01 15:57:43.74 9.9367 39.1345 3.021
2002-05-01 16:46:32.42 9.4293 39.6892 1.743
2002-05-01 20:34:30.75 9.4405 39.6845 1.702
2002-05-02 11:55:50.28 9.1157 39.9972 3.019
2002-05-02 21:43:23.05 9.1302 40.0003 2.643
2002-05-02 22:22:35.64 9.1217 39.9780 1.301
2002-05-03 22:23:04.88 9.4940 39.3420 0.604
2002-05-04 01:33:27.78 9.4655 40.0365 1.366
2002-05-04 06:15:45.08 7.6282 39.0287 2.265
2002-05-04 22:54:00.92 8.1187 39.0512 1.019
2002-05-05 01:55:34.42 9.0945 39.9822 1.114
2002-05-05 16:54:32.65 9.1492 39.9858 1.696
2002-05-06 20:18:09.68 9.0960 39.9610 1.154
2002-05-06 20:19:09.51 9.1295 39.9947 1.041
2002-05-06 23:44:44.46 9.4538 39.6777 1.072
2002-05-07 01:30:42.57 9.5503 39.6010 0.822
2002-05-07 19:22:39.92 9.2915 40.1727 1.320
2002-05-07 19:27:51.29 9.2760 40.1958 1.490
2002-05-07 22:34:17.19 9.4745 39.2795 1.827
2002-05-07 22:43:36.76 9.4547 39.7198 1.525
2002-05-07 22:43:37.91 9.4777 39.6710 1.501
2002-05-07 23:03:56.09 9.4477 39.6968 1.752
2002-05-07 23:19:04.14 9.3867 39.6435 0.846
2002-05-08 20:02:51.57 9.2807 40.1698 1.437
2002-05-09 01:42:43.13 9.2980 40.1743 0.729
2002-05-09 14:04:20.48 7.4872 38.9898 2.457
2002-05-09 21:08:34.99 9.3742 39.6375 0.932
2002-05-09 21:17:28.34 9.3828 39.6363 0.738
2002-05-09 21:18:31.80 9.4210 39.6807 0.852
2002-05-09 21:25:35.50 9.2950 40.1723 1.577
2002-05-09 21:26:35.12 9.3038 40.1772 1.856
2002-05-09 21:27:09.70 9.2935 40.1750 1.778
2002-05-09 22:11:25.62 9.4713 39.6405 1.732
2002-05-09 22:11:49.04 9.2777 40.1897 1.893
2002-05-09 22:19:38.80 9.2578 40.1420 1.273
2002-05-09 22:49:06.71 9.2957 40.1772 1.662
2002-05-09 23:01:38.86 9.3053 40.1688 0.988
2002-05-09 23:08:46.27 9.2940 40.1557 1.013
2002-05-10 02:06:10.01 9.2827 40.1910 0.905
2002-05-10 11:19:43.15 8.8903 38.8072 1.579
2002-05-10 22:16:37.98 9.3842 39.6327 1.230
2002-05-10 22:25:18.57 9.4728 39.6483 0.999
2002-05-10 22:34:05.46 9.4240 39.6792 0.875
2002-05-11 20:46:04.24 9.6903 39.8283 1.235
2002-05-11 21:26:11.65 9.3493 39.3185 0.607
2002-05-11 21:29:43.43 9.1253 39.9993 0.836
Appendices
122
2002-05-11 21:44:34.26 9.4275 39.6902 1.128
2002-05-12 05:21:16.79 9.5142 39.8377 1.733
2002-05-12 09:12:00.81 9.4312 39.6712 1.816
2002-05-12 10:01:24.05 9.4160 39.6657 1.846
2002-05-12 17:23:59.05 11.6993 39.7117 3.541
2002-05-12 21:02:17.23 9.4018 39.6703 1.099
2002-05-12 21:15:30.99 9.4630 39.6523 1.279
2002-05-13 01:48:20.11 8.9980 39.8948 0.965
2002-05-13 16:05:15.83 9.3998 39.6532 1.448
2002-05-14 09:24:28.79 9.0308 38.7682 1.309
2002-05-14 18:49:27 12.5900 41.1300 4.400
2002-05-14 22:23:52.58 8.1132 39.0617 1.141
2002-05-14 23:01:06.73 8.3132 39.1813 0.471
2002-05-15 00:18:13.29 8.3117 39.0890 0.516
2002-05-15 00:27:47.17 8.2657 39.1605 0.458
2002-05-15 01:09:00.55 8.1168 39.0420 1.041
2002-05-15 10:10:01.47 8.8747 38.5845 1.817
2002-05-15 20:34:24.55 8.1210 39.0448 1.042
2002-05-15 22:30:50.76 8.1607 39.0357 1.026
2002-05-15 22:56:39.52 8.1092 39.0473 0.906
2002-05-15 23:57:38.25 8.1583 39.0360 0.821
2002-05-16 00:50:19.98 8.1587 39.0385 1.183
2002-05-16 02:23:59.54 9.0268 39.9730 1.059
2002-05-16 20:52:08.75 10.2012 40.4232 2.079
2002-05-16 23:27:06.76 9.6193 39.2143 1.033
2002-05-17 02:10:34.92 9.2673 39.4307 0.976
2002-05-17 19:10:24.06 9.4615 39.6690 1.217
2002-05-17 21:13:22.82 9.4353 39.6875 1.134
2002-05-18 00:50:39.37 9.4238 39.6930 1.227
2002-05-18 01:20:50.78 8.9733 40.7367 1.806
2002-05-18 07:51:01.70 9.5465 40.3893 1.824
2002-05-18 09:39:43.78 8.0972 38.5175 2.252
2002-05-18 18:35:15.74 9.3288 38.7470 1.199
2002-05-19 00:09:17.48 9.4363 39.6767 0.668
2002-05-19 14:31:15.80 8.9060 39.7925 2.254
2002-05-19 17:29:53.96 9.8678 40.3975 1.871
2002-05-19 18:10:51.68 9.4380 39.6757 1.945
2002-05-19 18:52:45.54 9.4422 39.6982 1.573
2002-05-19 22:06:59.39 9.4158 39.7683 0.842
2002-05-20 03:02:33.31 9.4165 39.7322 1.881
2002-05-20 08:17:09.71 8.9292 38.7758 0.979
2002-05-20 16:58:48.93 9.1100 40.0137 1.382
2002-05-20 17:24:33.77 9.0292 39.7215 1.315
2002-05-20 21:28:47.46 9.4340 39.6920 1.493
2002-05-21 01:01:11.49 9.0220 40.6822 1.046
2002-05-21 02:32:26.86 9.4323 39.7000 2.069
2002-05-21 02:33:02.11 9.4410 39.6938 2.223
2002-05-21 06:53:56.36 9.4552 39.6960 1.793
2002-05-21 07:05:33.89 9.4235 39.6828 2.037
2002-05-21 09:08:37.12 9.3692 39.6295 1.348
2002-05-21 13:40:41.79 9.3663 39.6235 1.512
2002-05-21 23:41:40.11 9.4967 39.3438 0.639
2002-05-21 23:48:40.83 9.5318 39.3727 0.683
2002-05-22 00:17:09.82 9.4518 39.6853 2.563
2002-05-22 00:37:13.37 9.3983 39.6462 1.213
2002-05-22 00:42:15.27 9.4608 39.6735 1.126
2002-05-22 01:17:01.45 8.8982 40.6110 1.495
2002-05-22 01:24:01.44 9.4703 39.6603 1.203
2002-05-22 01:26:44.23 9.4177 39.6627 1.046
2002-05-22 01:34:33.34 9.5583 39.5872 1.027
2002-05-22 09:36:06.86 8.9868 38.6077 1.522
2002-05-22 20:45:18.74 9.4797 39.6967 1.177
2002-05-22 23:26:15.67 9.4615 39.6668 1.500
2002-05-23 02:00:23.00 9.3735 39.6230 1.055
2002-05-23 02:12:23.72 9.4638 39.6728 1.023
2002-05-23 03:22:03.52 9.4158 39.6745 2.056
2002-05-24 09:00:06.13 8.8718 39.9225 1.944
2002-05-24 10:03:36.91 8.9665 38.7680 1.041
2002-05-24 16:42:45.10 9.1147 39.6987 1.735
2002-05-24 23:06:33.06 9.2690 40.2135 1.154
2002-05-25 19:59:24.69 9.1003 39.9943 1.727
2002-05-25 21:01:04.59 9.2915 40.1720 0.970
2002-05-25 21:28:02.72 9.0925 39.9873 1.104
2002-05-26 22:00:01.41 9.1305 39.9982 2.605
2002-05-27 10:16:40.56 9.1167 40.0023 2.050
2002-05-28 21:00:26.59 9.3895 39.6250 1.074
2002-05-29 02:52:30.08 9.4142 39.6707 1.778
2002-05-29 02:54:47.44 9.4473 39.6863 1.803
2002-05-29 03:31:39.69 9.3807 39.6350 1.378
2002-05-30 09:41:52.50 8.9635 38.7732 0.624
2002-05-31 11:46:00.25 9.0428 38.6812 0.873
2002-06-01 00:59:29.63 9.2517 39.9498 1.254
2002-06-01 13:38:45.03 7.9947 38.9377 2.531
2002-06-01 21:51:51.80 9.4068 39.6560 1.469
2002-06-01 22:04:11.02 9.3853 39.6412 0.811
2002-06-01 22:54:10.57 9.4538 40.0202 1.353
2002-06-01 22:56:54.25 9.4665 40.0255 1.362
2002-06-02 02:21:07.92 9.1203 40.0037 1.476
2002-06-02 10:41:31.87 7.5223 38.7082 2.415
2002-06-02 10:44:13.39 7.5450 38.6987 2.389
2002-06-02 18:42:59.00 7.5690 38.6478 2.035
2002-06-03 00:42:25.37 8.8917 40.6255 0.783
2002-06-03 01:22:01.40 9.0777 40.0155 1.133
2002-06-03 08:11:02.85 8.8700 40.6372 2.286
Appendices
123
2002-06-03 09:00:08.87 9.0568 38.7163 0.696
2002-06-04 00:48:48.99 7.2350 38.8412 1.788
2002-06-04 15:51:53.30 9.4387 39.6830 2.453
2002-06-04 15:54:07.14 9.4527 39.6818 2.482
2002-06-04 15:58:58.84 9.3802 39.6385 1.502
2002-06-04 16:13:47.41 9.4280 39.6888 2.358
2002-06-04 16:29:36.50 9.3698 39.6377 1.804
2002-06-04 16:30:21.06 9.4310 39.6913 2.082
2002-06-04 17:36:56.22 9.4478 39.7032 1.819
2002-06-05 05:33:21.49 8.9975 39.9438 1.764
2002-06-07 08:00:31.66 9.4563 39.6935 1.816
2002-06-07 08:00:59.90 9.4532 39.6957 1.918
2002-06-07 08:07:28.25 9.4585 39.7077 1.943
2002-06-08 12:32:13.84 8.8693 40.6368 2.556
2002-06-08 21:11:35.65 9.4098 39.5997 0.750
2002-06-08 22:12:25.19 8.9038 40.6595 0.833
2002-06-09 01:28:45.30 7.5913 38.7557 2.281
2002-06-09 02:45:56.78 8.9072 40.6048 1.537
2002-06-09 07:48:09.60 9.2737 40.1938 1.751
2002-06-09 08:50:42.85 9.2658 40.2103 1.285
2002-06-09 08:55:01.88 9.2700 40.1985 1.774
2002-06-09 09:26:09.88 9.2802 40.1917 1.476
2002-06-09 09:28:35.83 9.2748 40.2008 1.603
2002-06-09 09:33:47.98 9.0565 39.9907 1.325
2002-06-09 11:37:19.05 9.2513 40.1813 1.265
2002-06-09 13:15:52.96 9.2872 40.1953 1.736
2002-06-09 15:55:52.75 9.2825 40.1927 2.295
2002-06-09 17:11:25.78 9.2750 40.1830 2.173
2002-06-09 22:51:28.31 9.2632 40.2180 1.328
2002-06-09 22:53:09.33 9.2552 40.2037 1.296
2002-06-10 03:17:26.95 9.2707 40.2115 1.577
2002-06-10 05:56:23.27 9.0600 39.9805 1.468
2002-06-10 09:47:17.49 9.0167 38.5765 1.069
2002-06-10 15:08:55.87 9.0973 39.9942 1.496
2002-06-11 10:17:01.70 8.8700 38.7913 1.058
2002-06-11 10:29:41.55 8.7922 38.8087 1.035
2002-06-11 21:17:09.37 9.3790 39.6283 1.154
2002-06-12 00:28:52.13 8.8935 40.6648 1.330
2002-06-12 08:14:20.66 9.5092 39.7148 3.121
2002-06-12 09:06:38.24 9.4635 39.6955 2.082
2002-06-12 12:25:12.64 8.9023 39.7990 2.028
2002-06-12 17:38:46.63 9.3725 39.6503 1.660
2002-06-13 01:33:06.00 9.3800 39.6267 1.186
2002-06-13 05:51:19.51 9.4308 39.6740 1.588
2002-06-13 14:50:42.21 9.4105 39.7073 1.680
2002-06-13 22:59:19.25 7.8693 38.8347 1.695
2002-06-14 02:30:15.92 9.3918 39.6553 1.432
2002-06-14 10:09:59.76 9.4182 39.6730 1.639
2002-06-14 19:04:06.18 8.7852 40.4478 1.340
2002-06-14 19:35:29.05 8.8660 40.6190 1.356
2002-06-14 20:22:21.62 9.5115 39.7062 2.593
2002-06-16 06:15:17.73 9.4525 39.6678 1.608
2002-06-16 15:24:29.02 9.4355 39.6908 2.034
2002-06-16 16:49:31.61 9.4215 39.6790 1.510
2002-06-16 17:57:44.37 9.4373 39.6902 1.397
2002-06-17 06:39:53.59 9.4240 39.6825 1.845
2002-06-17 09:26:19.60 8.9815 38.8063 1.618
2002-06-17 17:33:51.89 9.4292 39.6760 1.708
2002-06-17 18:49:15.36 8.8728 40.6243 1.177
2002-06-17 23:14:26.25 8.8597 40.6243 1.760
2002-06-18 02:15:36.55 8.8397 40.6630 1.344
2002-06-18 10:44:15 14.5200 42.1100 4.500
2002-06-18 16:41:54.39 8.8892 40.6727 1.423
2002-06-18 19:32:11.25 8.8910 40.6218 1.462
2002-06-18 20:38:06.78 7.9970 38.9538 1.298
2002-06-18 20:50:30.12 8.9035 40.6295 0.896
2002-06-18 22:16:12.23 7.9487 38.8548 2.223
2002-06-18 23:17:10.33 8.8488 40.6543 1.005
2002-06-20 20:44:29.96 7.7990 38.8353 1.266
2002-06-20 21:44:27.73 7.8683 38.7745 1.221
2002-06-20 22:00:21.96 8.7903 39.3158 1.104
2002-06-21 00:43:32.73 9.2822 39.3440 1.413
2002-06-21 09:31:27.18 9.3545 39.6197 1.549
2002-06-21 10:56:19.19 9.4298 39.6817 2.542
2002-06-21 11:10:19.92 9.4193 39.6718 1.833
2002-06-21 21:09:04.99 9.4108 39.5960 0.920
2002-06-21 22:10:50.97 9.3985 39.6412 0.834
2002-06-21 23:23:32.79 9.8263 41.0388 1.805
2002-06-21 23:26:38.84 9.8650 41.0802 2.590
2002-06-21 23:50:29.16 8.9033 40.6355 2.327
2002-06-22 22:32:33.36 9.3227 39.5942 0.893
2002-06-22 22:35:05.13 9.4020 39.6508 1.154
2002-06-22 23:28:41.40 9.6793 40.5837 1.556
2002-06-23 00:08:01.93 9.3932 40.3785 1.335
2002-06-23 00:50:32.31 10.0047 41.1250 2.327
2002-06-23 14:21:09.34 9.2310 39.5377 1.529
2002-06-23 20:07:15.02 9.2393 40.1367 1.452
2002-06-23 20:56:04.23 9.2473 40.1337 1.309
2002-06-23 21:34:20.71 8.2577 39.1813 0.946
2002-06-23 22:36:02.62 9.4412 39.6505 1.214
2002-06-24 11:04:33.47 9.4880 39.6718 1.851
2002-06-24 20:19:20.09 9.2085 40.0153 1.539
2002-06-25 09:38:59.33 8.9848 38.7438 0.732
2002-06-25 17:38:49.32 9.3723 39.6258 1.421
Appendices
124
2002-06-25 17:42:33.41 9.4007 39.6060 1.163
2002-06-25 21:34:40.69 9.3662 39.6263 1.126
2002-06-26 02:32:28.40 9.4453 39.6627 1.186
2002-06-26 07:40:27.72 9.4695 39.6912 1.571
2002-06-26 20:42:43.90 9.7880 40.8977 1.955
2002-06-27 05:43:18.78 10.0658 39.9205 2.143
2002-06-28 23:43:13.27 9.4192 39.6575 1.323
2002-06-29 00:00:44.95 7.5067 38.7492 1.705
2002-06-29 18:33:54.68 9.4538 39.6800 1.377
2002-06-29 18:40:46.28 9.4238 39.6535 1.166
2002-06-29 20:27:45.68 9.3633 39.6865 1.212
2002-06-29 23:16:59.29 9.4583 39.6905 1.836
2002-06-30 05:37:35.86 9.3755 39.2380 1.552
2002-06-30 20:21:19.42 9.1120 39.9732 1.027
2002-06-30 23:50:52.02 9.4238 39.6795 1.650
2002-07-01 09:22:58.38 8.9660 38.7695 0.902
2002-07-01 09:25:06.86 9.0293 38.7542 0.866
2002-07-01 18:13:12.77 9.5987 39.6787 1.719
2002-07-01 21:57:59.10 9.4877 39.6873 1.566
2002-07-01 23:04:17.43 9.6832 40.5928 1.561
2002-07-01 23:24:22.93 9.5015 39.7077 1.583
2002-07-01 23:29:51.81 9.4947 39.7085 1.198
2002-07-01 23:40:39.74 9.8108 41.0107 2.239
2002-07-02 21:45:03.50 9.4507 39.6880 1.453
2002-07-02 21:48:18.92 9.4220 39.6223 0.742
2002-07-03 19:32:12.73 8.8282 39.7940 1.022
2002-07-03 19:36:08.14 9.1827 39.9797 1.300
2002-07-03 19:37:52.99 9.1453 39.9615 1.027
2002-07-03 19:47:54.24 9.1727 39.9745 2.173
2002-07-03 19:48:21.63 9.1690 39.9845 2.177
2002-07-03 20:13:38.36 9.1252 39.9408 1.083
2002-07-03 20:17:42.09 9.1755 39.9797 1.402
2002-07-03 20:57:30.21 9.3133 40.1917 0.763
2002-07-03 21:32:58.70 9.1647 39.9708 1.437
2002-07-03 21:38:16.97 9.0082 39.9448 1.201
2002-07-03 21:47:02.47 9.1833 39.9712 1.780
2002-07-03 22:52:19.22 9.1668 39.9545 1.106
2002-07-03 22:52:52.96 9.1995 39.9837 1.145
2002-07-03 23:11:23.61 9.1833 39.8868 0.835
2002-07-03 23:51:56.97 9.1767 39.9808 1.929
2002-07-03 23:59:19.49 9.1912 39.9690 1.300
2002-07-04 00:10:55.13 8.8833 39.8605 0.820
2002-07-04 01:35:51.13 9.1712 39.9888 1.113
2002-07-04 01:45:13.19 9.1652 39.9478 1.126
2002-07-04 02:53:01.18 9.1778 39.9827 3.023
2002-07-04 02:53:31.13 9.1605 39.9743 2.658
2002-07-04 02:54:55.57 9.1708 39.9785 1.759
2002-07-04 02:55:47.79 9.1440 39.9408 1.433
2002-07-04 02:58:35.20 9.1547 39.9598 2.737
2002-07-04 02:59:42.24 9.1770 39.9933 3.543
2002-07-04 03:03:26.46 9.1713 39.9673 3.475
2002-07-04 05:59:02.07 9.1678 39.9848 1.682
2002-07-04 06:00:11.72 9.4190 39.6657 1.741
2002-07-04 10:20:59.00 9.3847 39.6312 1.462
2002-07-05 03:29:11.58 9.1908 39.9615 1.410
2002-07-05 23:05:04.85 9.4665 39.6915 2.275
2002-07-06 00:28:21.84 9.4670 39.6863 1.640
2002-07-06 08:41:40.26 9.0470 38.8178 0.775
2002-07-06 17:05:18.73 10.2210 40.4283 1.974
2002-07-07 00:47:09.52 9.2563 40.2500 1.307
2002-07-07 01:52:41.72 10.4277 40.1647 2.382
2002-07-07 10:17:38.67 9.3923 39.6333 1.378
2002-07-07 19:22:27.11 9.3713 39.6478 0.942
2002-07-07 19:58:12.87 9.4010 39.6123 1.070
2002-07-07 20:02:10.16 9.4365 39.6765 1.760
2002-07-07 20:18:18.32 9.5028 39.3672 0.467
2002-07-07 21:47:47.14 9.4247 39.6488 0.939
2002-07-07 23:52:04.45 9.4317 39.6478 0.860
2002-07-08 00:19:07.95 9.4470 39.6818 2.360
2002-07-08 00:30:08.28 9.4268 39.6857 1.194
2002-07-08 03:10:10.50 9.4647 39.6972 1.844
2002-07-09 01:52:19.77 9.1152 39.9660 1.102
2002-07-09 11:04:09.28 8.9755 39.9298 1.146
2002-07-09 19:20:04.44 9.8505 41.0880 3.634
2002-07-09 21:38:29.26 9.2132 40.1392 0.953
2002-07-09 23:45:41.68 9.9058 41.1118 2.440
2002-07-10 13:12:18.30 8.8950 39.9075 2.090
2002-07-10 16:38:37.05 9.1008 40.0038 1.880
2002-07-10 19:38:53.92 9.0072 39.9317 1.642
2002-07-10 21:14:38.81 9.4535 39.6492 1.007
2002-07-10 21:16:31.45 9.4973 39.6237 0.973
2002-07-11 03:15:12.74 8.9585 39.9035 1.620
2002-07-11 16:53:48.85 9.4273 39.6993 1.645
2002-07-11 16:56:51.22 9.4242 39.6488 1.667
2002-07-11 19:52:04.08 9.8193 40.9952 2.440
2002-07-12 00:17:58.98 9.8195 41.0112 1.828
2002-07-12 00:47:12.33 9.1983 39.9557 1.171
2002-07-12 15:07:28.46 8.8607 39.8455 1.614
2002-07-12 20:09:59.12 9.5347 39.6938 1.377
2002-07-12 21:28:26.10 8.1623 39.1090 1.323
2002-07-13 03:23:24.09 9.4790 39.6878 1.696
2002-07-13 03:25:19.42 9.4820 39.6803 1.535
2002-07-13 05:08:52.08 9.4373 39.6820 2.065
2002-07-14 01:31:19.30 11.8915 39.3928 3.146
Appendices
125
2002-07-14 01:46:08.68 7.3560 38.6148 1.650
2002-07-14 19:54:07.45 8.1203 39.0893 1.108
2002-07-15 07:32:30.10 8.8437 40.6870 1.464
2002-07-15 19:04:25.45 9.0130 39.9232 1.870
2002-07-16 02:27:11.57 9.1653 40.0252 1.109
2002-07-16 08:48:39.87 9.0015 38.8057 1.225
2002-07-16 12:20:45.49 9.3220 40.0137 1.855
2002-07-16 20:07:00.22 7.4943 38.7445 1.630
2002-07-16 20:07:54.66 7.4967 38.7522 1.597
2002-07-16 20:20:15.93 7.3053 38.4578 2.360
2002-07-16 22:19:23.58 9.4283 39.6715 1.273
2002-07-17 00:25:55.79 9.4405 39.6925 2.000
2002-07-17 00:29:16.63 9.4500 39.6343 1.195
2002-07-17 01:08:25.72 9.4133 39.6833 1.188
2002-07-17 01:13:51.88 9.4297 39.6783 1.670
2002-07-17 02:14:28.68 9.4363 39.6885 1.270
2002-07-17 02:35:11.54 9.3875 39.6617 1.853
2002-07-17 02:35:25.63 9.5858 39.4918 1.840
2002-07-17 02:54:25.91 9.4557 39.6992 1.826
2002-07-17 22:26:58.50 9.4005 39.6692 1.117
2002-07-17 22:29:02.82 9.4325 39.6757 1.269
2002-07-17 22:50:05.73 9.3680 39.6330 0.955
2002-07-18 00:50:25.17 9.8522 41.0892 1.982
2002-07-18 22:37:10.58 8.8908 40.6222 0.887
2002-07-19 23:50:44.51 9.0153 39.9382 0.831
2002-07-19 23:51:58.34 9.0507 39.9765 1.148
2002-07-20 11:57:56.12 9.0467 39.2783 1.635
2002-07-20 13:27:02.66 9.4640 39.6892 2.311
2002-07-20 13:44:35.40 8.8563 39.8395 1.902
2002-07-20 21:54:16.94 9.4075 39.6403 1.069
2002-07-20 22:04:28.95 9.4603 39.6890 1.419
2002-07-20 22:28:19.99 9.4580 39.6948 1.706
2002-07-20 22:31:52.86 9.3495 40.0498 1.251
2002-07-21 02:35:16.97 9.4445 39.6867 1.865
2002-07-22 00:09:54.76 9.4415 39.6840 0.972
2002-07-22 16:30:54.44 9.1395 39.9810 1.455
2002-07-23 17:25:17.23 9.4783 39.6967 1.598
2002-07-24 00:58:00.36 7.6098 38.8928 1.745
2002-07-24 17:13:56.03 9.4868 39.6582 1.679
2002-07-24 17:46:08.67 9.5230 40.7475 1.916
2002-07-25 16:36:49.42 9.4508 39.7012 1.957
2002-07-26 01:21:47.95 10.6105 39.7585 2.348
2002-07-26 18:42:01.17 9.0968 39.9830 1.488
2002-07-27 23:13:37.61 8.2945 39.9725 1.240
2002-07-28 04:05:06.68 7.0552 38.5750 2.670
2002-07-29 01:46:27.42 9.4723 39.6973 1.511
2002-07-29 18:17:29.17 9.2245 40.5072 1.172
2002-07-30 02:15:10.60 9.6893 41.4115 2.100
2002-07-30 22:25:04.38 9.3790 39.6527 1.047
2002-07-30 23:42:48.89 9.4402 39.6677 0.963
2002-07-30 23:46:13.21 9.4495 39.6757 1.287
2002-07-31 01:54:38.01 9.4515 39.6832 2.339
2002-07-31 13:55:42.39 8.7135 38.5218 2.141
2002-08-01 13:37:42.58 8.8912 39.8187 2.007
2002-08-01 21:48:25.18 9.5495 39.7365 1.088
2002-08-02 05:27:24.97 9.5650 39.1835 1.546
2002-08-02 07:05:52.64 9.5750 39.2253 1.959
2002-08-02 09:23:12.76 8.9265 38.5180 1.612
2002-08-02 09:41:59.13 9.0395 38.6048 2.275
2002-08-02 12:35:32.91 7.0967 38.5407 2.661
2002-08-03 00:24:15.64 9.8430 41.0823 3.349
2002-08-04 00:20:31.63 9.2887 40.1798 1.266
2002-08-04 00:24:31.16 9.2647 40.2152 1.058
2002-08-04 00:30:35.15 9.2848 40.1742 1.046
2002-08-05 05:39:35.06 9.4647 39.7017 1.864
2002-08-05 10:50:20.16 9.4615 39.6928 2.211
2002-08-05 11:11:22.25 9.4587 39.6935 2.196
2002-08-05 13:48:16.01 9.4647 39.6958 1.960
2002-08-08 01:50:33 14.0100 39.9400 4.870
2002-08-08 02:08:10.77 8.7830 40.4002 2.068
2002-08-08 17:10:59.60 8.8855 40.6260 1.131
2002-08-08 21:17:11 13.6500 40.0000 5.050
2002-08-09 02:52:02.31 7.1392 38.4015 1.996
2002-08-09 16:42:54.00 10.3273 40.5013 2.224
2002-08-09 22:08:42 11.8200 43.6500 4.990
2002-08-10 05:04:04.46 9.4228 39.6622 2.030
2002-08-10 09:45:41 12.1300 43.8800 4.740
2002-08-10 12:01:20 13.9200 39.9000 4.650
2002-08-10 15:56:02 13.6500 39.8100 6.110
2002-08-10 16:45:56 13.7100 39.8900 4.970
2002-08-11 01:11:13.06 9.0112 39.9732 1.137
2002-08-11 02:12:38.89 9.0257 39.9427 1.270
2002-08-11 07:17:34.31 8.8802 40.6180 1.987
2002-08-11 20:29:38 12.0200 43.8700 4.470
2002-08-12 08:54:21.13 8.9337 38.7817 0.982
2002-08-12 11:52:00.14 8.9778 39.6992 1.748
2002-08-12 13:59:50.22 8.9792 39.6915 1.783
2002-08-12 14:08:46.87 8.9807 39.7013 1.634
2002-08-13 08:01:02.41 9.4482 39.4565 1.479
2002-08-13 12:20:02.82 8.9298 38.5517 1.451
2002-08-13 23:36:45.63 7.9535 38.9412 1.138
2002-08-14 17:51:52.13 9.8280 40.5430 2.733
2002-08-14 20:33:05.29 8.1917 39.1520 1.615
2002-08-14 20:49:25 13.4100 39.9900 4.480
Appendices
126
2002-08-17 00:16:33.89 9.6093 39.7152 2.536
2002-08-17 02:25:13.20 8.7630 40.4102 1.394
2002-08-18 02:00:47.01 9.0902 39.9790 1.622
2002-08-18 03:10:09.29 9.7977 40.8792 2.245
2002-08-18 22:25:53.23 8.1583 39.1708 1.446
2002-08-19 18:47:40.80 9.4312 39.6923 1.789
2002-08-20 01:04:46.06 9.0435 40.0000 0.884
2002-08-20 02:08:05.43 9.0997 39.9840 0.897
2002-08-20 09:25:54.46 8.9877 38.7357 1.188
2002-08-20 20:25:58.81 9.1113 39.9887 1.172
2002-08-21 01:27:23.87 8.9513 39.7162 2.144
2002-08-22 01:09:36.64 6.8693 39.9947 1.748
2002-08-22 16:44:55.43 9.4382 39.6895 1.571
2002-08-22 18:47:52.93 9.4418 39.6690 1.367
2002-08-22 19:50:44.67 7.5010 38.8265 1.888
2002-08-22 21:31:17.49 9.0927 40.0127 1.089
2002-08-24 08:42:03.82 9.0623 38.7085 0.996
2002-08-24 14:35:38.76 9.1123 39.8450 2.013
2002-08-24 18:30:11.37 9.2503 39.9210 1.295
2002-08-24 20:50:20.36 9.2612 39.9215 1.744
2002-08-25 03:34:23.66 9.2513 39.9258 1.818
2002-08-25 06:12:37 13.6700 39.8600 5.120
2002-08-26 04:25:45.06 9.3872 39.6355 2.091
2002-08-26 15:58:18.50 9.4787 39.6815 1.766
2002-08-26 18:24:00.34 9.1130 39.9768 1.250
2002-08-27 01:27:59.80 9.2180 39.9412 1.051
2002-08-27 16:14:30.61 9.7038 39.6808 2.430
2002-08-27 22:59:23.76 9.2607 39.9333 1.125
2002-08-27 23:08:13.05 9.2653 39.9148 1.212
2002-08-27 23:08:12.85 9.2575 39.9208 1.211
2002-08-28 10:35:51.85 8.9568 39.3622 1.578
2002-08-28 21:40:57.62 9.5130 41.0783 1.513
2002-08-29 13:10:39.37 9.4280 38.3957 2.059
2002-08-29 23:09:35.03 9.8763 41.6808 1.824
2002-08-30 11:43:33.22 9.0715 40.8428 1.847
2002-08-30 12:53:58.32 9.4467 39.6670 1.616
2002-08-31 04:40:14.72 9.4562 39.3083 1.867
2002-08-31 16:19:56.18 9.1135 39.9695 1.448
2002-08-31 23:33:15.64 9.9620 40.4593 2.176
2002-09-01 23:04:52.94 10.0898 40.4165 2.250
2002-09-01 23:09:40.05 10.0895 40.4335 1.510
2002-09-01 23:25:40.33 10.1405 40.4458 2.234
2002-09-01 23:33:46.47 8.9195 40.6117 3.237
2002-09-01 23:38:03.64 8.8915 40.6113 3.372
2002-09-01 23:57:34.33 8.8865 40.6492 0.967
2002-09-01 23:57:49.24 8.8902 40.6202 1.102
2002-09-02 00:30:07.68 8.8918 40.6337 1.154
2002-09-02 00:43:52.49 8.9142 40.6500 0.772
2002-09-02 01:05:32.79 8.8960 40.6342 0.770
2002-09-02 01:11:19.44 8.9098 40.6035 0.786
2002-09-02 01:18:10.63 8.9080 40.6120 0.799
2002-09-02 02:54:19.55 8.8983 40.6205 0.851
2002-09-02 04:43:00.60 8.8922 40.6223 1.334
2002-09-02 05:55:43.00 8.8975 40.6337 1.401
2002-09-03 00:38:50.38 9.0097 40.7215 1.389
2002-09-03 00:49:40.09 8.8990 40.6123 1.528
2002-09-03 00:52:37.20 8.9278 40.5932 1.030
2002-09-03 03:43:51.98 8.8418 40.6462 1.557
2002-09-03 07:07:09.38 8.9027 40.6138 1.787
2002-09-03 07:28:41.92 8.9190 40.5975 1.317
2002-09-03 18:11:53.64 9.2013 39.7623 2.039
2002-09-03 20:14:16.58 9.4598 40.0452 1.362
2002-09-03 20:51:12.19 9.5085 39.9853 1.735
2002-09-03 22:25:13.44 8.8835 40.6097 1.602
2002-09-03 23:22:45.34 9.2995 40.1802 1.069
2002-09-03 23:30:30.81 9.2850 40.1928 0.858
2002-09-03 23:31:05.24 9.2910 40.1963 1.036
2002-09-04 00:47:01.35 9.1010 40.0037 1.043
2002-09-04 05:44:39.83 9.1870 40.0203 1.963
2002-09-04 09:15:09.15 8.9787 38.6488 1.139
2002-09-04 19:08:10.34 8.8903 40.6162 2.152
2002-09-04 19:54:00.39 8.9102 40.6115 1.575
2002-09-05 01:08:44.67 7.5782 38.5932 1.595
2002-09-05 01:50:45.58 9.1513 39.7585 1.226
2002-09-05 10:15:43.05 9.4300 39.7103 1.763
2002-09-06 00:47:53.58 9.1003 39.9947 0.957
2002-09-06 00:59:09.90 9.1075 39.9953 1.553
2002-09-06 02:29:37.33 9.0562 40.0198 0.735
2002-09-06 19:42:05.87 9.8600 40.4443 1.280
2002-09-06 21:38:10.10 9.5705 40.0677 1.425
2002-09-07 20:07:40.81 9.4777 39.6617 1.074
2002-09-07 23:08:37.31 8.9087 40.6328 1.044
2002-09-07 23:16:23.04 8.9003 40.6308 1.238
2002-09-08 15:40:15.51 7.8267 38.9423 2.468
2002-09-08 21:48:39.19 9.7763 39.8153 1.770
2002-09-09 02:34:12.44 9.4297 39.6703 1.623
2002-09-09 03:41:30.98 7.7877 38.8737 2.071
2002-09-09 03:50:53.78 9.4537 39.6830 1.941
2002-09-09 04:03:54.56 9.4413 39.6785 1.758
2002-09-09 04:12:20.36 9.4328 39.6858 1.893
2002-09-09 21:41:34.69 9.7178 41.3618 1.730
2002-09-09 23:33:14.57 9.5967 39.7002 1.053
2002-09-10 02:40:44.28 7.6657 38.9097 1.527
2002-09-10 22:54:56.06 9.7208 39.2213 1.979
Appendices
127
2002-09-11 00:07:48.01 9.1963 39.9032 1.096
2002-09-11 00:18:42.03 7.7710 38.9997 1.227
2002-09-11 07:38:01.03 9.4402 39.6983 1.928
2002-09-11 21:13:40.25 6.3560 37.9905 1.975
2002-09-11 21:22:08.45 9.0013 40.4663 0.620
2002-09-12 00:07:18.97 8.2057 39.1185 0.515
2002-09-13 13:15:18.61 9.0942 39.9892 1.322
2002-09-13 19:07:45.09 9.9228 41.6967 2.531
2002-09-13 21:06:17.22 9.4355 39.6865 1.654
2002-09-13 21:37:02.33 9.4052 39.6647 1.228
2002-09-13 23:04:23.12 8.9248 40.5567 0.965
2002-09-14 01:37:07.47 8.8168 40.6643 0.910
2002-09-15 10:37:27.14 9.7938 39.8290 2.730
2002-09-15 14:22:22.99 8.8813 40.6297 1.468
2002-09-16 15:07:49.28 9.3768 39.6362 1.719
2002-09-17 00:25:55.93 9.4403 39.6765 1.112
2002-09-17 02:07:55.32 9.5935 40.2245 2.200
2002-09-17 04:53:28.14 10.1368 40.6380 2.181
2002-09-17 05:51:45.61 10.1032 40.6247 2.303
2002-09-17 05:54:09.37 9.9418 40.5317 1.955
2002-09-17 14:50:16.74 10.1090 40.6782 2.738
2002-09-17 21:49:37.15 10.9893 40.8538 2.379
2002-09-17 22:25:16.91 10.9960 40.8230 2.697
2002-09-17 22:28:48.27 10.8765 40.7492 1.829
2002-09-18 00:04:53.61 10.9462 40.8360 2.831
2002-09-18 00:07:15.14 10.9653 40.8442 2.806
2002-09-18 02:30:47.39 10.1402 39.2793 2.340
2002-09-18 03:19:35.05 11.1300 41.2320 3.300
2002-09-18 06:02:13.92 11.2662 37.7387 3.400
2002-09-19 01:06:53.10 9.5125 40.0537 2.258
2002-09-19 01:27:11.25 9.4745 40.0393 1.202
2002-09-19 07:19:35.72 8.8722 40.6353 1.941
2002-09-19 07:55:35.99 9.5007 40.0478 1.958
2002-09-19 22:48:02.42 7.9412 38.8155 0.705
2002-09-20 09:11:47.99 8.9552 38.5162 1.593
2002-09-20 17:29:56.32 9.4470 39.6687 1.675
2002-09-20 19:21:14.43 10.9047 41.5912 2.688
2002-09-20 19:36:45.93 11.9785 42.0013 3.333
2002-09-21 15:48:02.07 9.5437 39.7060 2.004
2002-09-21 17:53:00.27 9.6033 39.2830 1.905
2002-09-21 18:16:37.04 8.8787 40.6190 2.275
2002-09-21 18:44:00.95 9.4448 39.6687 1.375
2002-09-21 18:46:01.69 8.8903 40.6215 2.258
2002-09-22 00:30:28.08 8.8885 40.6093 1.147
2002-09-22 10:55:54.23 9.2848 40.1742 1.718
2002-09-22 10:57:29.56 9.2898 40.1732 1.787
2002-09-22 15:59:26.45 9.3508 39.6840 1.786
2002-09-22 16:19:36.91 9.1613 39.9735 2.103
2002-09-22 20:03:13.15 8.8290 40.6907 1.190
2002-09-23 00:14:33.84 8.4803 39.3262 0.968
2002-09-23 01:57:30.65 9.4445 39.6887 1.121
2002-09-23 16:59:35.12 8.5325 39.3468 1.206
2002-09-23 17:16:45.44 9.4242 39.6822 1.725
2002-09-23 20:28:43.99 9.4062 39.6615 1.299
2002-09-23 22:02:34.09 9.4297 39.6902 1.473
2002-09-23 22:40:32.25 9.0213 38.5398 1.624
2002-09-23 23:45:51.77 9.4235 39.6680 1.381
2002-09-23 23:47:38.29 9.2900 40.1843 1.260
2002-09-24 01:02:12.32 9.2907 40.1870 1.087
2002-09-24 01:06:56.78 9.3040 40.1828 1.292
2002-09-24 06:44:41.17 9.3733 39.6292 1.703
2002-09-24 06:49:53.90 9.4367 39.6857 2.348
2002-09-24 10:03:43.61 9.4910 40.0458 2.368
2002-09-24 18:57:29.79 11.1270 39.8633 4.206
2002-09-24 22:07:36.48 9.3247 39.4478 1.217
2002-09-24 22:39:34.34 10.2418 40.4943 1.847
2002-09-24 22:39:48.74 8.9327 39.6868 1.369
2002-09-25 00:13:06.07 8.9200 39.7262 0.924
2002-09-25 08:58:51.78 9.0197 38.5292 1.621
2002-09-25 16:49:38.12 9.0198 38.5310 1.306
2002-09-25 22:42:10.50 9.0082 38.5172 2.527
2002-09-26 00:13:21.87 10.2760 39.8242 1.942
2002-09-26 01:03:17.44 9.0040 38.5237 1.462
2002-09-26 11:58:51.68 9.1035 39.9785 1.466
2002-09-26 13:20:16.50 8.9168 40.6075 1.782
2002-09-27 00:22:45.07 8.1813 39.0895 0.825
2002-09-27 00:56:00.61 9.4350 39.6708 1.227
2002-09-27 00:59:01.11 9.3930 39.6693 1.035
2002-09-27 02:30:29.81 9.4268 39.6783 1.538
2002-09-27 03:13:15.26 9.4397 39.6597 1.205
2002-09-27 22:45:29.22 8.9080 40.5928 0.946
2002-09-27 23:22:37.33 8.1617 39.0340 0.920
2002-09-28 13:12:56.07 9.4188 39.7060 1.587
2002-09-28 22:42:19.15 9.4178 39.6487 0.958
2002-09-28 23:00:25.90 9.9313 39.2310 1.197
2002-09-29 02:04:38.15 9.4320 39.6775 1.319
2002-09-29 02:06:30.07 10.5105 39.7612 1.717
2002-09-29 18:55:40.59 9.4378 39.6728 1.497
2002-09-30 00:59:42.33 8.2025 39.1513 0.928
2002-10-01 00:25:08.95 9.2355 40.1935 0.754
2002-10-01 02:21:57.16 9.3717 39.6512 1.197
2002-10-02 01:30:22.09 9.5007 40.0298 2.469
2002-10-02 01:50:00.92 7.7762 39.0053 1.304
2002-10-02 23:50:47.60 9.0742 39.9875 0.871
Appendices
128
2002-10-03 22:31:19.84 8.1797 39.1648 0.909
2002-10-03 23:07:11.47 11.3485 40.6997 2.349
2002-10-04 07:22:33.24 8.9985 40.5828 1.569
2002-10-04 08:34:42.79 11.1937 40.8820 2.767
2002-10-04 16:19:00.35 11.1318 41.0248 3.107
2002-10-04 20:11:57.13 9.2218 40.0318 1.309
2002-10-04 20:13:54.44 9.1993 40.0388 1.216
2002-10-04 20:18:35.86 7.9483 38.8173 1.868
2002-10-04 20:20:40.21 7.9925 38.9242 0.852
2002-10-04 21:15:52.38 10.8105 39.7997 2.619
2002-10-05 00:49:13.61 10.0608 39.6048 2.252
2002-10-06 09:19:56.84 10.3135 40.4927 2.898
2002-10-06 17:29:56.98 9.5490 39.7527 1.205
2002-10-06 21:39:17.56 9.3927 39.7195 1.038
2002-10-06 22:02:18.12 9.6560 39.2718 1.186
2002-10-07 02:25:34.38 10.2492 40.4388 2.311
2002-10-07 02:51:14.73 7.9292 38.8907 0.915
2002-10-07 20:31:13.86 9.8528 40.4793 1.307
2002-10-07 21:28:43.20 9.1885 39.9400 1.039
2002-10-07 21:47:47.21 9.0805 39.9355 0.791
2002-10-07 22:23:53.01 9.4313 39.6682 1.097
2002-10-07 23:01:15.52 9.4352 39.6720 1.370
2002-10-08 14:58:17.07 8.8847 39.8367 2.158
2002-10-08 19:37:43.23 9.1915 39.9612 2.026
2002-10-08 22:10:55.62 9.1825 39.9600 1.202
2002-10-08 23:51:32.61 9.1637 39.9675 0.834
2002-10-09 02:18:50.49 9.2007 39.9708 1.420
2002-10-09 02:23:35.88 9.1887 39.9668 1.825
2002-10-09 18:19:37.82 9.1803 40.0008 2.137
2002-10-09 23:41:43.46 8.1443 39.0630 0.713
2002-10-10 00:15:19.77 9.0993 39.9932 0.844
2002-10-10 00:59:07.82 8.1442 39.0453 0.763
2002-10-10 19:15:51.28 9.0518 39.9773 1.173
2002-10-10 20:04:20.00 12.9163 40.9795 4.034
2002-10-10 20:17:10.61 9.6788 39.7570 1.382
2002-10-11 01:17:05.42 9.4990 39.8013 1.558
2002-10-11 02:57:43.00 9.3977 39.7143 1.869
2002-10-11 15:29:40.42 9.4320 38.3885 1.938
2002-10-11 23:51:35.52 10.1093 40.7738 1.702
2002-10-12 02:07:15.17 7.4897 38.5888 1.619
2002-10-12 09:16:53.68 9.2018 40.0275 1.957
2002-10-13 00:11:30.60 9.3648 39.7418 1.501
2002-10-13 07:59:23.82 10.6632 40.9100 2.735
2002-10-14 00:28:58.03 8.8723 40.6213 0.946
2002-10-14 02:01:03.66 7.4215 38.6383 1.399
2002-10-14 21:13:16.17 7.6578 39.2627 1.347
2002-10-14 22:40:21.59 9.4645 40.0695 1.624
2002-10-15 11:04:50.84 10.3120 40.5017 3.134
2002-10-15 15:38:34.13 12.5065 39.3562 2.715
2002-10-15 17:41:31.27 9.5620 39.6830 1.327
2002-10-15 21:38:37.21 8.9220 40.6442 0.667
2002-10-15 21:38:54.99 8.9163 40.6423 0.684
2002-10-15 21:41:24.04 8.8972 40.6267 0.521
2002-10-15 21:42:08.59 9.5633 39.7875 0.830
2002-10-15 22:53:48.53 9.1642 39.9838 1.068
2002-10-16 02:55:50.75 8.9040 40.6210 1.368
2002-10-16 18:40:43.26 7.7833 38.9452 2.489
2002-10-17 04:58:06.72 10.2385 39.9700 1.954
2002-10-17 15:38:33.54 12.4667 39.1118 3.607
2002-10-17 20:15:07.38 8.1678 39.1720 0.642
2002-10-18 01:28:09.22 9.2795 40.2228 1.140
2002-10-18 17:11:53.90 11.6880 37.7320 3.206
2002-10-18 20:21:12.04 9.1748 39.9902 1.149
2002-10-19 00:36:15.24 9.5197 39.5987 1.305
2002-10-19 02:58:44.17 9.3953 39.7392 1.564
2002-10-19 21:25:25.86 10.1198 39.9775 2.844
2002-10-19 22:08:46.72 9.4753 39.6455 0.913
2002-10-19 22:31:32.77 10.2602 40.4488 1.939
2002-10-19 23:30:10.07 10.0707 39.9720 1.534
2002-10-20 00:29:11.25 9.7593 39.2217 1.384
2002-10-20 03:02:48.63 9.8702 39.8862 1.869
2002-10-20 05:36:38.50 8.1635 39.1070 1.672
2002-10-20 23:48:43.76 9.8212 40.5328 1.594
2002-10-21 02:41:18.29 9.2890 40.1853 1.165
2002-10-21 17:57:24.81 9.4592 40.0278 1.501
2002-10-21 20:26:36.98 9.5838 39.3292 1.451
2002-10-22 05:51:28.56 11.6483 41.5418 3.451
2002-10-22 22:13:49.55 9.4470 39.6457 1.289
2002-10-22 22:18:02.99 7.6618 38.8497 1.592
2002-10-23 01:50:22.88 9.5003 39.9457 1.167
2002-10-23 10:06:59.51 9.3902 40.0503 1.664
2002-10-23 23:15:37.81 9.1900 39.6725 1.092
2002-10-24 21:16:51.78 10.7538 39.6948 2.101
2002-10-24 22:45:17.94 10.1582 40.7535 1.534
2002-10-24 23:23:48.91 9.9322 39.8037 1.786
2002-10-24 23:26:15.41 9.9308 39.8187 1.224
2002-10-24 23:27:51.79 9.9498 39.8338 1.944
2002-10-24 23:40:26.66 9.9083 39.8017 1.031
2002-10-25 02:54:14.62 9.2290 40.2348 1.522
2002-10-25 21:22:01.19 9.9168 39.8080 1.153
2002-10-26 01:32:37.33 9.5330 39.7520 1.421
2002-10-27 01:43:26.73 7.9998 38.8322 1.183
2002-10-27 06:16:17.24 9.8198 41.5903 2.604
2002-10-27 22:06:26.98 9.2922 40.2022 0.344
Appendices
129
2002-10-28 09:07:57.39 7.6253 38.7807 2.803
2002-10-28 22:24:38.41 9.3275 38.7515 0.377
2002-10-28 22:46:18.56 9.0878 39.9958 0.942
2002-10-29 00:33:03.21 9.2757 40.2277 0.442
2002-10-29 17:15:38.56 9.9813 41.6210 2.969
2002-10-30 09:08:15.22 8.7328 38.5843 1.590
2002-10-30 18:16:14.56 9.4758 40.0235 1.625
2002-10-31 01:00:05.71 9.2263 40.2213 0.799
2002-10-31 17:30:15.36 9.8282 40.4542 1.996
2002-11-01 00:41:09.71 9.6713 40.2182 1.344
2002-11-01 18:42:39.84 9.4583 39.9430 1.033
2002-11-02 09:10:49.51 8.6995 38.5907 1.592
2002-11-02 21:08:20.76 9.4595 39.6812 1.171
2002-11-02 22:48:01.77 8.6762 39.0103 0.958
2002-11-02 22:53:05.19 10.1885 41.6537 2.109
2002-11-03 22:51:45.41 9.4397 39.6638 1.495
2002-11-03 22:52:12.27 9.4518 39.6748 1.550
2002-11-03 22:59:20.33 9.4848 39.6652 1.171
2002-11-04 00:17:42.30 8.4275 39.6783 1.540
2002-11-04 00:24:55.79 7.7953 38.9923 1.712
2002-11-04 01:04:39.00 7.4090 38.5600 1.589
2002-11-04 01:53:12.47 10.1303 38.7072 1.425
2002-11-04 02:46:18.05 7.7820 38.0920 1.934
2002-11-05 22:42:13.87 9.7362 39.7615 1.922
2002-11-05 22:47:59.61 9.7558 39.7437 1.306
2002-11-06 01:00:30.29 7.4493 38.6913 2.017
2002-11-06 01:58:19.59 9.8392 39.2843 1.402
2002-11-06 09:56:04.00 9.3953 40.0805 1.419
2002-11-06 16:44:34.41 9.8765 40.0062 2.491
2002-11-07 01:24:30.96 9.4952 40.0512 1.885
2002-11-07 03:47:15.79 10.0428 39.8077 1.529
2002-11-07 08:52:15.95 9.0365 40.7723 1.769
2002-11-08 08:38:45.11 9.2480 39.0413 1.780
2002-11-08 08:44:20.35 9.0605 38.6332 1.006
2002-11-08 11:58:06.79 9.7440 39.1817 1.556
2002-11-08 14:13:32.66 9.1495 40.8397 2.305
2002-11-08 21:03:09.60 9.4612 39.6817 1.309
2002-11-08 21:13:27.86 9.4048 39.5995 0.803
2002-11-09 08:24:18.70 9.0228 39.9327 1.735
2002-11-09 08:25:17.11 9.0153 39.9280 1.366
2002-11-09 14:21:17.42 9.2537 40.2088 1.606
2002-11-09 18:50:47.48 9.2533 40.2053 1.265
2002-11-09 23:38:11.21 9.6010 39.6623 0.689
2002-11-11 20:27:33.92 9.6413 39.7265 0.808
2002-11-11 20:33:50.44 9.2568 40.1930 0.682
2002-11-11 23:25:31.54 9.6728 39.8043 1.483
2002-11-11 23:50:02.29 9.3090 40.1938 0.134
2002-11-12 00:14:09.51 9.6387 38.1745 1.175
2002-11-12 00:39:49.51 11.2815 41.8433 3.305
2002-11-12 05:52:52.13 9.5575 39.8412 1.753
2002-11-12 08:04:10.51 8.9657 38.7623 1.016
2002-11-12 18:39:44.50 8.1632 39.1350 1.787
2002-11-12 23:16:20.34 8.9098 40.6257 1.333
2002-11-13 01:43:28.68 9.6378 39.8063 1.332
2002-11-13 14:39:44.57 9.3245 40.1692 1.010
2002-11-13 18:59:51.60 10.7562 39.5437 2.159
2002-11-14 00:19:24.98 9.5387 39.6277 0.835
2002-11-14 08:32:05.77 10.8357 41.2047 3.120
2002-11-14 16:46:38.77 9.8803 39.9980 2.477
2002-11-15 18:00:27.45 9.4952 40.0497 2.377
2002-11-15 21:30:43.71 10.0975 39.5678 0.830
2002-11-15 23:24:30.10 9.0570 39.9735 1.277
2002-11-16 01:36:33.86 9.8002 42.4710 2.913
2002-11-16 19:59:19.67 10.8652 40.2617 1.785
2002-11-17 01:17:31.76 9.4990 39.5947 0.759
2002-11-17 10:31:29.74 10.0970 40.0095 1.745
2002-11-18 00:50:54.77 10.7792 41.3563 2.752
2002-11-18 14:26:23.78 9.3822 38.3895 1.748
2002-11-18 20:17:56.51 9.0583 40.7642 0.966
2002-11-18 21:09:32.78 10.2518 39.9062 1.392
2002-11-18 22:00:20.72 9.0623 40.7620 1.159
2002-11-18 22:39:50.88 9.0827 40.7582 2.211
2002-11-18 22:52:41.02 9.0668 40.7633 0.971
2002-11-18 23:26:06.24 9.0500 40.8323 2.185
2002-11-18 23:26:37.84 9.2742 40.1888 1.920
2002-11-18 23:27:32.70 9.2977 40.1740 1.920
2002-11-18 23:35:44.86 9.0612 40.7677 1.074
2002-11-18 23:44:02.27 9.0640 40.7458 1.122
2002-11-19 00:15:39.44 9.3158 40.1992 1.786
2002-11-19 00:37:42.42 9.2953 40.2258 0.835
2002-11-19 00:41:44.87 9.3222 40.1573 0.786
2002-11-19 00:52:11.44 9.3028 40.2012 1.299
2002-11-19 00:56:00.00 9.3215 40.1518 0.607
2002-11-19 01:09:57 11.9100 44.1400 4.930
2002-11-19 01:21:54.42 9.3258 40.1550 0.940
2002-11-19 02:14:41.66 10.9792 42.1715 3.989
2002-11-19 02:25:29.34 9.2847 40.2310 0.674
2002-11-19 06:25:01.14 9.0630 40.7948 1.764
2002-11-19 08:24:09 11.8700 44.0400 5.020
2002-11-19 08:46:04.80 9.0043 38.7573 1.142
2002-11-19 20:22:01.21 7.4827 38.4957 1.391
2002-11-19 23:38:07.96 9.3005 40.1970 0.628
2002-11-19 03:45:23 11.8700 44.2100 4.760
2002-11-20 19:39:52.94 7.4068 38.5760 1.466
Appendices
130
2002-11-20 23:01:52.54 8.2382 39.0380 1.382
2002-11-20 23:11:36.81 8.2470 39.0458 0.788
2002-11-20 23:34:39.92 10.0312 39.2822 1.316
2002-11-21 15:37:42.64 9.0603 40.8032 1.809
2002-11-21 23:06:27.57 7.8665 39.0307 1.147
2002-11-22 13:32:35.53 8.8742 39.8503 2.023
2002-11-22 23:18:02.38 9.3320 39.8915 0.802
2002-11-23 04:25:05.66 9.4472 39.7055 1.483
2002-11-23 14:06:34.61 9.3128 40.1910 1.005
2002-11-24 15:42:28.37 9.3163 40.1898 1.128
2002-11-24 16:14:29.58 9.3208 40.1810 1.505
2002-11-24 16:25:10.24 9.3042 40.1923 1.576
2002-11-24 16:26:12.85 9.3162 40.1975 1.434
2002-11-24 16:46:25.32 9.3240 40.1830 1.712
2002-11-24 16:58:03.53 9.2967 40.2080 0.442
2002-11-24 17:12:42.27 9.2923 40.2128 0.171
2002-11-24 17:40:46.61 9.3803 40.1033 1.219
2002-11-24 18:21:42.18 9.3018 40.2022 0.388
2002-11-24 19:11:11.55 9.3227 40.1897 2.279
2002-11-24 19:16:37.11 9.3293 40.1862 0.938
2002-11-24 19:18:05.94 9.2995 40.2120 0.708
2002-11-24 19:22:51.83 9.3117 40.1933 0.809
2002-11-24 19:23:17.39 9.2805 40.1637 1.100
2002-11-24 19:35:28.90 9.3247 40.1890 1.233
2002-11-24 19:37:27.60 9.2685 39.8343 1.196
2002-11-24 19:40:16.51 9.3183 40.1840 1.717
2002-11-24 20:08:44.52 9.3480 40.1807 1.277
2002-11-24 20:19:21.26 9.3177 40.1998 0.729
2002-11-24 20:43:44.97 9.3080 40.1950 2.065
2002-11-24 20:52:47.14 9.3307 40.1760 1.653
2002-11-24 21:08:12.21 9.3190 40.1768 0.632
2002-11-24 21:49:53.23 9.4927 39.7820 1.125
2002-11-24 22:52:07.14 9.3258 40.1842 2.054
2002-11-24 23:08:35.30 9.4812 39.7917 1.551
2002-11-24 23:25:23.67 9.3180 40.1722 0.575
2002-11-25 00:33:55.07 9.3117 40.1917 0.358
2002-11-25 00:35:17.23 9.3122 40.1918 0.618
2002-11-25 00:51:25.95 9.2950 40.2128 0.518
2002-11-25 02:05:53.12 9.0205 40.7653 0.634
2002-11-25 02:31:55.07 10.7637 39.7623 2.269
2002-11-25 15:49:30.67 9.4533 40.0120 1.697
2002-11-25 21:01:51.15 9.3047 40.2167 0.524
2002-11-26 01:10:24.52 9.3213 40.1823 0.915
2002-11-26 02:16:35.29 9.3148 40.1925 0.218
2002-11-26 05:22:32.74 10.2680 39.9073 2.443
2002-11-26 11:07:26.30 9.2523 38.9018 0.208
2002-11-26 20:39:13.41 9.1743 40.0042 1.492
2002-11-26 21:30:27.32 9.1772 40.0098 2.082
2002-11-26 22:43:21.41 7.5050 38.6637 1.297
2002-11-26 23:47:20.68 9.1787 40.0222 1.245
2002-11-27 20:04:03.41 9.2993 40.2250 0.564
2002-11-27 20:05:07.43 9.2952 40.2282 0.689
2002-11-27 21:07:37.17 9.3003 40.2150 0.359
2002-11-27 22:39:24.21 10.3227 39.6252 1.384
2002-11-28 02:12:06.73 9.3198 40.1867 1.319
2002-11-28 02:29:49.86 9.2967 40.2068 0.317
2002-11-28 06:02:34.96 9.3817 39.9030 2.077
2002-11-28 06:19:46.29 9.3737 39.8887 2.125
2002-11-28 08:53:51.66 9.4033 39.9040 2.364
2002-11-28 08:57:17.92 9.3700 39.8833 1.494
2002-11-28 18:19:16.33 9.4050 39.9053 2.436
2002-11-28 20:10:46.09 9.2945 40.2185 0.013
2002-11-29 01:24:36.39 9.3873 39.8963 1.455
2002-11-29 01:25:19.84 9.3607 39.8860 1.363
2002-11-29 20:07:39.86 9.9940 37.6080 1.107
2002-11-30 04:08:49.71 10.0220 39.2817 1.560
2002-11-30 07:58:46.62 9.3992 39.9203 1.704
2002-11-30 09:26:06.86 8.1638 39.1442 2.517
2002-11-30 18:22:11.94 9.2950 40.2108 0.153
2002-11-30 20:51:27.74 9.5143 39.8937 1.274
2002-11-30 22:11:02.35 9.4153 39.7062 1.268
2002-11-30 22:32:46.20 9.2680 40.2358 0.607
2002-11-30 22:53:07.76 8.1693 39.1260 0.491
2002-11-30 23:53:53.18 9.4528 39.6910 1.012
2002-12-01 07:34:29.87 9.3003 40.2048 0.507
2002-12-01 10:48:31.42 9.3008 40.2073 0.498
2002-12-01 11:18:18.85 13.0030 40.1447 5.197
2002-12-01 11:18:32 12.2800 39.7400 4.810
2002-12-01 12:09:45.70 12.7647 39.8018 4.735
2002-12-01 14:36:32.76 9.8725 38.5030 1.917
2002-12-01 15:57:25.83 12.5472 39.8560 4.195
2002-12-02 01:01:59.10 9.4058 39.8965 1.189
2002-12-02 07:38:40.62 11.6337 40.6212 3.725
2002-12-02 10:14:28.39 9.5562 39.6802 1.117
2002-12-02 16:38:50.16 9.5137 39.6328 1.125
2002-12-02 18:08:37.54 7.4288 38.7028 1.832
2002-12-02 18:29:16.81 9.4465 39.6948 1.602
2002-12-03 00:58:57.49 7.4175 38.7043 2.034
2002-12-03 02:57:42.82 13.0205 39.5148 3.211
2002-12-03 03:53:06.99 13.2507 40.3548 3.714
2002-12-03 16:02:52.50 7.4677 38.5692 2.547
2002-12-03 16:36:16.39 8.3113 38.3683 2.223
2002-12-03 19:38:26.33 9.4162 39.3188 0.420
2002-12-03 20:10:01.52 7.7043 38.9212 2.341
Appendices
131
2002-12-03 22:13:59.17 9.9408 37.9357 1.446
2002-12-03 22:55:57.82 9.4545 39.6818 1.434
2002-12-03 23:20:36.73 7.5978 38.8033 1.366
2002-12-03 23:54:46.17 7.5742 38.7928 1.875
2002-12-04 13:41:06.71 8.8727 39.8352 1.974
2002-12-04 18:58:37.49 9.5702 39.7815 0.993
2002-12-05 17:38:29.87 9.3027 40.2138 0.652
2002-12-05 20:23:53.51 9.4455 39.6962 1.246
2002-12-05 20:24:46.22 9.4468 39.6708 0.915
2002-12-06 00:47:29.74 10.4980 39.7915 1.688
2002-12-06 01:42:09.93 9.0793 39.3518 1.771
2002-12-06 03:28:38.58 9.5512 40.7083 1.112
2002-12-06 08:21:02.52 9.0967 38.5305 1.059
2002-12-07 11:24:43.94 9.9297 41.0435 2.690
2002-12-07 18:40:57.30 9.3082 40.1918 0.781
2002-12-07 22:56:04.21 11.7032 39.7447 3.116
2002-12-08 18:56:33.67 7.5087 38.6593 2.633
2002-12-09 01:41:58.89 9.3190 40.1960 0.477
2002-12-09 10:29:48.40 10.7493 39.7477 3.254
2002-12-10 02:39:47.38 9.4178 39.3650 1.231
2002-12-10 08:06:23.98 9.4238 39.6225 1.429
2002-12-10 08:16:26.83 9.4277 39.6345 1.500
2002-12-11 22:20:10.81 13.7403 39.8545 3.887
2002-12-11 23:01:33.08 9.4698 39.6842 1.404
2002-12-12 01:40:13.26 9.4875 40.0258 1.595
2002-12-12 02:23:30.30 9.5628 39.6560 0.998
2002-12-12 09:18:11.58 8.9660 38.7780 1.056
2002-12-12 09:22:31.68 9.0577 40.0635 1.021
2002-12-12 17:02:04.02 9.3857 40.0400 1.630
2002-12-12 17:24:10.87 8.9478 39.1713 1.643
2002-12-12 17:49:16.11 8.9060 39.7817 1.391
2002-12-12 21:23:04.48 8.2368 39.2083 0.951
2002-12-13 09:00:47.73 8.9720 38.7780 1.048
2002-12-13 17:36:22.22 9.4432 40.0248 2.196
2002-12-13 22:54:00.20 9.4832 39.9747 1.029
2002-12-13 23:08:59.63 11.9642 39.5197 2.592
2002-12-15 08:37:35.47 7.4277 38.7117 3.063
2002-12-15 10:06:06.01 9.5792 39.7260 1.804
2002-12-15 16:29:11.56 9.0565 40.7662 1.402
2002-12-15 19:15:39.08 7.4235 38.7173 2.886
2002-12-15 20:04:08.72 7.4232 38.7163 3.144
2002-12-15 20:07:04.70 7.4262 38.7088 2.591
2002-12-15 20:14:53.03 7.4117 38.7252 2.073
2002-12-15 20:18:51.34 7.3567 38.7405 3.065
2002-12-15 20:35:05.22 9.5522 40.1488 1.932
2002-12-15 21:18:38.01 7.4247 38.7085 2.580
2002-12-15 21:39:09.28 7.3735 38.7317 1.721
2002-12-15 23:17:12.47 7.4125 38.7258 1.833
2002-12-16 00:27:01.90 7.4125 38.7352 1.424
2002-12-16 01:57:03.25 6.8895 38.6420 2.291
2002-12-16 16:28:11.58 9.3043 40.1960 0.554
2002-12-16 16:28:23.11 9.2918 40.2173 0.556
2002-12-16 16:29:21.28 9.2903 40.2212 0.769
2002-12-16 19:35:04.79 9.6325 38.4758 1.107
2002-12-17 00:28:39.46 9.4710 40.0033 2.291
2002-12-17 00:34:35.52 9.4607 39.9843 0.940
2002-12-17 21:43:08.40 9.0045 39.9062 1.149
2002-12-17 22:02:28.66 9.0205 39.9103 0.881
2002-12-17 22:12:35.75 9.0095 39.9058 1.400
2002-12-17 23:15:10.61 8.9987 39.9052 1.546
2002-12-18 01:31:41.14 8.9575 39.8837 0.329
2002-12-18 08:15:30.35 8.9525 38.7783 0.997
2002-12-18 18:04:58.52 7.3987 38.7593 2.342
2002-12-19 00:08:26.10 9.3167 40.1927 0.316
2002-12-20 13:27:42.13 8.8840 39.8412 2.049
2002-12-20 22:28:10.97 10.0295 39.2943 1.731
2002-12-21 09:47:10.45 9.1435 39.0735 1.246
2002-12-21 19:29:23.71 7.4178 38.7052 1.602
2002-12-21 19:39:38.41 7.3808 38.7670 1.507
2002-12-21 22:00:21.29 9.2898 40.2433 1.031
2002-12-21 22:00:39.02 9.3023 40.1978 0.696
2002-12-21 23:34:44.79 7.4042 38.7142 1.351
2002-12-21 23:43:26.92 9.8803 39.0697 1.344
2002-12-22 02:07:29.90 9.4888 38.3662 0.733
2002-12-22 11:14:08.44 9.1562 39.9868 1.513
2002-12-22 22:36:10.81 7.3783 38.7847 1.285
2002-12-23 00:05:53.04 9.4348 39.6802 1.389
2002-12-23 00:47:28.12 9.0160 39.9390 0.738
2002-12-23 01:05:50.40 9.4355 39.6638 1.056
2002-12-23 06:27:49.96 9.4405 39.6802 2.448
2002-12-23 07:52:51.21 9.4513 39.6145 1.162
2002-12-23 11:04:17.22 9.3962 39.6913 2.023
2002-12-23 12:04:54.69 9.4505 39.5990 1.166
2002-12-23 12:40:43.45 8.8678 39.8288 1.479
2002-12-23 14:51:37.20 9.4615 40.0045 2.213
2002-12-23 15:46:17.57 9.4467 39.6908 2.148
2002-12-23 22:52:01.99 9.4537 39.6792 0.902
2002-12-24 01:36:08.24 10.5980 39.7855 2.583
2002-12-24 02:48:24.01 9.5298 39.6498 1.078
2002-12-24 04:42:06.75 9.4400 39.6787 2.309
2002-12-25 01:10:55.64 9.3427 40.1885 1.066
2002-12-25 01:12:15.65 9.1780 40.2733 0.883
2002-12-25 02:01:37.48 9.4297 39.6328 1.164
2002-12-25 02:05:51.96 9.4443 39.6898 1.331
Appendices
132
2002-12-25 10:53:37.96 8.9905 38.7660 1.232
2002-12-25 17:36:57.96 9.3140 40.1922 0.634
2002-12-25 20:32:28.52 7.3837 38.7032 1.937
2002-12-26 19:47:52.03 9.2187 40.0227 3.167
2002-12-26 19:55:17.94 9.2080 40.0145 2.409
2002-12-26 19:58:00.77 9.2030 40.0165 1.902
2002-12-26 20:17:00.50 9.2148 40.0043 0.891
2002-12-26 20:17:20.21 9.2175 40.0067 1.375
2002-12-26 20:43:26.13 9.2115 40.0302 1.232
2002-12-26 20:55:39.35 9.2053 40.0183 1.654
2002-12-26 21:18:53.97 9.2098 40.0038 1.297
2002-12-26 21:21:39.61 9.1920 40.0318 0.925
2002-12-26 21:22:40.25 9.1985 40.0232 1.154
2002-12-26 21:26:53.22 9.1972 40.0362 1.006
2002-12-26 21:59:17.44 9.2073 40.0300 1.346
2002-12-27 00:03:43.51 7.3535 38.7765 1.697
2002-12-27 02:11:37.51 8.6760 39.5695 1.499
2002-12-27 15:31:13.71 9.1618 40.0492 1.503
2002-12-27 15:33:21.02 9.4342 39.6473 1.529
2002-12-27 17:59:06.61 9.3463 41.1755 2.133
2002-12-27 21:06:50.14 9.2178 39.9113 1.422
2002-12-27 21:48:25.74 8.9280 39.4487 0.679
2002-12-27 22:34:09.41 9.3137 40.1938 0.786
2002-12-27 22:38:03.52 9.3030 40.2050 0.264
2002-12-28 00:56:35.21 10.7395 39.7878 2.365
2002-12-28 23:53:46.41 9.3930 39.6685 1.667
2002-12-29 08:33:54.80 8.9558 38.8313 0.748
2002-12-30 07:19:57.49 9.4778 39.2175 1.479
2002-12-31 23:42:32.59 7.3518 38.6890 1.380
2003-01-01 07:45:26.37 10.1123 38.5638 1.453
2003-01-01 20:31:42.06 9.9210 37.9790 1.391
2003-01-01 21:37:55.02 9.4372 39.5972 1.451
2003-01-01 23:36:37.29 11.5872 41.9362 4.668
2003-01-01 23:36:45 11.2000 41.7500 4.520
2003-01-02 06:24:26.59 10.4027 40.8593 2.996
2003-01-02 07:02:09.43 8.8505 38.5288 1.945
2003-01-02 08:52:45.28 9.2343 40.0212 2.371
2003-01-02 10:18:18.48 8.9192 38.7645 1.151
2003-01-02 21:44:56.45 9.4693 39.6172 1.773
2003-01-02 22:41:56.54 9.7635 39.1167 1.995
2003-01-03 01:45:31.73 9.4410 39.6760 1.898
2003-01-03 03:05:42.14 10.4098 39.8330 2.373
2003-01-03 05:17:25.55 10.2028 41.2275 2.681
2003-01-03 23:26:08.55 9.2867 40.2175 0.070
2003-01-05 16:46:36.55 9.1512 38.9375 2.083
2003-01-05 21:54:52.19 8.0893 39.0567 1.185
2003-01-06 22:51:06.60 9.3167 40.1697 0.798
2003-01-07 01:19:51.11 10.5607 39.7348 2.502
2003-01-07 02:00:00.09 9.2897 40.2228 0.753
2003-01-07 06:53:28.32 9.6712 39.7022 2.096
2003-01-07 07:53:27.16 9.4347 39.6090 1.708
2003-01-07 16:09:52.12 9.2840 40.2230 0.259
2003-01-07 23:29:50.43 9.2855 40.1627 0.219
2003-01-07 23:55:48.37 9.3053 40.1450 0.232
2003-01-08 00:42:29.47 9.2142 40.2998 0.726
2003-01-08 00:52:56.76 9.0302 39.9293 0.932
2003-01-08 01:21:58.59 9.2490 40.2017 0.855
2003-01-08 16:49:33.05 9.2482 40.2063 1.147
2003-01-08 18:15:29.94 9.2920 40.1650 0.905
2003-01-08 20:24:09.65 9.6745 39.7047 1.831
2003-01-08 21:59:07.37 9.6333 39.7037 1.286
2003-01-09 00:37:13.64 9.6498 39.6738 0.898
2003-01-09 02:01:11.14 9.2275 42.1173 2.516
2003-01-09 05:47:34.99 9.5827 39.6488 1.331
2003-01-09 12:38:16.42 8.6690 40.0582 1.592
2003-01-09 20:36:57.97 9.7260 39.7643 3.113
2003-01-09 22:39:25.65 10.5750 39.8335 2.527
2003-01-10 12:13:56.13 8.6125 39.4472 3.435
2003-01-10 22:50:26.98 9.1712 39.7788 1.756
2003-01-11 14:00:21.28 9.7102 39.7368 2.136
2003-01-11 23:57:23.98 9.3017 40.1822 0.231
2003-01-12 00:40:11.95 9.4073 39.6535 1.346
2003-01-12 07:03:38.79 8.8023 38.9638 1.415
2003-01-13 12:03:23.15 9.4963 38.4185 1.403
2003-01-13 21:06:00.73 9.4922 39.6808 1.969
2003-01-13 22:15:29.97 9.1012 39.9322 1.125
2003-01-14 20:02:21.04 5.4248 37.4658 3.904
2003-01-15 21:57:10.80 9.6438 38.5377 1.573
2003-01-15 23:14:16.95 9.6502 38.5002 0.919
2003-01-16 08:52:39.62 8.9903 38.8217 1.331
2003-01-16 12:02:08.98 9.3658 39.6758 2.054
2003-01-16 14:22:50.19 9.2030 39.9437 1.552
2003-01-16 17:31:14.46 9.4382 39.6807 2.092
2003-01-17 18:53:49.10 9.4572 39.6835 1.642
2003-01-17 18:54:45.02 9.4535 39.6687 1.633
2003-01-17 18:56:30.34 9.4432 39.6898 2.263
2003-01-17 19:16:08.83 9.4462 39.6863 1.962
2003-01-17 20:14:43.69 9.4192 39.6847 1.337
2003-01-17 21:22:42.35 9.4685 39.7075 1.172
2003-01-17 21:32:54.04 7.6113 38.7727 2.027
2003-01-17 23:44:36.51 9.4265 39.6867 1.413
2003-01-18 01:20:36.40 9.4878 39.9888 1.294
2003-01-18 02:45:37.29 7.8930 38.8210 1.889
2003-01-18 11:45:59.57 9.4312 39.6882 2.549
Appendices
133
2003-01-18 19:55:23.91 9.4652 39.6728 1.728
2003-01-19 23:21:55.25 10.2570 41.1270 3.077
2003-01-20 21:07:23.72 7.4668 38.8208 3.885
2003-01-20 21:16:22.91 7.4752 38.8233 2.523
2003-01-20 23:39:29.94 8.8852 40.6385 0.866
2003-01-21 08:08:18.83 7.4922 38.8208 2.901
2003-01-22 02:33:42.68 9.4342 39.6890 2.452
2003-01-22 02:34:08.05 9.4107 39.6960 2.569
2003-01-22 07:51:30.37 8.7133 38.5560 2.081
2003-01-22 08:01:24.74 8.7497 38.8413 2.141
2003-01-22 10:24:49.20 9.0530 39.9697 1.428
2003-01-22 21:54:51.77 9.4625 40.0062 2.059
2003-01-23 02:08:59.81 9.4425 39.6820 2.065
2003-01-25 18:26:59.48 4.9363 37.5817 4.512
2003-01-27 09:42:37.48 11.4227 39.4412 2.972

Appendices
134
Appendix C

Publications in peer reviewed journals resulting from Ph.D.
research

The following publications in peer reviewed journals resulted from the authors research
during the course of the Ph.D. First authored articles that have been published are
highlighted in the list below and full texts presented with the pagination independent of
the thesis body.

Kendall, J-M., G. W. Stuart, C. J. Ebinger, I. D. Bastow and D. Keir, Magma assisted
rifting in Ethiopia, Nature, 433, 146 - 148, 2005.

Keir, D., J-M. Kendall, C. J. Ebinger and G. W. Stuart, Variations in late syn-rift
melt alignment inferred from shear-wave splitting in crustal earthquakes
beneath the Ethiopian rift, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L23308,
doi:10.1029/2005GL024150, 2005.

Casey, M., C. Ebinger, D. Keir, R. Gloaguen and F. Mohammed, Strain
accommodation in transitional rifts: Extension by magma intrusion and faulting
in Ethiopian rift magmatic segments, in G. Yirgu, C. Ebinger and P. Maguire,
The Afar Volcanic Province within the East African Rift System, Geol. Soc.
Lond. Spec. Pub., 259, 143-164, 2006.

Kendall, J-M. S. Pilidou, D. Keir, I. Bastow, A. Ayele, and G. W. Stuart, Mantle
upwellings, melt migration and the rifting of Africa: Insights from seismic
anisotropy, in G. Yirgu, C. Ebinger and P. Maguire, The Afar Volcanic Province
within the East African Rift System, Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Pub., 259, 55-72
2006.

Ayele, A., G. W. Stuart, I. D. Bastow and D. Keir, The August 2002 earthquake
sequence in north Afar: Insights into the neotectonics of the Danakil microplate,
J. Afr. Earth Sci., in press (2006).

Appendices
135
Keir, D., C. J. Ebinger, G. W. Stuart, E. Daly and A. Ayele, Strain accommodation
by magmatism and faulting as rifting proceeds to breakup: Seismicity of
the northern Ethiopian rift, J. Geophys. Res., 111, B05314,
doi:1029/2005JB 003748, 2006.

Wright, T., C. J. Ebinger, J. Biggs, A. Ayele, G. Yirgu, D. Keir and A. Stork, Magma-
maintained rift segmentation at continental rupture in the 2005 Afar dyking
episode, Nature, 442, doi:10.1038/nature04978, 2006.

Keir, D., G. W. Stuart, A. Jackson and A. Ayele, Local earthquake magnitude
scale and seismicity rate of the northern Ethiopian rift, Bull. Seism. Soc.
Am., 96, doi:10.1785/0120060051, 2006.

Daly, E., D. Keir, C. Ebinger, G. Stuart, I. Bastow, and A. Ayele, Crustal tomographic
imaging of a transitional continental rift: the Ethiopian Rift, submitted to
Geophys. J. Int., 2006.

Variations in late syn-rift melt alignment inferred from shear-wave
splitting in crustal earthquakes beneath the Ethiopian rift
Derek Keir,
1
J-M. Kendall,
2,3
C. J. Ebinger,
1
and G. W. Stuart
2
Received 21 July 2005; revised 12 October 2005; accepted 25 October 2005; published 8 December 2005.
[1] The northern Main Ethiopian rift (MER) marks the
transition from continental rifting to incipient seafloor
spreading. We constrain anisotropy of the upper-crust in the
MER and its uplifted rift flanks using shear-wave splitting
from 24 earthquakes located beneath 18 broadband stations.
Along the axis of the MER the fast polarization direction is
oriented between N and NNE, parallel to Quaternary-
Recent faults, aligned cones and maximum horizontal
stress. Delay times are highest (0.24 s) where independent
seismic studies show evidence of shallow partial melt. We
attribute anisotropy along the rift axis to aligned melt-filled
micro-cracks and dikes. At stations flanking the rift, the fast
polarization direction is oriented NE and delay-times are
smaller (0.040.14 s). The lower amount of anisotropy is
consistent with reduced melt away from the rift axis. These
results show melt-induced anisotropy persists into the crust,
and magma injection localizes and accommodates strain just
prior to continental break-up. Citation: Keir, D., J-M.
Kendall, C. J. Ebinger, and G. W. Stuart (2005), Variations in
late syn-rift melt alignment inferred from shear-wave splitting in
crustal earthquakes beneath the Ethiopian rift, Geophys. Res. Lett.,
32, L23308, doi:10.1029/2005GL024150.
1. Introduction
[2] Strain localizes as rifting proceeds to continental
breakup, but the partitioning of strain between mechanical
failure and magma injection remains controversial. The
volcanically active northern Main Ethiopian rift (MER) is
transitional between continental and incipient oceanic rift-
ing [e.g., Ebinger and Casey, 2001], affording the opportu-
nity to actively observe rift processes just prior to break-up.
[3] The Miocene-Recent MER constitutes the northern
part of the East African rift system and forms the youngest
arm of the Afar triple junction, which developed in the
Eocene-Oligocene flood basalt province (Figure 1, inset).
The MER is bounded by NE-trending Miocene border faults.
Since Quaternary times extensional strain is localized in
<20 km-wide right stepping en-echelon magmatic segments
which are zones of NNE-striking fissures, faults and aligned
volcanic cones [Bilham et al., 1999; Ebinger and Casey,
2001]. These magmatic segments are the locus of seismicity
and magmatism (D. Keir et al., Strain accommodation by
magmatism and faulting as rifting proceeds to breakup:
Seismicity of the northern Ethiopian rift, submitted to
Journal of Geophysical Research, 2005, hereinafter referred
to as Keir et al., submitted manuscript, 2005) (Figure 1). The
current extension direction is N105E [Wolfenden et al.,
2004; Keir et al., submitted manuscript, 2005].
[4] Anisotropy provides further constraints on style of
rifting and breakup. SKS-splitting dominantly reflects up-
per-mantle anisotropy, and measurements in the MER show
a rift-parallel (NNE) fast anisotropic orientation that
parallels the aligned eruptive centers, fissures and active
faults. The magnitude of splitting and cross-rift variation in
the orientation of the fast S-wave were used to propose that
partial melt beneath the MER rises through melt-filled
cracks that penetrate the thinned lithosphere [Kendall et
al., 2005a]. Sv and Sh velocity models determined from
inversion of surface-wave dispersion curves show faster Sv
velocities than Sh velocities below 20 km along the rift axis.
The results are consistent with anisotropy at 2075 km
depth due to oriented melt-filled pockets [Kendall et al.,
2005b]. Bastow et al. [2005] show, by comparing P-and
S-wave relative arrival-time data, that upper mantle low
velocity anomalies beneath the MER are likely due to high-
temperatures and partial melt.
[5] Anisotropy of the shallow crust is commonly attrib-
uted to micro-cracks vertically-oriented parallel to the
direction of maximum horizontal stress [e.g., Crampin,
1994]. For example, crustal shear-wave splitting measure-
ments in rift zones at the Mid-Atlantic ridge and in Iceland
show fast-polarization directions sub-parallel to the maxi-
mum horizontal stress. These patterns are attributed to
aligned parallel cracks and fractures in the uppermost 3
5 km of the crust [e.g., Barclay and Toomey, 2003; Evans et
al., 1996; Menke et al., 1994]. S-wave anisotropy has also
been attributed to vertical micro-cracks throughout the crust
in which case S-wave splitting is accrued along the whole
ray-path [e.g., Volti and Crampin, 2003]. Fast-polarization
directions at active volcanoes are usually parallel to dikes
and the maximum horizontal stress, with 90 polarization
flips observed prior to volcanic eruption due to increased
pore pressure leading to changes in crack orientation [Miller
and Savage, 2001]. Crustal anisotropy has also been linked
to other rock fabrics such as vertically dipping foliation of
metamorphic basement [e.g., do Nascimento et al., 2004].
We use measurements of S-wave splitting from local earth-
quakes to study crustal anisotropy in the MER. We compare
our results to independent studies and use this information
to evaluate mechanisms of deformation preceding continen-
tal break-up.
2. Data and Methodology
[6] From October 2001 to January 2003, seismicity was
recorded by 29 broadband instruments that covered a
GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 32, L23308, doi:10.1029/2005GL024150, 2005
1
Department of Geology, Royal Holloway University of London,
Egham, UK.
2
School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK.
3
Now at Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol,
UK.
Copyright 2005 by the American Geophysical Union.
0094-8276/05/2005GL024150$05.00
L23308 1 of 4
250 km 350 km area of the MER and adjacent uplifted
plateau [Bastow et al., 2005]. A further 150 broadband
instruments operated for the final 2-4 months of the exper-
iment (Keir et al., submitted manuscript, 2005). Earth-
quakes were located using a 3-D velocity model
determined from local earthquake tomography (Keir et al.,
submitted manuscript, 2005). 75% of seismicity occurred in
the Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment and at the intersection
of the MER and Red Sea rift (Keir et al., submitted
manuscript, 2005). Due to this severe spatial clustering of
earthquakes, S-wave splitting measurements could only be
made at 10% of available seismic stations (Figure 1).
24 earthquakes located beneath 18 stations provided 26
three-component seismograms where the S-wave incident-
angle is within the shear-wave window (SWW). The SWW
is the vertical cone bound by sin
1
(Vs/Vp) where S-wave
particle motions are not disturbed by S-P conversions at the
free surface [Booth and Crampin, 1985]. We use a Vp/Vs of
1.75, calculated from P- and S-wave travel-times from
earthquakes in the MER, which corresponds to a SWW that
is a cone within 35 of the vertical.
[7] The polarization direction of the fast S-wave (f) and
the time delay between the fast and slow S-waves (dt) is
determined using the method of Silver and Chan [1991],
adapted for application to micro-earthquakes. In an isotropic
radially stratified crust, near vertically impinging S-waves
should exhibit linear particle motion. This phase is split into
orthogonally polarized fast and slow S-waves when it
travels through an anisotropic medium and this splitting
produces an elliptical particle motion. To remove the effects
of the anisotropy we rotate the horizontal components by f
and shift their relative positions by dt, thereby linearizing
the particle motion (Figure S1, auxiliary material
1
). To
estimate the splitting we search for the correction parame-
ters that best linearize the S-wave motion. An F-test is
performed to assess the uniqueness of the estimated splitting
parameters and thereby produce an error estimate [Silver,
1996]. The splitting parameters are well constrained. We use
a cut off error criteria of 0.03 s for dt and 9 for f
(Table S1, auxiliary material).
3. Results
[8] S-wave splitting measurements from local earth-
quakes near the MER show large spatial variation in both
f and dt (Figure 1). At stations on the NW plateau f varies
between 36 and 70. dt varies between 0.04 s and 0.14 s
for earthquakes that occurred at depths of 1220 km and
dt increases linearly with increased ray-path distance
(Figure 2), showing that the crust is anisotropic to at least
20 km depth. This equates to fairly uniform anisotropy of
1.1 % on average, if splitting is assumed to be accrued over
the full ray-path length (Figures 1 and 2).
[9] Along the Ankober fault system f is oriented N,
parallel to seismically active faults (Figure S1). dt is 0.1
0.16 s, equivalent to 2.23.6 % S-wave anisotropy.
[10] At stations along the rift axis f is mostly oriented
N to NNE (Figure 1). Delay times are 0.060.24 s for
earthquakes that are 69 km deep, equating to 36.2 %
anisotropy (Figure 2). The largest values of dt (0.190.24 s,
anisotropy of 5.46.2 %) are recorded at stations 1219 and
BORE, both in the Quaternary Boset-Kone magmatic seg-
ment (Figures 1 and 2).
4. Discussion
[11] Near-vertically propagating S-waves from local
earthquakes near the MER show clear evidence of S-wave
splitting. The anisotropy is thus most likely due to folia-
tions, cracks or inclusions aligned by regional and local
stresses in the crust. The magnitude and orientation of the
shear-wave splitting varies dramatically across the EAGLE
network, suggesting a heterogeneous stress field or varia-
Figure 1. Crustal anisotropy measurements at 18 broad-
band stations in Ethiopia. White arrows show the polariza-
tion of the fast S-wave (f) and arrow length is scaled by %
anisotropy. Solid black lines with dip ticks are Miocene
border faults (BF) and dashed lines are monoclines.
Quaternary magmatic segments (MS) are shaded grey. Dark
arrows show the extension direction and orientation of the
minimum horizontal stress (Keir et al., submitted manu-
script, 2005). The position of the along-axis profile for
Figures 2b and 2d is shown by the black line. Top left inset:
Topographic map of the MER, adjacent plateau and Afar
depression. NP: Nubia Plate, SP: Somali Plate, DP: Danakil
Plate, AP: Arabian Plate, RS: Red Sea, GA: Gulf of Aden.
Top right inset: White arrows show polarization of fast
S-wave and arrow length is scaled by delay-time.
1
Auxiliary material is available at ftp://ftp.agu.org/apend/gl/
2005GL024150.
L23308 KEIR ET AL.: VARIATIONS IN LATE SYN-RIFT MELT ALIGNMENT L23308
2 of 4
tions in the underlying cause of anisotropy. We calibrate our
results with independent geological and seismic studies in
the MER.
[12] Stations along the rift axis show relatively large
amounts of splitting despite shallower earthquake depths
(69 km). Up to 0.24 s of splitting is observed beneath
Boset-Kone magmatic segment, which equates to over 6 %
anisotropy. Stations within the rift valley but located outside
magmatic segments show less splitting (e.g. MELE), but the
average magnitude of splitting in the rift valley is still nearly
3%, much larger than beneath the NW plateau. The N to
NNE orientation of f in the magmatic segments is parallel
to Quaternary faults and aligned volcanic cones. The along
axis variation of f correlates well with local changes in the
strike of maximum horizontal stress axes from focal mech-
anisms of earthquakes within 25 km of splitting measure-
ments (Figure 2) (Keir et al., submitted manuscript, 2005).
[13] The largest amounts of upper-crustal anisotropy are
in the Quaternary magmatic segments where independent
studies show evidence of pervasive dike intrusion and the
presence of partial melt in shallow magma chambers.
Mackenzie et al. [2005] and Keranen et al. [2004] interpret
cooled mafic intrusions in the mid-crust beneath these
magmatic segments using models derived from wide-angle
refraction data and controlled source tomography respec-
tively. The magnitude of splitting under Boset volcano is
especially pronounced, where melt-related anomalies have
been interpreted in magnetotelluric data [Whaler and
Hautot, 2005]. The S-wave splitting observations are con-
sistent with anisotropy due to vertically aligned magma
intrusions or melt-filled cracks beneath the Quaternary
magmatic segments, where the majority of strain is accom-
modated by dike injection (Keir et al., submitted manu-
script, 2005).
[14] The deepest earthquakes lie beneath the largely un-
extended NW Ethiopian plateau, where we observe an
increase in delay time with increased ray-path length using
S-wave splitting measurements at different stations. These
variations in delay-times can be explained by relatively
uniform anisotropy that extends to at least 20 km depth;
larger delay-times (0.10.14 s) at stations 1018, 1030 and
INEE are caused by splitting accrued over longer ray-paths
Figure 2. (a) Rift-perpendicular profile of station averaged delay time (dt) versus distance from the rift axis. The two solid
lines shows the position of magmatic segments and the dashed line shows the approximate position of the western boundary
of the rift valley. (b) Rift-parallel profile of station averaged dt at stations within 20 km of the along rift-axis line on Figure
1. (c) Rift perpendicular profile of % anisotropy versus distance from the rift axis. (d) Rift-parallel profile of % anisotropy
versus distance along the rift valley. (e) Individual measurements of dt versus S-wave ray-path length at stations on the
western Ethiopian plateau. The dashed line is the best straight line fit to the data. (f) Individual measurements of dt versus
ray-path length at stations in the rift valley. (g) f against the average orientation of maximum horizontal stress axes of focal
mechanisms within 25 kmof the splitting measurement. The dashed line is the best straight line fit to the data. The symbols are:
white squares = plateau stations; grey triangles = stations at the Ankober fault; inverted triangles = stations in the MER but
outside magmatic segments; dark grey circles = stations in magmatic segments.
3 of 4
(Figures 1 and 2). Alternatively, these patterns may be
caused by lateral variations in anisotropy of the uppermost
few kilometers with larger upper crustal anisotropy at
stations 1018, 1030 and INEE. However, controlled source
seismic images of underplating [Mackenzie et al., 2005],
mid-crustal conductive anomalies in MT data [Whaler and
Hautot, 2005], and Quaternary eruptive centers as far north
as Lake Tana all infer the presence of melt in the lower crust
beneath the Ethiopian plateau. Given these independent
observations, we interpret the data to show that melt
induced anisotropy extends to at least 20 km subsurface.
The amount of crustal anisotropy beneath the plateau is low
(1.1%), consistent with melt decrease away from the rift
axis. Splitting at stations on the plateau is oriented NE and
may also indicate a contribution from pre-existing basement
foliation or structural trends. Where exposed, Pan-African
basement foliation and Proterozoic ophiolite belts predom-
inantly strike N to NE [e.g., Berhe, 1990; Kazmin et al.,
1978]. These have been used to infer a NE-SW trending
suture [Berhe, 1990] but due to limited basement outcrop
their interpretation is controversial [Church et al., 1991]. NE
to ENE oriented basement structures are evident in regional
drainage patterns along the Ambo fault, which has been
reactivated in Miocene rifting [Abebe et al., 1998]. Beneath
the Ethiopian plateau the crustal anisotropy may be due to a
combination of mechanisms associated with aligned melt,
pre-existing basement foliation and structural trends.
[15] The patterns of shear-wave splitting observed in
earthquakes beneath both the rift valley and nearby plateau
are most simply explained by crustal anisotropy related to
variable amounts of melt pocket alignment, with a higher
degree of magma intrusion in the crust beneath the rift. Our
study shows that melt-induced anisotropy at 2075 km
depth [Bastow et al., 2005; Kendall et al., 2005a, 2005b]
continues into the uppermost crust, thereby penetrating the
entire plate and facilitating continental breakup.
5. Conclusions
[16] Along the rift-axis the orientation of the fast S-wave
is N to NNE, parallel to Quaternary to Recent faults,
aligned cones and the current maximum horizontal stress
axis. The largest amounts of upper crustal anisotropy are in
the Quaternary magmatic segments, where the majority of
strain is accommodated by magma injection; anisotropy is
most likely caused by aligned melt-filled micro-cracks and
dikes. The low amount of anisotropy beneath the Ethiopian
plateau is consistent with melt decrease away from the rift
axis. These results suggest the anisotropy is related to
variable amounts of melt pocket alignment in the crust,
with a higher degree of dike intrusion in a narrow zone of
Quaternary magmatism. Melt-induced anisotropy extends
from the base of the lithosphere to the upper crust, suggest-
ing that magma injection helps localize and facilitate
extension just prior to continental breakup.
[17] Acknowledgments. We thank SEIS-UK and A. Brisbourne for
the use of instruments and assistance in the field. The support provided by
A. Ayele and L. Asfaw of the Geophysical Observatory, Addis Ababa
University is much appreciated. The input provided by E. Daly, I. Bastow,
D. Cornwell, P. Maguire and K. Whaler is also gratefully acknowledged.
We thank Stuart Crampin and the anonymous reviewer who helped improve
this manuscript. This research was supported by NERC grant NER/A/S/
2000/01004 and NERC studentship NER/S/A/2002/10547.
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C. J. Ebinger and D. Keir, Department of Geology, Royal Holloway

University of London, Egham TW20 0EX, UK. (d.keir@gl.rhul.ac.uk)
J-M. Kendall, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol,
Bristol BS8 1RJ, UK.
G. W. Stuart, School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds,
Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
4 of 4
Strain accommodation by magmatism and faulting as rifting
proceeds to breakup: Seismicity of the northern Ethiopian rift
Derek Keir,
1
C. J. Ebinger,
1
G. W. Stuart,
2
E. Daly,
3
and A. Ayele
4
Received 24 March 2005; revised 1 December 2005; accepted 2 February 2006; published 26 May 2006.
[1] The volcanically active Main Ethiopian rift (MER) marks the transition from
continental rifting in the East African rift to incipient seafloor spreading in Afar. We use
new seismicity data to investigate the distribution of strain and its relationship with
magmatism immediately prior to continental breakup. From October 2001 to January
2003, seismicity was recorded by up to 179 broadband instruments that covered a
250 km 350 km area. A total of 1957 earthquakes were located within the network, a
selection of which was used for accurate location with a three-dimensional velocity model
and focal mechanism determination. Border faults are inactive except for a cluster of
seismicity at the structurally complex intersection of the MER and the older Red Sea rift,
where the Red Sea rift flank is downwarped into the younger MER. Earthquakes are
localized to 20-km-wide, right-stepping en echelon zones of Quaternary magmatism and
faulting, which are underlain by mafic intrusions that rise to 810 km subsurface.
Seismicity in these magmatic segments is characterized by low-magnitude swarms
coincident with Quaternary faults, fissures, and chains of eruptive centers. All but three
focal mechanisms show normal dip-slip motion; the minimum compressive stress is
N103E, perpendicular to Quaternary faults and aligned volcanic cones. The earthquake
catalogue is complete above M
L
2.1, and the estimated b value is 1.13 0.05. The
seismogenic zone lies above the 20-km-wide intrusion zones; intrusion may trigger
faulting in the upper crust. New and existing data indicate that during continental breakup,
intrusion of magma beneath 20-km-wide magmatic segments accommodates the
majority of strain and controls the locus of seismicity and faulting in the upper crust.
Citation: Keir, D., C. J. Ebinger, G. W. Stuart, E. Daly, and A. Ayele (2006), Strain accommodation by magmatism and faulting as
rifting proceeds to breakup: Seismicity of the northern Ethiopian rift, J. Geophys. Res., 111, B05314, doi:10.1029/2005JB003748.
1. Introduction
[2] Strain localizes as rifting proceeds to continental
breakup, but the partitioning of strain between faults and
magmatic intrusion remains controversial [e.g., Lister et al.,
1986; Ebinger and Casey, 2001]. Models of continental
breakup that assume purely mechanical stretching predict
strain localization along preexisting or new shear zones that
may accommodate large displacements [e.g., Lister et al.,
1986; Dunbar and Sawyer, 1989]. Magmatic processes
superposed on the mechanical deformation pose additional
complications to our understanding of continental breakup.
The magma-assisted rifting model of Buck [2004] shows
that if a steady supply of magma is available, the release of
stress and overall decrease in lithospheric strength due to
diking will prevent the stress level reaching those required
to activate the border faults of a rift zone. As a result, border
faults become inactive and extension localizes to the zone of
diking. Extension near the surface, where the brittle short-
term rheology allows rapid fault slip, is accommodated by a
combination of faulting and dike injection. Analysis of
seismicity in a volcanically active rift setting that is near
breakup provides a means to study the pattern of strain
localization and assess how strain is partitioned between
faulting and dike injection.
[3] The seismically and volcanically active northern Main
Ethiopian rift (MER) and Afar rifts are virtually the only
places worldwide where the transition between continental
and oceanic rifting is exposed on land. The multidisciplin-
ary project EAGLE (Ethiopia Afar Geoscientific Litho-
spheric Experiment) provides fundamental constraints on
crust and upper mantle structure beneath the MER, set
within a strong regional tectonic framework [e.g., Maguire
et al., 2003; WoldeGabriel et al., 1990; Wolfenden et al.,
2004]. The MER is thus an ideal natural laboratory to study
continental breakup processes.
[4] The EAGLE network, the largest array of seismic
instruments yet deployed on the African continent, is used
to analyze the distribution of local earthquakes in this
JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 111, B05314, doi:10.1029/2005JB003748, 2006
1
Department of Geology, Royal Holloway University of London,
Egham, UK.
2
School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK.
3
Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, National University of
Ireland, Galway, UK.
4
Geophysical Observatory, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
Copyright 2006 by the American Geophysical Union.
0148-0227/06/2005JB003748$09.00
B05314 1 of 17
transitional rift zone [Maguire et al., 2003] (Figure 1). Our
seismicity study aims to evaluate the accommodation of
strain by faulting and magmatic processes in the MER. We
use accurately located hypocenters to map out variations in
thickness of the seismogenic layer. Patterns of seismicity are
then compared with the distribution of Quaternary faults
and magmatism to distinguish between models for strain
localization prior to continental breakup. Earthquake focal
mechanisms are used to determine fault slip parameters and
inverted for the extension direction across the Ethiopian rift.
These results are then compared to global and local plate
kinematic models. Our new seismicity data are interpreted
in light of structural, seismic refraction/wide-angle reflec-
tion, gravity, anisotropy, and crustal and mantle tomographic
studies to propose that extension via magma injection and
minor faulting characterizes the late stages of continental
rifting prior to breakup.
2. Tectonic Setting
[5] The Ethiopian rift system is on the Ethiopia-Yemen
plateau that is thought to have developed above a mantle
plume [e.g., Schilling, 1973; Ebinger and Sleep, 1998;
George et al., 1998]. A 2-km-thick sequence of flood
basalts and rhyolites erupted across the Ethiopia-Yemen
plateau region between 45 and 22 Ma [e.g., George et al.,
1998; Kieffer et al., 2004]. The majority erupted at 30 Ma
along the Red Sea margins [e.g., Hofmann et al., 1997;
Ukstins et al., 2002] coincident with the opening of the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden [Wolfenden et al., 2005]. Anoma-
lously low P wave velocities exist in the mantle beneath
Afar to depths of at least 410 km, but their connection with
the profound low-velocity zone in the lower mantle beneath
southern Africa is debated [e.g., Debayle et al., 2001;
Benoit et al., 2003; Montelli et al., 2004].
[6] The MER forms one arm of the complex Afar triple
junction zone (Figure 2). Rifting initiated in the southern
and central Main Ethiopian rift between 18 and 15 Ma but
the northern Main Ethiopian rift only developed after
11 Ma [WoldeGabriel et al., 1990; Wolfenden et al.,
2004]. Between 12 and 10 Ma, the southern Red Sea margin
propagated southward as the MER propagated NE, effec-
tively linking the southern Red Sea and Ethiopian rifts, and
Figure 1. EAGLE permanent broadband seismic stations used for earthquake location with respect to
major border faults and magmatic segments of the Main Ethiopian rift (MER). Grey triangles are phase 1
stations (October 2001 to January 2003), white triangles are phase 2 stations (October 2002 to January
2003), white circles are phase 3 stations (November 2002 to January 2003), and white squares are the
IRIS GSN permanent stations FURI and permanent stations AAE and WNDE. The inset shows the
topographic relief, plates, and rift zones: A, Arabia; D, Danakil; N, Nubian Plate; S, Somalian Plate; RS,
Red Sea rift; GA, Gulf of Aden rift.
B05314 KEIR ET AL.: ETHIOPIAN RIFT SEISMICITY
2 of 17
B05314
forming a triple junction for the first time [Wolfenden et al.,
2004].
[7] The northern Main Ethiopian rift is a series of linked
half grabens bounded by steep NE striking Miocene border
faults [WoldeGabriel et al., 1990; Wolfenden et al., 2004]
(Figure 1). Structural patterns suggest a change from
N130E to N105E directed extension sometime in the
interval 6.6 to 3 Ma [Boccaletti et al., 1998; Wolfenden et
al., 2004]. During this time period extensional strain mi-
grated from border faults to smaller offset approximately
N10E striking faults and aligned eruptive centers in the
central rift valley [Wolfenden et al., 2004]. The <20 km
wide, right-stepping, en echelon zones of magmatism and
faulting are referred to as magmatic segments [Ebinger and
Casey, 2001]. GPS measurements show that approximately
80% of present-day extension across the MER is localized
within these magmatic segments [Bilham et al., 1999]. The
magmatic segments in the center of the rift are underlain by
20-km-wide, high-velocity (V
p
> 6.5 km/s) elongate
bodies that are interpreted as cooled mafic intrusions
[Keranen et al., 2004; Mackenzie et al., 2005]. These
magmatic segments are characterized by relative positive
Bouguer anomalies [Mahatsente et al., 1999; Tiberi et al.,
2005]. Historic fissural basalt flows at Fentale and Kone
volcanoes as recently as 1810 indicate ongoing volcanism
in magmatic segments [Harris, 1844].
[8] The northern Main Ethiopian rift shows a northward
increase in crustal extension and magmatic modification
[Tiberi et al., 2005; Maguire et al., 2006; Stuart et al.,
2006]. Crustal thickness beneath the MER decreases from
38 km in the south beneath the caldera lakes to 24 km
beneath Fentale volcano in the southern Afar depression
[Dugda et al., 2005; Maguire et al., 2006] (Figure 1). The
along-axis thinning is consistent with a northward along-
axis decrease in effective elastic thickness and seismogenic
layer thickness [Ebinger and Hayward, 1996]. Seismic
refraction/wide-angle reflection data show 40-km-thick
crust beneath the southeastern plateau, whereas the western
side of the rift is underlain by 45- to 50-km-thick crust with
a 10- to 15-km high-velocity lower crust believed to be
underplate [Mackenzie et al., 2005].
[9] Geochemical and seismic data provide constraints on
melting and melt emplacement beneath the MER. The major
element compositions of Quaternary mafic lavas from the
MER show the onset of melting occurs in the lower crust
and upper subcontinental lithospheric mantle [Rooney et al.,
2005]. This is consistent with P and S wave tomographic
models that show anomalous low-velocity zones in the
upper mantle beneath the rift, attributed to a combination
of higher temperatures and the presence of partial melt
[Bastow et al., 2005]. Both the large amount of SKS
splitting and the rift parallel orientation of the fast polari-
zation direction led Kendall et al. [2005] to propose that
partial melt beneath the MER rises through dikes that
penetrate through the thinned lithosphere. Shear wave
splitting in local earthquakes beneath the MER shows that
anisotropy is highest in zones of diking, and it suggests that
Figure 2. Past and present constraints on plate kinematics in the Afar triple junction zone. A, Arabia;
D, Danakil; N, Nubian Plate; S, Somalian Plate; RS, Red Sea rift; GA, Gulf of Aden rift; MER, Main
Ethiopian rift; TGD, Tendaho-Gobaad Discontinuity. (a) Pre-3.2 Ma tectonics of the Afar triple junction.
Relatively rigid blocks are shaded. Rift propagation directions are shown by light grey arrows. Thin dark
grey arrows show pre-3.2 Ma extension directions. (b) The 3.2 Ma to present and current plate motions
with respect to the Nubian plate; vector length scaled to extensional velocity. Along-axis propagation
direction is shown by light grey arrows.
3 of 17
B05314
melt-induced anisotropy deeper in the lithosphere continues
into the upper crust [Keir et al., 2005].
[10] The orientation of present-day extension across the
Ethiopian rift remains controversial. Laser ranging and GPS
data show that the northern Ethiopian rift over the period
19691997 extended in a direction of N108E 10 at 4.5
0.1 mm/yr [Bilham et al., 1999] (Figure 2). The velocity
field calculated from permanent GPS stations on Africa
since 1996 shows opening of 67 mm/yr at an azimuth of
approximately N95E [Fernandes et al., 2004; Calais et al.,
2006] (Figure 2). Global and regional plate tectonic models
by Jestin et al. [1994] and Chu and Gordon [1999] average
plate kinematic indicators from the past 3.2 Ma and find
similar extension directions and extensional velocities of
N102E at 5 1 mm/yr and N96E 9 at 6.0 1.5 mm/yr,
respectively. Active Quaternary volcanoes in the MER have
elliptical shapes with their long axes in the direction
N105E [Casey et al., 2006]. Source parameters of tele-
seismically recorded earthquakes show normal, normal left-
oblique and sinistral strike-slip motions with the horizontal
component of T axes between N135E and N90E in
orientation [e.g., Ayele and Arvidsson, 1998; Foster and
Jackson, 1998; Ayele, 2000; Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003]
(Figure 3). Kinematic indicators on Quaternary faults that
dip 7075 and strike N1035E indicate a principal dip-
slip normal movement with a mean direction of approxi-
mately N95E [Pizzi et al., 2006]. However, Acocella and
Korme [2002] matched pairs of asperities along the sides of
Quaternary extension fractures to show a mean extension
direction of N128E 20. Korme et al. [1997] used the
orientation of extension fractures to determine an extension
direction of NW-SE, similar to Wolfenden et al.s [2004]
N130E estimate of Miocene-Pliocene extension direction.
3. Seismic Activity
[11] Seismicity data are lacking from the Ethiopian
rift due to previous sparse station coverage [Ayele and
Figure 3. Seismic activity of the Horn of Africa since 1960. Earthquake locations and magnitudes are
from Ayele [1995] for the time period 19601997 and the NEIC catalogue (19972005). Earthquake
focal mechanisms are from Harvard CMT catalogue, Foster and Jackson [1998], Ayele and Arvidsson
[1998], Ayele [2000], and Hofstetter and Beyth [2003]. Quaternary volcanoes in the MER are shown by
triangles.
4 of 17
B05314
Kulhanek, 1997]. The earliest documented seismic event in
the Ethiopian rift is a swarm of earthquakes in 18411842
near Debre Birhan which caused the destruction of the town
of Ankober by landslides [Gouin, 1979] (Figure 3). Histor-
ical records spanning the past 150 years show that large
magnitude earthquakes are rare in the MER [Gouin, 1979].
The record of seismicity from 1960 to 2000 compiled from
teleseismic and regional catalogues complete down to M
L
4 shows that the majority of earthquakes are located along

the highly eroded southern Red Sea escarpment north of
9.5N, 38.7E [e.g., Kebede et al., 1989; Ayele, 1995; Ayele
and Kulhanek, 1997; Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003; Ayele et
al., 2006b] (Figure 3).
[12] An estimate of seismic moment release since 1960
shows that more than 50% of extension across the MER is
accommodated aseismically [Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003].
During this period swarms of low-magnitude events have
been located near Debre Birhan [Gouin, 1979], and near
Fentale volcano in 1981 and 1989 where NNE striking
surface fissures developed following earthquake swarms of
M
L
< 4 [Asfaw, 1982]. Similar fissures oriented N20E and
N45E are observed elsewhere along the axis of the MER
and attributed to tectonic processes [Asfaw, 1982, 1998].
Tension fractures cut welded tuffs at Fentale and Kone
volcanoes and suggest a fissuring episode within the past
7000 years [Williams et al., 2004]. In the year preceding this
study, the seismicity was concentrated in the Fentale-Dofen
and Angelele magmatic segments [Ayele et al., 2006a].
From mid-October 2003, after removal of the EAGLE
seismic network, a 1 month long earthquake swarm with
a main shock of M
L
5 was recorded by the Geophysical
Observatory and reported by local inhabitants near Dofen
volcano (Geophysical Observatory, Addis Ababa University,
personal communication). The epicenter of the main shock
is estimated to be 9.2N 40.1E from the locations of
damaged buildings and trees, reported scree slides in the
area, and personal accounts of ground shaking (Figure 3).
[13] Hypocenter depths of 510 km have been reported
for seismic swarms in the MER and southern Afar [Asfaw,
1982; Ayele et al., 2006a]. Teleseismically recorded earth-
quakes on the eastern side of the MER have been located
between 8 and 12 km depth [Ayele, 2000].
4. EAGLE Seismic Data
4.1. Seismic Network
[14] Local earthquakes were recorded on 29 broadband
seismic stations (EAGLE phase I) that were operational
between late October 2001 and January 2003 (Figure 1).
These three-component Guralp CMG-3T and CMG-40TD
instruments recorded data at 50 Hz. Additional data over this
time period was acquired from the permanent broadband
stations AAE, FURI, and WNDE maintained by the Geo-
physical Observatory, Addis Ababa University. The number
of seismic stations was increased during the final 4 months
of the experiment with the deployment of an additional 50
CMG-6TD instruments recording at 100 Hz. These stations
were deployed at 15 km spacing in the rift valley and in the
Ankober region, and were operational between October
2002 and February 2003 (EAGLE phase II). For security
reasons the broadband stations were located in compounds
attached to schools, clinics and plantation offices. A further
100 CMG-6TD instruments deployed at 5 km spacing
across the rift valley and adjacent plateaus were operational
between November 2002 and January 2003 (EAGLE phase
III). Three local earthquakes were recorded on up to 600
single-component, short-period, Reftek Texan instru-
ments deployed for 8 days at 1 km spacing both along
and across the rift valley. During the daytime, the level of
high-frequency cultural noise (>1 Hz) could be high. At
night, however, noise levels were significantly reduced.
4.2. Arrival Time Analysis
[15] Earthquakes were detected on the continuous seismic
data of the phase I array with a short-term amplitude/long-
term amplitude (STA/LTA) trigger algorithm with windows
1 s and 60 s in length respectively. The algorithm scanned
the continuous data, filtered using a Butterworth filter with
corner frequencies of 215 Hz, and flagged time windows
when an STA/LTA ratio of 20 was exceeded within a 120 s
time window on two or more stations. Arrival times of P
and S phases were initially measured on phase I data filtered
using the same Butterworth filter. Arrival times from phase
II and phase III seismic stations were added to earthquakes
that occurred during the respective operation periods of
these arrays. Arrival times of P phases were assigned a
quality factor of 0, 1, 2, or 3 according to estimated
measurement errors of 0.05 s, 0.1 s, 0.15 s, and 0.2 s,
respectively, and S wave quality factors of 0, 1, 2, and 3
were assigned to arrivals with estimated measurement errors
of 0.1 s, 0.175 s, 0.25 s, and 0.3 s, respectively. A total of
13,388 P wave and 12,725 S wave arrivals were picked
from 2139 local earthquakes.
5. Methodology
5.1. Earthquake Location and Magnitude
[16] In total, 2139 local earthquakes recorded at four or
more stations were located with the Hypo2000 algorithm
[Klein, 2002]. A one-dimensional (1-D) P wave velocity
model and V
p
/V
s
ratio of 1.75, calculated from P and S wave
traveltimes, were used for the initial earthquake locations.
The weighting of arrival times was dependent on the quality
factor assigned to the phase, with P wave quality factors of
0, 1, 2, and 3 given full (1), 0.75, 0.5, and 0.25 weights
respectively. S waves were given half weighting relative to
P waves of the same quality factor.
[17] The 1-D P wave velocity model and station correc-
tions were determined by simultaneously relocating earth-
quakes and inverting for velocity structure with VELEST
[Kissling et al., 1995]. Only earthquakes with eight or more P
arrivals, an azimuthal gap of less than 180, and an epicentral
distance to the nearest station of less than twice the focal
depth were used to invert for the 1-D P wave velocity model.
280 earthquakes satisfied the selection criteria and can be
considered as well-located earthquakes. Additional con-
straints on the 1-D P wave model were provided by the
controlled source experiment [Mackenzie et al., 2005].
[18] The 280 well-located earthquakes were subsequently
relocated using a 3-D P wave velocity model determined
with SIMULP [e.g., Eberhart-Philips and Michael, 1998;
Haslinger et al., 1999]. Hypocenter accuracy of the earth-
quakes was tested by relocating shots and randomly adjust-
ing horizontal and vertical positions of hypocenters. From
5 of 17
B05314
these tests we estimate hypocenter accuracy for earthquakes
of about 600 m in horizontal directions and 2000 m in
depth.
[19] Local magnitude was estimated using the maximum
body wave displacement amplitudes (zero to peak) measured
on a simulated Wood-Anderson seismograph and distance
correction terms of Hutton and Boore [1987]. The power law
cumulative frequency-magnitude distribution [Gutenberg
and Richter, 1956] is used to describe the size distribution
of earthquakes recorded within the EAGLE network in the
MER. The b value is calculated using the maximum likeli-
hood method [Aki, 1965]. The standard deviation of the b
value is used as an error estimate [Shi and Bolt, 1982].
5.2. Focal Mechanisms and Stress Inversion
[20] Focal mechanisms were computed from P and SH
wave polarities using the grid search algorithm FOCMEC
[Snoke et al., 1984]. A double-couple source type is
assumed as all the events selected are characterized by
high-frequency content, sharp first arrivals and clear S
phases at the nearest stations. Hypocenter coordinates were
determined by locating the event with the 3-D velocity
model. A fault plane solution was only attempted if an
earthquake was located within the network, the nearest
station was within an epicentral distance of twice the focal
depth, and the solution had a minimum of 10 P wave
polarities located in at least three quadrants of the focal
sphere. Polarity errors of neither P nor SH waves were
tolerated in the grid search algorithm. In total, 33 well-
constrained and unambiguous fault plane solutions that have
a maximum 20 uncertainty in either strike or dip of both
nodal planes were determined. This new data set is supple-
mented by the three well-constrained focal mechanisms
determined from data at regional and teleseismic distances
[Ayele, 2000; Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003] (CMT, Harvard).
[21] The focal mechanisms were used to invert for the
regional stress tensor with the linear, least squares stress
inversion method of Michael [1984] that minimizes the angle
Figure 4. Seismicity of the MER from October 2001 to January 2003. Earthquakes were located with
the minimum 1-D P wave velocity model determined from local earthquake tomography. Only events
recorded by at least four stations and located within the array of seismic stations are displayed. Heavy
black lines show major border faults; ellipses mark Quaternary magmatic segments. The star shows the
location of the October 2003 earthquake swarm near Dofen volcano.
6 of 17
B05314
between the predicted tangential traction on the fault plane
and the observed slip direction. The 95% confidence regions
were determined with the bootstrap resampling method
[Michael, 1987a, 1987b] and used as an error estimate. The
relatively small data set and estimated focal mechanism
errors of this study make this method most appropriate to
both accurately determine the stress orientation and ade-
quately estimate the confidence limits [Hardebeck and
Hauksson, 2001].
[22] The inversion procedure assumes that the four stress
parameters are constant over the spatial and temporal extent
of the data set and that earthquakes slip in the direction of the
resolved shear stress on the fault plane [Michael, 1984]. The
uniform stress tensor that best explains the mechanisms is
expressed by the three principal stress axes (where s
1
, s
2
and
s
3
are the maximum, intermediate, and minimum principal
stresses, respectively) and the stress ratio. An average misfit
angle b, which measures the difference between the observed
slip direction and the predicted direction of maximum
tangential traction, is computed and used as a measure of
the success of the inversion. The steepest nodal plane of the
normal fault focal mechanisms and approximately NE strik-
ing nodal planes of the strike-slip mechanisms were chosen
as fault planes for the inversion in accord with geological
observations [e.g., Abebe et al., 1998a; Wolfenden et al.,
2004; Casey et al., 2006; Pizzi et al., 2006].
6. Results
6.1. Hypocenter Distribution
[23] From October 2001 to January 2003, 2139 local
earthquakes were recorded by the EAGLE network. Of
these, 1957 earthquakes were located within the network
of seismic stations (Figure 4). Concentrated seismic activity
occurs in the Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment, which is a
20-km-wide, 70-km-long zone that extends from Fentale
caldera to Dofen volcano (Figure 4). Earthquakes are
located in a 10-km-wide, NNE trending zone that extends
40 km north of Fentale volcano where the pattern of
seismicity is mirrored by the surface expression of the
closely spaced, small offset Quaternary faults and fractures
(Figure 5). Three distinct earthquake clusters are located
near the PlioceneRecent Dofen volcano (Figures 4 and 6).
The distribution of earthquakes located with the 3-D P wave
velocity model show that these clusters are elongate ap-
proximately north to approximately NNE, parallel to the
surface expression of major Quaternary fault systems that
cut lavas erupted from fissures (Figure 6).
[24] The frequency-depth distribution of earthquakes
within the Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment located with
the 3-D P wave velocity model shows most earthquakes are
814 km deep (Figure 6 and 7). Hypocenter depths are 8
10 km deep near Fentale and Dofen volcanoes but are up to
16 km deep in between these major eruptive centers
(Figure 6). The temporal distribution of seismicity in the
Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment is characterized by earth-
quake swarms that punctuate largely aseismic periods
(Figure 8).
[25] Minor seismicity is located within the Boset and
Aluto-Gedemsa magmatic segments (Figure 4). Regions
between the right stepping en echelon magmatic segments
are largely aseismic.
[26] Seismic activity south of the Aluto-Gedemsa mag-
matic segment is more diffuse than to the north (Figure 4).
Figure 5. Example of seismicity located near Quaternary eruptive volcanic centers and faults of the
Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment plotted on a gray scale Landsat 741 image. The inset shows the
position of the image with respect to border faults and magmatic segments in the MER.
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This rift sector lacks the narrow zone of localized faults and
eruptive centers characterizing the magmatic segments
(Figure 10). Epicenters are located within a 30- to 40-km-
wide zone of Quaternary faults along the eastern side of the
rift valley. The amount of seismicity in this rift sector is
relatively low and lacks the periods of swarm activity
observed further north in the Fentale-Dofen magmatic
segment (Figure 8).
[27] The exception to the pattern of correlated seismicity
and Quaternary eruptive centers is the long-lived seismicity
at the intersection of the NE striking Miocene MER and
north striking Oligocene Red Sea structures near Ankober
Figure 6. Earthquake locations determined using the 3-D P wave velocity model in the Ankober region
and Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment, plotted on 90 m resolution SRTM topographic data. The
earthquakes were recorded with eight or more P wave arrivals and have an azimuthal gap of less than
180 and an epicentral distance to the nearest station of less than twice the focal depth. From Ankober
(grey triangle) south, the uplifted rift flank of the 30 Ma southern Red Sea was warped southeastward
into the northern MER after 11 Ma. Profiles A-A
0
and B-B
0
project earthquakes within 30 km of the line
of section onto the profile. The thickened portions of the profiles show where the profile crosses the
Fentale-Dofen magmatic segment.
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(Figures 4 and 6). This intersection zone has the highest
relief in the region, with deeply incised valleys. Earthquakes
are localized in a N-S oriented cluster on the northwest
margin of the rift valley at 9.5N 39.75E. The cluster lies at
the southern end of the approximately north striking
Ankober border fault system, which is a series of closely
spaced high-angle normal faults and tight monoclinal folds
[Wolfenden et al., 2004]. The rate of seismicity in this area
was high for the first 6 months of the experiment and
characterized by frequent swarm activity (Figure 8). Focal
depths are concentrated between 10 and 13 km with activity
observed down to 18 km (Figures 6 and 7).
[28] A minor, roughly E-W elongate cluster of earth-
quakes is located near Addis Ababa (Figure 4). The struc-
ture of this area is dominated by the east striking Ambo
lineament, a fault zone active since the late Miocene
[Abebe et al., 1998b]. Isolated but relatively deep earth-
quakes (1521 km) characterize the remaining earthquake
activity of the Ethiopian plateau. The southeastern plateau
shows a lack of activity except for a small cluster on the
southern margin of the Gulf of Aden rift at 9N 40.5E
(Figure 4).
6.2. Seismicity Rate
[29] The annual cumulative frequency-magnitude distri-
bution of the 1957 earthquakes recorded within the EAGLE
network shows that the seismicity catalogue is complete
above M
L
2.1 (Figure 9). The largest magnitude earthquake
is only M
L
3.9. The estimated b value using the maximum
likelihood method of Aki [1965] is 1.13 0.05, and this
slope intercepts the y axis at 4.5. This is the first reliable b
value estimate for the MER as the historic record is too
sparse for a reliable estimate [Ayele and Kulhanek, 1997].
Hofstetter and Beyth [2003] obtained a b value of 0.83
0.08 for a larger area that encompasses both the MER and
southern Ethiopian Rift to 5N.
[30] The estimated b value of 1.13 0.05 for the MER is
similar to b values of between 1.05 and 1.3 calculated for
the oceanic southern Red Sea and Gulf of Aden rift systems
[Ayele and Kulhanek, 1997; Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003].
Lower b values of between 0.7 and 0.9 are observed in the
less evolved continental rifts in Kenya and Tanzania [e.g.,
Tongue et al., 1992; Langston et al., 1998; Ibs-von Seht et
al., 2001].
6.3. Focal Mechanisms and Stress Inversion
[31] In total, 33 well-constrained and unambiguous fault
plane solutions that have a maximum 20 uncertainty in
either strike or dip of both nodal planes were determined
(Table 1 and Figures 10 and 11). This new data set is
supplemented by the three well-constrained focal mecha-
nisms determined from data at regional and teleseismic
distances [Ayele, 2000; Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003] (CMT,
Harvard) (Table 2 and Figure 10).
[32] Focal mechanisms of earthquakes located along the
axis of the MER and in the Ankober fault system show
predominantly normal dip slip on steep faults that strike
approximately north to approximately NNE (Figures 10
and 12). Focal mechanisms are subparallel to the dominant
N10E orientation of Quaternary faults in the Ethiopian rift
[Boccaletti et al., 1998; Wolfenden et al., 2004; Casey et al.,
2006] (Figure 10). A few of the normal dip-slip focal
mechanisms have slip planes that strike approximately
NE, parallel to the pre-3.5 Ma, N40E striking faults
(Figure 12). The exceptions to these normal dip-slip focal
mechanisms are the strike-slip earthquakes below Fentale
and Boset volcanoes, interpreted as left-lateral motion on
approximately NE to approximately ENE striking faults
(Figure 12). However, both normal and strike-slip focal
mechanisms show near horizontal T axes striking N80E
N130E (Figures 11 and 12).
[33] The results of the stress inversion using the 36 focal
mechanisms in the MER show that the trend/plunge of the
minimum principal stress is 283/6 with a mean misfit
angle (b) standard deviation of 10.9 7.0 (Figure 12).
This mean misfit angle is comparable to results of stress
tensor inversions from focal mechanisms within uniform
stress fields in other studies: 1017 along fault segments
of the San Andreas fault zone [Jones, 1988]; and 624 for
data sets in the Swiss Alps and northern Alpine foreland
[Kastrup et al., 2004]. However, a well-resolved stress
tensor requires that the data set contains a diverse range
of focal mechanisms. In our data set, only four strike-slip
focal mechanisms differ from the predominant dip slip on
approximately north to approximately NE striking faults.
Figure 7. Histograms of number of earthquakes per 1 km depth bin interval for the (a) Fentale Dofen
magmatic segment and (b) Ankober region. The hypocenters were located with the 3-D P wave velocity
model and are displayed on Figure 6.
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This unavoidable lack of diversity in type of focal mecha-
nism reduces the resolution of the stress tensor.
7. Discussion
7.1. Distribution of Seismicity
[34] This study recorded seismicity for 15 months and
thus provides a snapshot of active deformation in the MER.
However, the pattern of Quaternary faults and fissures that
cut recent lavas and historic seismicity data show that our
results are representative of the longer-term brittle strain
patterns in the rift [e.g., Asfaw, 1982, 1998; Williams et al.,
2004; Wolfenden et al., 2004; Ayele et al., 2006a; Casey et
al., 2006].
[35] The most striking feature of the recorded seismicity
in the MER is the coincidence of earthquake swarms and
the magmatic segments, which are the locus of Quaternary
volcanism. The inactivity of mid-Miocene border faults that
define the overall approximately NE trend of the rift is
reflected in the minor geodetic strain on the rift flanks
[Bilham et al., 1999] and lack of large magnitude earth-
quakes on border faults over the last 50 years [Ayele and
Kulhanek, 1997]. This inactivity is inferred from historical
records spanning the past 150 years [Gouin, 1979], and
morphology of the border faults [Boccaletti et al., 1998;
Wolfenden et al., 2004].
[36] The exception is the seismicity observed at the
intersection between the north striking Red Sea rift and
the NE striking MER. The cluster of earthquakes is located
on the north striking Ankober fault system that formed at
11 Ma to link the two oblique rift systems. Although fault
and seismicity patterns show that the locus of strain has
shifted to the Quaternary magmatic segments in the central
rift, this high point along the rift flank still experiences
strain [Wolfenden et al., 2004]. The strike of the Ankober
fault system is oblique to the NE trending MER, and
Figure 9. Log annual cumulative number of earthquakes
against magnitude plot of earthquakes recorded within the
EAGLE network. Mc marks M
L
2.1, above which the
catalogue is complete. The slope of the straight line (b
value) is 1.13 0.05.
Figure 8. (a) Seismicity of the MER recorded by the
EAGLE network with the three regions that experienced the
most activity highlighted: 1, Ankober area; 2, Fentale-
Dofen magmatic segment; and 3, south of Aluto-Gedemsa
magmatic segment. (b) Cumulative number of earthquakes
versus recording time of the regions 1, 2, and 3.
(c) Cumulative number of earthquakes versus recording time
of all the earthquakes recorded within the EAGLE network.
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focused deformation in this complex zone of rift intersection
may be caused by flexure accommodating differential
subsidence in the Red Sea rift relative to the younger
MER. Further north of Ankober, the Red Sea rift margin
is seismically active as shown in historical records, regional
catalogues and recent seismicity [Ayele et al., 2006b]. Stress
is concentrated in this area by the large lateral density
contrast and difference in lithospheric thickness between
the uplifted western Ethiopian plateau and Afar depression
[e.g., Dugda et al., 2005; Tiberi et al., 2005].
[37] A number of lines of evidence indicate that exten-
sional strain is accommodated by a combination of dike
injection and faulting within magmatic segments, as out-
lined below. For the period 19602000, a comparison of the
expected released seismic moment and observed seismic
moment shows that less than 50% of extension across the
MER is accommodated by rapid slip on faults [Hofstetter
and Beyth, 2003]. At the surface, GPS measurements show
that approximately 80% of present-day extension across the
MER is localized in a 20-km-wide zone of Quaternary
faulting and magmatism [Bilham et al., 1999]. This narrow
zone of localized deformation is also observed in the brittle
upper crust from patterns of seismicity. Elongate clusters of
earthquakes are associated with observed faults, fissures and
active eruptive centers in the Fentale-Dofen magmatic
segment. The swarms of low-magnitude earthquakes are
concentrated at 814 km depth which coincides with the
top of the 20- to 30-km-wide zone of extensive mafic
intrusions at 810 km depth [Keranen et al., 2004]. Seismic
anisotropy of the upper crust is highest in the magmatic
segments and attributed to melt-filled cracks and dikes
aligned perpendicular to the minimum stress [Keir et al.,
2005]. Crustal strain across the MER is accommodated
within the magmatic segments by magma intrusion below
10 km, and by both faulting and dike intrusion in the
brittle seismogenic zone.
[38] The Debre Zeit and Butajira chains of Quaternary
eruptive centers located west of the magmatic segments are
largely aseismic, and they show little structural or morpho-
logical evidence of active strain. Xenolith data and tomo-
graphic models show these chains are underlain by hot
asthenosphere [Bastow et al., 2005; Rooney et al., 2005],
but they lack the large relative positive Bouguer anomaly
and high-velocity crust of the magmatic segments [e.g.,
Tiberi et al., 2005]. These chains may be either unfavorably
oriented failed magmatic segments, or incipient zones of
strain.
[39] In the magmatic segments of the MER, seismicity,
geodetic and structural data all show a localization of strain
in zones of Quaternary magmatism. The earthquakes in the
magmatic segments are concentrated above axial mafic
intrusions and may be induced by dike injection. Models
of the elastic stress field surrounding propagating fluid-
filled cracks show that earthquakes of magnitude >1 can be
induced ahead of a propagating dike if the ambient stress
field is near to failure, and slip is likely to occur along
preexisting fractures [Rubin and Gillard, 1998]. Earthquake
swarms are assumed to occur near the crack tips due to the
increasing stress caused by concentrated internal fluids.
Spatially, swarms reflect areas of magma intrusion. The
correlation we observe in the MER between seismic swarms
and magma injection has been documented near active
volcanoes in other settings, suggesting the swarms are
causally linked to magma intrusion. For example, seismicity
Table 1. Earthquake Source Parameters Determined From EAGLE Data
Event Date, year/month/day Time, UT Latitude, N Longitude, E Depth, km Strike Dip Rake M
L
1 2002/01/16 2122:39.44 9.239 40.021 13.25 180.00 50.00 90.00 1.7
2 2002/01/17 0138:03.91 8.154 39.002 20.29 2.27 60.05 93.46 2.01
3 2002/01/18 0142:40.83 8.998 39.918 10.23 359.67 54.23 97.40 2.82
4 2002/02/17 0238:15.44 9.470 39.692 11.86 171.52 66.00 90.00 3.21
5 2002/05/02 2143:23.17 9.122 39.984 13.16 211.58 56.38 80.38 2.64
6 2002/07/04 0259:42.35 9.173 39.966 15.84 214.40 60.08 85.38 3.54
7 2002/07/31 0154:38.27 9.444 39.677 11.25 172.76 66.06 85.62 2.34
8 2002/08/21 0127:23.93 8.951 39.711 13.85 192.88 60.13 84.23 2.14
9 2002/10/08 1937:43.42 9.199 39.949 12.65 225.74 68.06 85.69 2.03
10 2002/10/09 1819:37.91 9.193 39.987 12.52 223.13 68.19 64.02 2.14
11 2002/10/10 1915:51.93 9.066 39.965 14.59 201.49 58.30 66.30 1.17
12 2002/10/19 2125:25.96 10.130 39.957 15.47 198.07 59.38 71.32 2.83
13 2002/11/04 0017:42.49 8.432 39.673 12.91 2.54 51.18 83.58 1.17
14 2002/11/04 0024:55.49 7.812 38.976 6.88 183.82 63.32 109.10 1.71
15 2002/11/05 2242:14.69 9.728 39.370 14.65 29.29 66.39 79.08 1.92
16 2002/11/07 0124:31.21 9.492 40.040 15.48 216.30 46.04 74.63 1.89
17 2002/12/03 1602:52.26 7.481 38.553 13.63 183.71 68.01 92.16 2.55
18 2002/12/03 2010:01.33 7.700 38.911 12.43 190.00 45.00 90.00 2.34
19 2002/12/04 1341:09.57 8.873 39.836 9.57 209.92 60.00 90.00 1.97
20 2002/12/13 1736:21.66 9.494 40.034 15.79 183.69 64.27 98.89 2.2
21 2002/12/15 0837:35.26 7.428 38.648 8.61 197.95 50.00 90.00 3.06
22 2002/12/15 1915:38.82 7.430 38.657 6.42 210.49 70.38 78.31 2.89
23 2002/12/15 2035:05.22 9.548 40.144 19.01 190.55 66.56 103.10 1.93
24 2002/12/17 2212:36.10 9.001 39.907 8.44 64.49 88.17 0.81 1.4
25 2002/12/17 2315:10.76 8.998 39.901 9.17 71.95 80.73 3.78 1.55
26 2002/12/23 0627:49.95 9.446 39.680 10.43 181.99 60.00 90.00 2.45
27 2002/12/26 1947:51.98 9.221 40.014 12.96 213.15 62.02 87.74 3.17
28 2002/12/26 1955:17.90 9.221 40.011 12.65 219.89 60.00 90.00 2.41
29 2003/01/02 0852:45.37 9.246 40.013 13.91 195.00 65.00 90.00 2.37
30 2003/01/10 1213:56.08 8.611 39.447 7.00 42.64 85.25 13.19 3.44
31 2003/01/13 2106:00.76 9.491 39.681 11.17 168.45 56.21 97.23 1.97
32 2003/01/20 2116:22.90 7.475 38.823 11.74 206.12 42.96 104.76 2.52
33 2003/01/21 0808:18.85 7.495 38.822 11.41 197.78 37.16 117.15 2.9
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leading to the Mount Etna eruption of 2001 was character-
ized by swarms elongate parallel to surface fractures and
parallel to the maximum compressive stress determined
from focal mechanisms [Musumeci et al., 2004]. This
seismic activity was interpreted as being caused by dike
emplacement prior to the eruption. By analogy to these
other locales and independent data from the MER, we
propose that the observed seismicity in magmatic segments
above axial mafic intrusions is induced by magma injection
into the midcrust to upper crust (Figure 13).
[40] The along-axis segmentation of the MER is reflected
at the surface by the right-stepping en echelon patterns of
Quaternary faults and aligned cones within discrete 20-km-
wide, 60-km-long magmatic segments. The pattern of
seismicity interpreted in light of other data provides clues
as to the origin of this along-axis segmentation. At 810 km
depth subsurface, the segmentation is evident as discrete
axial mafic intrusions imaged by crustal tomography
[Keranen et al., 2004]. These mafic bodies correlate with
along-axis velocity variations in the midcrust and lower
crust, implying that mafic intrusions extend to the base of
the crust [Maguire et al., 2006]. Extension in the midcrust
to lower crust is thus likely accommodated within a narrow
zone of magma injection. The onset of melting likely occurs
in the lower crust and subcontinental lithosphere [Rooney et
al., 2005]. The correlation between the orientation of
lithospheric anisotropy and the distribution of Quaternary
strain and magmatism shows that vertically oriented dikes
with partial melt crosscut the lithosphere [Kendall et al.,
2005]. The concentrated seismicity in the Fentale-Dofen
magmatic segment and largely aseismic Boset-Kone and
Aluto-Gedemsa magmatic segments is indirect evidence
that episodic rifting events within one magmatic segment
are independent of other magmatic segments. This suggests
magma source regions are spatially and temporally discrete.
[41] The pattern of seismicity observed in the MER is
strikingly similar to patterns in oceanic rift zones where
seismic swarms are induced in already stressed lithosphere
by injection of magma. For example, seismic swarms in the
Hengill volcanic area in southwestern Iceland are concen-
trated at the base of the seismogenic layer and have
predominantly double-couple mechanisms [Feigl et al.,
2000]. Calculations of Coulomb failure stress suggest that
magma injection to 7 km subsurface is sufficient to trigger
earthquakes in the overlying crust. Clusters of seismicity
marked a narrow zone parallel to fissure swarms in the
Krafla spreading segment of northern Iceland 58 years
after a dike injection episode [Arnott and Foulger, 1994].
Figure 10. Faults that cut <1.9 Ma lavas, and Quaternary eruptive centers comprising magmatic
segments, relative to the Miocene border faults bounding Main Ethiopian rift basins [after Casey et al.,
2006]. Fault plane solutions are lower hemisphere projections. The size of the solution is scaled to
magnitude between M
L
1.17 and 5.3.
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This pattern was attributed to the release of stress as the
crust returns to equilibrium in the neighborhood of the new
dikes [Arnott and Foulger, 1994]. Alternatively, Cattin et
al. [2005] reproduce geodetic observations constrained by
heat flow and seismicity in the Asal-Ghoubbet rift using a
viscoelastic model of semicontinuous dike intrusion in a
narrow zone at depth. Episodes of magma injection explain
the localized seismicity patterns and high slip rates on faults
close to the rift axis, as well as geodetically measured
ground deformation.
7.2. Style of Faulting and Extension Direction
[42] The focal mechanisms provide a uniform picture for
the pattern of faulting and stress field orientation of the
Ethiopian rift. Focal mechanisms indicate predominantly
normal dip slip on faults that strike approximately north to
approximately NNE, parallel to the dominant N10E strike
of faults that cut Quaternary lavas [e.g., Casey et al., 2006].
Field observations and geodetic data of volcanic rift zones
in Iceland and Hawaii indicate that dike intrusions are most
often associated with normal faulting and fracturing at the
surface [Rubin, 1992]. The predominance of normal dip
slip, and resulting lack of diversity in our focal mechanism
data set, is thus consistent with dike-induced seismicity in
the MER.
[43] The normal, oblique, and left-lateral strike-slip dis-
placement on NE striking fault planes most likely occurs on
pre-3.5 Ma, N40E striking faults that probably formed
under a NW-SE extension direction. These have most likely
been reactivated as N40E striking ramps and transfer faults
to link N10E striking fault segments formed under the
approximately N105E extension direction during the Qua-
ternary [Wolfenden et al., 2004; Casey et al., 2006]. The
negligible block rotations about vertical axes in zones in
between magmatic segments suggests no throughgoing
transform faults have developed, thus supporting our inter-
pretation of the strike-slip focal mechanisms as left-lateral
approximately NE striking faults [Kidane et al., 2006].
[44] The N103E orientation of the minimum compres-
sive stress from focal mechanisms parallels, within errors,
the geodetically determined extension direction averaged
over the past 3.2 Myr [Jestin et al., 1994; Chu and Gordon,
1999] and current extension direction determined from
campaign and permanent GPS data [Bilham et al., 1999;
Fernandes et al., 2004; Calais et al., 2006]. Extension is
perpendicular to the strike of Quaternary faults, fissures and
aligned cones and is in agreement with structural studies
that show a WNW-ESE direction of extension during
Quaternary times [Boccaletti et al., 1998; Wolfenden et
al., 2004; Casey et al., 2006]. The current direction of
extension is thus perpendicular to the strike of Quaternary
volcanic chains and faults in the magmatic segments. The
right-stepping en echelon pattern at the surface may be
induced by approximately N105E directed extension above
an approximately NE striking low-velocity zone in the
upper mantle connecting the MER to the triple junction in
Afar [Benoit et al., 2003; Bastow et al., 2005].
8. Conclusions
[45] 1. From October 2001 to January 2003, 1957 earth-
quakes were located within the EAGLE network of broad-
Figure 11. A selection of focal mechanisms from this
study. Compressional P wave first motions are plotted as
circles and dilational first motions are plotted as triangles.
The compressional quadrants of the focal sphere are shaded
black. Each solution is labeled by earthquake origin time
GMT (year, month, day, hour, minute).
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band seismic stations in the northern Main Ethiopian rift
and on its uplifted rift flanks. The earthquake catalogue is
complete above M
L
2.1 and the b value is 1.13 0.05.
[46] 2. Excluding the MER-Red Sea rift intersection
zone at Ankober, seismicity within the rift is localized to
<20-km-wide, right-stepping, en echelon zones of Quater-
nary magmatism. Seismicity in these magmatic segments is
characterized by swarms of low-magnitude earthquakes
located in clusters that parallel Quaternary faults, fissures
and chains of eruptive centers. The earthquakes in the
magmatic segments are predominantly <14 km deep and
may be triggered by dike injection.
[47] 3. Seismic activity at Ankober may be caused by
flexure accommodating differential subsidence at the
oblique intersection of the <11 Ma MER and the older
Red Sea rift.
[48] 4. Earthquake focal mechanisms show predominantly
normal dip slip on faults striking approximately north to
approximately NNE. The orientation of the minimum com-
pressive stress determined from focal mechanisms is
N103E, consistent with geodetic data and global plate
kinematic constraints.
[49] 5. From integration of these results with other
geophysical and structural observations we propose that
present-day extension in the MER is localized to discrete
<20-km-wide en echelon magmatic segments, where exten-
sional strain in the upper crust is accommodated by both
dike intrusion and dike induced faulting. The individual
Table 2. Earthquake Source Parameters Determined in Other Studies
Event Date, year/month/day Time, UT Latitude, N Longitude, E Strike Dip Rake M
w
Data Source
34 1983/12/28 2308 7.03 38.60 176 51 81 5.3 Harvard CMT
35 1993/02/13 0225 8.33 39.91 221 87 7 4.9 Ayele [2000]
36 1995/01/20 0714 7.16 38.44 9 49 119 5.0 Hofstetter and Beyth [2003]
Figure 12. (a) Rose diagram of the orientation of the T axes of earthquake focal mechanisms. (b) Rose
diagram showing the strike of earthquake slip planes. (c) Lower hemisphere plot of the trend and plunge
of fault plane solution T axes (dark circles) and P axes (light triangles). (d) Results of the stress tensor
inversion. Circle shows s
3
, the minimum compressive stress. Square shows s
2
, the intermediate
compressive stress. Triangle shows s
3
, the maximum compressive stress. The 95% confidence limits are
shown by regions of grey shading.
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magmatic segments show large spatial and temporal varia-
tions in level of seismicity over the time period of the study,
suggesting magma source regions for separate magmatic
segments are spatially and temporally discrete.
[50] Acknowledgments. We thank SEIS-UK for the use of instru-
ments and A. Brisbourne for assistance in the field, with data management
and analysis. We thank A. Page, C. Tiberi, and A. Intawong for help with
data acquisition and processing. D. Cornwell, I. Bastow, and M. Casey are
thanked for their significant contributions to this study. Laike Asfaw,
Bekele Abebe, Dereje Ayalew, Gezahegn Yirgu, and Tesfaye Kidane of
Addis Ababa University are thanked for support throughout the project. We
thank Stephanie Prejean, Kevin Furlong, and an anonymous reviewer who
helped improve this manuscript. Our research was supported by NERC
grant NER/A/S/2000/01004 and NERC studentship NER/S/A/2002/10547.
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A. Ayele, Geophysical Observatory, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box

1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
E. Daly, Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, National University of
Ireland, Galway, UK.
C. J. Ebinger and D. Keir, Department of Geology, Royal Holloway
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G. W. Stuart, School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds,
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1
Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 96, No. 6, pp. 1, December 2006, doi: 10.1785/0120060051
Local Earthquake Magnitude Scale and Seismicity Rate
for the Ethiopian Rift
by Derek Keir, G. W. Stuart, A. Jackson,* and A. Ayele
Abstract A calibrated local earthquake magnitude scale is essential for quanti-
tative analyses of seismicity. In Ethiopia, effective monitoring of earthquakes and
resulting assessment of seismic hazard are especially important as regions with seis-
mic and volcanic activity coincide with regions of economic signicance and popu-
lation growth. We have developed a local magnitude (M
L
) scale for the northern
Main Ethiopian rift (MER) using earthquake data collected during 20012003 on 122
three-component broadband seismic stations. Waveform data from 2139 local earth-
quakes were corrected for instrument response and convolved with the nominal
WoodAnderson torsion seismograph response appropriate for the original denition
of local magnitude. The hypocentral distances considered are 5 to 800 km, with the
best represented range from 5 to 150 km. A total of 30,908 maximum zero-to-peak
amplitudes (A
WA
) were incorporated into a direct linear inversion for individual earth-
quake local magnitudes (M
L
), 244 station factors (C), and 2 linear distance-dependent
factors (n, K) in the distance correction term, log (A
o
), of the equation for local
magnitude: M
L
log(A
WA
) log(A
o
) C. The resulting distance correction is
given by log(A
o
) 1.196997log(r/17) 0.001066(r 17) 2, which implies
that ground-motion attenuation is relatively high, consistent with ongoing magma
intrusion and the presence of shallow magma reservoirs beneath the MER. Station
corrections signicantly reduce M
L
residuals, which range between 0.42 M
L
units.
The catalog of earthquakes is complete above M
L
2.1 and the annual cumulative
seismicity rate follows the relation log N 4.5 1.13 M
L
. Our results are critical
for accurate routine quantitative analysis of past, current and, future seismicity in
Ethiopia.
Introduction
The northern Main Ethiopian rift (MER) and Afar rifts
are virtually the only places worldwide where the transition
between continental and oceanic rifting is subaerially ex-
posed. As part of project EAGLE (Ethiopia Afar Geoscien-
tic Lithospheric Experiment), up to 179 broadband seismic
stations were deployed across a 250 350 km area of the
Ethiopian rift and adjacent uplifted plateaus (e.g., Bastow et
al., 2005 Maguire et al., 2006) (Fig. 1). The data were col-
lected from the EAGLE network and seismicity was analyzed
to study the pattern of strain localization just prior to con-
tinental breakup (Keir et al., 2006). We aim to quantify the
size of local earthquakes in our dataset by accurately esti-
mating local earthquake magnitude (M
L
). The wealth of
broadband waveforms in the seismicity dataset allows us to
undertake a direct inversion of earthquake-amplitude mea-
*Present address: Institut fur Geophysik, ETHZ Honggerberg, CH-8093
Zurich, Switzerland: andrew.jackson@erdw.ethz.ch.
surements for a local magnitude scale based on the original
denition proposed by Richter (1935, 1958). The calibrated
magnitude scale is then used to calculate the annual cumu-
lative frequency-magnitude distribution of seismicity in the
MER.
A calibrated earthquake-magnitude scale based on M
L
is of great importance for seismic-hazard studies (Bormann,
2002). Attenuation curves that correct for the decrease in
seismic-wave amplitude with distance differ from region to
region and the use of an inappropriate curve can result in
miscalculation of earthquake magnitude by over 1 M
L
units,
even at hypocentral distances of less than 300 km (Fig. 2).
Probabilistic hazard analysis requires details of magnitude
statistics (e.g., maximum magnitudes and the b-value of the
cumulative frequency-magnitude distribution), which re-
quire accurate magnitude estimates to determine earthquake-
recurrence relationships. The combination of the sparse sta-
tion distribution, lack of a calibrated local-magnitude scale,
and low number of earthquakes recorded on global, regional,
2 D. Keir, G. W. Stuart, A. Jackson, and A. Ayele
Figure 2. Attenuation curves for southern Cali-
fornia (Richter, 1935, Hutton and Boore, 1987), for
Tanzania (Langston et al., 1998), and for Ethiopia
(from our study).
Figure 1. (Top) Distribution of the 2139 earth-
quakes recorded from October 2001 to January 2003
in the MER and Afar rifts. Size of earthquake epicen-
ters is scaled by magnitude. The white star is the lo-
cation of NEIC-reported earthquake 1 December 2002
11:18 (m
b
Preliminary Determination of Epicenter
[PDE] 4.9). The box encloses the location of the
EAGLE network of broadband seismic stations. (Bot-
tom) Location of EAGLE network broadband seismic
stations. Dark triangles with station names are CMG-
3T and CMG-40TD stations that operated from Oc-
tober 2001 to January 2003. Light triangles are CMG-
6TD stations that operated from October 2002 to
January 2003. Circles are CMG-6TD stations that op-
erated from November 2002 to January 2003. IRIS/
GSN permanent broadband station FURI is shown as
a white square. Rift bounding Miocene border faults
(BF) are shown with thick black lines and dip ticks.
Right-stepping, en echelon magmatic segments (MS)
along the rift axis are shaded grey.
and local catalogs has meant that reliable earthquake-
magnitude statistics for the MER have not been calculated
(Ayele and Kulhanek, 1997). Earthquake magnitude is also
important in integrated seismic and geodetic studies that aim
to understand lithospheric deformation processes in rift sys-
tems by quantifying relative amounts of seismic and ase-
ismic strain (e.g., Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003; Bendick et al.,
2006). The attenuation curve derived from a local magnitude
scale is also useful for risk assessment in engineering prac-
tice as the frequency band of the WoodAnderson seismom-
eter (0.810 Hz) is in the range of most engineering struc-
tures. However, measurements on seismic-wave propagation
in Ethiopia are lacking (Kebede and van Eck, 1997;
Mammo, 2005).
Seismic-hazard assessment is important in Ethiopia be-
cause regions with seismic activity coincide with regions of
economic signicance and population growth (e.g., Gouin,
1979; Kebede and Kulhanek, 1991, 1994). The potential
seismic and volcanic hazard in volcanic rift zones in Ethi-
opia was highlighted by the recent rifting episode in the
northern Afar rift. From 20 September to 8 October 2005,
162 earthquakes of m
b
4.0 and a volcanic eruption oc-
curred within a 60-km-long rift segment. Disruption
caused by ground shaking, surface ssuring, and ash depos-
its caused the displacement of 6000 pastoralists from the
region (Yirgu et al., 2005). Radar interferometry (InSAR)
shows that up to 8 m of horizontal opening occurred dur-
ing the rifting event with seismic-moment release accounting
for less than 7% of observed deformation (Wright et al.,
2006). Most extension was likely accommodated by dike
intrusion.
Seismicity in Ethiopia is currently monitored by ve
permanent broadband seismic stations, including the Incor-
porated Research Institutions for Seismology/Global Seis-
Local Earthquake Magnitude Scale and Seismicity Rate for the Ethiopian Rift 3
mographic Network (IRIS/GSN) station FURI, maintained by
the Geophysical Observatory Addis Ababa University. The
Geophysical Observatory records earthquake coda length
and uses the relationship M
d
1.97 log s 0.0008D
1.28, where s is coda length in seconds, and D is hypocentral
distance in kilometers to determine duration magnitude (M
d
)
(Asfaw, 1988). No relationship between displacement am-
plitude and local magnitude (M
L
) has yet been determined,
however. In addition to the permanent stations, seismicity of
north Afar has been monitored by a network of eight three-
component broadband seismic stations since October 2005.
A calibrated magnitude scale is critical for accurate quanti-
tative monitoring of past, ongoing, and future seismic activ-
ity in Ethiopia.
Tectonic Setting
The Miocene-Recent MER constitutes the northern part
of the East African rift system and forms the youngest arm
of the Afar triple junction, which developed in an Eocene-
Oligocene ood basalt province (Fig. 1). The MER is
bounded by northeast-trending Miocene border faults. Since
Quaternary times extensional strain has localized in 20-
km-wide right-stepping en echelon magmatic segments,
which are zones of north-northeast-striking ssures, faults,
and aligned volcanic cones (Bilham et al., 1999; Ebinger
and Casey, 2001).
Most of the seismicity from October 2001 to January
2003 occurred at the oblique intersection between the south-
ern Red Sea rift and MER near Ankober, and within the
FentaleDofen magmatic segment (Keir et al., 2006)
(Fig. 1). Earthquakes were predominantly 814 km deep
(Keir et al., 2006). Records of seismicity over the past 150
years show a similar pattern with seismicity concentrated
near Ankober and within the en echelon magmatic segments
along the axis of the MER (e.g., Gouin, 1979; Asfaw, 1982;
Kebede and Kulhanek, 1994; Ayele and Kulhanek, 1997;
Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003). The spatial correlation between
seismicity and aligned cones in magmatic segments suggests
that earthquakes are induced by dike injection, and the tem-
poral patterns of seismicity suggest that magmatic segments
are fed from discrete sources of magma and that extension
occurs mainly in episodic dike-injection events (Keir et al.,
2006).
Geodetic, structural, and seismic studies show that the
majority of strain across the MER is accommodated by dike
injection beneath magmatic segments. A comparison of seis-
mic-moment release and total opening strain predicted from
plate separation rates shows that 50% of strain is accom-
modated aseismically (Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003). Keranen
et al. (2004) interpret high-velocity anomalies in controlled
source tomographic images as 20-km-wide axial mac
intrusions at 10 km depth beneath magmatic segments.
S-wave splitting in local earthquakes shows the fast-
polarization direction in magmatic segments parallel to
aligned volcanic cones with the amount of splitting highest
in regions of probable partial melt. From these observations
Keir et al. (2005) proposed that anisotropy of the upper
10 km beneath the rift is caused by aligned melt and dikes.
Magma intrusions are likely not restricted to crust beneath
rift valley magmatic segments as midcrustal conductive
anomalies in MT data indicate the presence of partial melt
in the lower midcrust beneath the Ethiopian plateau (Whaler
and Hautot, 2006).
Seismic studies that probe mantle structure provide con-
straints on the distribution of partial melt at depth. Anoma-
lous low-velocity zones in the upper asthenosphere are seg-
mented beneath the rift valley and also impinge beneath the
Ethiopian plateau. Comparison of relative P- and S-arrival
times shows that they are likely due to a combination of high
temperatures and partial melt (Bastow et al., 2005). Both the
large amount of SKS splitting and the rift parallel orientation
of the fast polarization direction led Kendall et al. (2005) to
propose that partial melt beneath the MER rises through
dikes that penetrate the thinned lithosphere. In addition, Sv
and Sh velocity models derived from surface-wave disper-
sion curves are consistent with a model of anisotropy due to
aligned melt-lled pockets from 2075 km depth beneath
the rift (Kendall et al., 2006).
Amplitude Data
Local earthquakes were recorded on 29 broadband seis-
mic stations (EAGLE Phase I) that were operational between
late October 2001 and January 2003 (Fig. 1). These three-
component Guralp CMG-3T and CMG-40TD instruments
recorded continuous data at 50 Hz. Additional data during
this period were acquired from the permanent IRIS/GSN
broadband station FURI. The number of seismic stations was
increased during the nal 4 months of the experiment with
the deployment of an additional 50 CMG-6TD broadband
instruments recording at 100 Hz. These stations were de-
ployed at 15-km spacing mainly in the rift valley, and they
were operational between October 2002 and February 2003
(EAGLE Phase II). A further 100 broadband CMG-6TD in-
struments deployed at 5-km spacing across the rift valley
and adjacent plateaus were operational between November
2002 and January 2003 (EAGLE Phase III).
During the 16 months of the EAGLE passive experiment,
2139 earthquakes recorded at four or more stations were
located with the Hypo2000 algorithm (Klein et al., 2002)
(Fig. 1). The earthquakes were located using a 1D velocity
model determined by simultaneously relocating earthquakes
and inverting for velocity structure (Daly et al., in press);
1957 earthquakes were located within the EAGLE network.
We estimate hypocenter accuracy of 600 m in horizontal
directions and 1500 m in depth for earthquakes recorded
at eight or more stations (Keir et al., 2006). Earthquakes
within the network recorded by between four and eight sta-
tions have estimated hypocental uncertainties of 5 km in
both horizontal directions and depth. Earthquakes located
Figure 3. Distance/magnitude distribution of the
data available for the horizontal components. Mag-
nitudes are estimated with the new distance-correc-
tion terms for Ethiopia.
outside the network have estimated hypocental uncertainties
of up to 20 km in horizontal directions and 10 km depth.
Local magnitude was originally dened by Richter
(1935) using ground motions recorded on a standard hori-
zontal WoodAnderson torsion seismograph. Therefore, the
EAGLE broadband data were corrected for the instrument
response of the CMG-3T, CMG-40TD, and CMG-6TD seis-
mometers. The displacement ground motions were con-
volved with the standard WoodAnderson response: mag-
nication of 2800, damping ratio of 0.8, and natural period
of 0.8 sec (Anderson and Wood, 1925; Kanamori and Jen-
nings, 1978). We measured the maximum absolute value of
the zero-to-peak amplitude in millimeters of the northsouth
and eastwest horizontal component seismograms. Stations
with malfunctioning horizontal components were removed
from the dataset. The dataset includes 15,456 amplitude
measurements on each horizontal component, a total of
30,908 measurements (Fig. 3). The hypocentral distances
considered range from 5 to 800 km, with the best represented
range being from 5 to 150 km (Fig. 3).
Methodology
We use the equation of Richter (1935, 1958)
M log(A ) log(A ) C, (1)
L WA o
where A
WA
is zero-to-peak amplitude measured on a standard
horizontal WoodAnderson seismograph, log(A
o
) is a dis-
tance correction term, and C is a correction term for indi-
vidual stations. We determine the attenuation curve, log(A
o
),
by using the parametric approach (Bakun and Joyner, 1984).
The major advantages of the parametric form of the atten-
uation curve are that it considers simple expressions of geo-
metrical spreading and attenuation, and is represented by
only a few coefcients. This facilitates straightforward es-
timation of local magnitude using a single equation at all
hypocentral distances (e.g., Hutton and Boore, 1987; Kim,
1998; Langston et al., 1998; Kim and Park; 2005). On a
global scale, the standardization of the local magnitude cal-
culation using the parametric form of the attenuation curve
is recommended (Ortega and Quintanar, 2005). A drawback
of the parametric approach is that the nonparametric expres-
sion of the attenuation curve better represents crustal and
upper-mantle complexities (e.g., Anderson and Lei, 1994;
Savage and Anderson, 1995; Baumbach et al., 2003; Bragato
and Tento, 2005).
Richters original local magnitude scale is dened such
that an earthquake of M
L
3 will cause a 1-mm zero-to-peak
deection of the WoodAnderson seismogram at 100 km
from the hypocenter. Hutton and Boore (1987) observed that
if the attenuation within the rst 100 km has a large geo-
graphic variation, earthquakes in different regions with the
same M
L
may have very different ground motions near the
source, thus making M
L
a poor measure of source size. To
avoid this difculty, they suggest that local magnitudes be
normalized to motions at closer distances to avoid most of
the regional differences in wave propagation, using a 10-
mm deection of the WoodAnderson seismogram at 17 km
from the hypocenter for a M
L
3 earthquake, consistent with
the original denition of the local magnitude scale. The shift
to normalization nearer the source should only be used if the
distribution of data is such that the attenuation curve can be
evaluated with sufcient precision down to the new refer-
ence distance (Alsaker et al., 1991). This is the case with
our dataset, which includes 2564 amplitude measurements
(8% of the dataset) at hypocentral distances of less than 25
km (Fig. 3). The distance correction term is thus dened as
log(A ) n log(r/17) K(r 17) 2, (2)
o
where r is hypocentral distance in kilometers, and n and K
are parameters related to the geometrical spreading and at-
tenuation of S waves in the region, respectively.
If equations (1) and (2) are combined, the observed am-
plitude, A
ijk
, is modeled by
log(A ) 2 n log(r /17)
ijk ij
K(r 17) M C , (3)
ij Li jk
where index i labels events, index j labels stations, and index
k labels the component (northsouth or eastwest). The ob-
jective of the inversion is to determine n, K, M
L
, and C.
There are two station factors per station corresponding to the
eastwest and northsouth horizontal components. The sys-
tem of equations includes a constraint that the mean of sta-
Figure 4. Magnitude estimated at stations of vary-
ing hypocentral distances for earthquake 1 December
2002 11:18 (m
b
PDE 4.9) with three different at-
tenuation curves (a) magnitude estimated with the
distance-correction terms of Hutton and Boore (1987)
for southern California; (b) magnitude estimated with
the distance correction terms of Langston et al.
(1998); (c) magnitude estimated with the new mag-
nitude scale for Ethiopia. Straight lines are best-t to
the data and show that the Hutton and Boore (1987)
magnitude scale overestimates magnitudes with in-
creasing hypocentral distances, whereas the Langston
et al. (1998) scale underestimates magnitude with in-
creasing hypocentral distance. The new magnitude
scale for the MER estimates consistent magnitudes
across varying hypocentral distances and the average
local magnitude (M
L
4.79) is that expected for an m
b
4.9 earthquake.
tion factors is zero. The observations on the left-hand side
of equation (3) are linearly related to the unknowns, which
we arrange in a model vector m. We have N
e
events and N
s
stations, and thus have a total of (N
e
2N
s
) 2 unknowns.
The N observations log(A
ijk
) 2 are arranged into the N-
vector d. We write the overdetermined set of equations (3)
in the form
d Am, (4)
which we solve using the conventional least-squares crite-
rion; the optimal solution satises
T 1 T
m (A A) A d (5)
The linear system (5) has a total of 2385 parameters and
30,908 data; it can be solved in less than an hour on a modest
workstation. Our approach leads directly to an optimal so-
lution and is different from the iterative procedure used to
determine m(e.g., Langston et al., 1998). Pujol (2003) tested
the direct inversion method on data from Tanzania previ-
ously analyzed with the iterative technique (Langston et al.,
1998). Similar results were achieved but the major advan-
tages of the direct inversion are that the solution is indepen-
dent of the starting values for the unknowns.
Results
Magnitude Scale for the MER
The distance correction, log(A
o
), term from the inver-
sion using 17-km distance normalization is given by:
log(A ) 1.196997 log(r/17)
o
0.001066(r 17) 2 (6)
where r is hypocentral distance in kilometers (Fig. 2).
The errors on the estimates of n and Kcan be determined
from the posterior covariance matrix. The two-by-two sub-
section of the entire 2385 by 2385 covariance matrix is prac-
tically diagonal, showing that the estimates of n and K are
virtually independent. One can rigorously characterize this
by calculating the eigenvectors of the (n, K) section of the
matrix; the ellipse describing the one standard deviation con-
tour has a semimajor axis of length 0.025 and semiminor
axis of length 9.7 10
5
and is oriented with the semimajor
axis practically parallel to the n axis (the angle between them
is 0.25). These values for the ellipse lengths are similar to
the values for the one-sigma standard deviations of the pa-
rameters n and K.
The new distance-correction terms compensate cor-
rectly for the reduction in amplitude with increasing distance
(Figs. 4 and 5). For example, earthquake 1 December 2002
11:18 (m
b
PDE 4.9) was the nearest and most widely
recorded earthquake on the EAGLE network that was re-
ported by National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC).
Figure 5. Mean magnitude residuals calculated
per 50-km bin intervals with error bars marked by the
standard deviation in the mean magnitude residuals.
Magnitude residuals were computed as the difference
between magnitude assigned by a single station and
the average magnitude of the earthquake. The lack of
signicant variation in mean magnitude residuals
with distance shows that possible complexities in
crustal and upper-mantle structure do not have a sys-
tematic effect on variations in attenuation with dis-
tance.
Figure 6. Magnitude residuals/hypocentral dis-
tance distributions for both the northsouth and east
west components. (a) Magnitude residuals without
taking into account station corrections. The standard
deviation is 0.24 and variance r
2
is 0.058. (b) Mag-
nitude residuals with station corrections taken into ac-
count. The standard deviation is 0.18 and variance r
2
is 0.032. Therefore, adopting the station corrections
reduced variance by 45%. The average of residuals,
both with and without station corrections considered,
is nearly zero.
The earthquake is located 200 km north of station KARE
and was recorded with a high signal-to-noise ratio by 72
EAGLE broadband stations at hypocentral distances of 200
600 km (Fig. 4). Local magnitude was estimated at each
station using the magnitude scale for Tanzania (Langston et
al., 1998), southern California (Hutton and Boore, 1987),
and Ethiopia. The magnitude estimated at each station using
the Tanzania magnitude scale decreases with increasing hy-
pocentral distance and the average magnitude is M
L
4.13. In
contrast, the magnitude at each station using the southern
California scale increases with increasing hypocentral dis-
tance and the average magnitude is M
L
4.98. The new mag-
nitude scale for Ethiopia estimates consistent magnitude for
stations at different hypocentral distances and the average
magnitude is M
L
4.81.
Also, magnitude residuals for the whole dataset were
computed as the difference between magnitude assigned by
a single station for a given earthquake and the average mag-
nitude of the same earthquake. The mean magnitude residual
is calculated per 50-km bin interval with error bars marked
by the standard deviation of the mean magnitude residuals
(Fig. 5). Mean magnitude residuals vary 0.1 M
L
units to
hypocentral distance of 700 km. An M
L
residual of 0.18 is
calculated from only 16 measurements at hypocentral dis-
tances of 700 km. The lack of signicant variation in mean
magnitude residuals with distance shows that possible com-
plexities in crustal and upper-mantle structure do not have a
systematic effect on variations in attenuation with distance
beneath the MER. Our parametric expression of the attenu-
ation curve thus represents a simple model that adequately
compensates for the decay of amplitude with increasing dis-
tance.
Local Magnitude Values and Station Corrections
The inversion procedure solved for correction factors of
both northsouth and eastwest components at individual
stations. Magnitude residuals were calculated with and with-
out computed station corrections, C, taken into account
(Fig. 6). For magnitude residuals calculated without station
correction, the average of residuals on the northsouth and
eastwest components is nearly zero and the standard de-
viation is 0.24 (variance, r
2
, is 0.058). For magnitude resid-
uals calculated with station corrections, the average of re-
siduals on the northsouth and eastwest components in
nearly zero, and the standard deviation is 0.18 (r
2
is 0.032).
Therefore, adopting the station corrections reduced variance
by 45%.
The northsouth component correction factors vary be-
tween 0.41 and 0.34 M
L
units and the eastwest compo-
nent correction factors vary between 0.42 and 0.33 M
L
units (Fig. 7). Most stations have similar correction factors
on the two horizontal components. Station corrections can
vary dramatically over distances of 5 km and there is no
consistent difference between corrections at stations in the
rift valley and on the adjacent plateau. Thus, the spatial vari-
Figure 7. Spatial variation of station factors on northsouth component (a) and east
west component (b). Negative correction factors are shown as squares scaled by mag-
nitude of the correction factor. Positive correction factors are shown as circles scaled
by magnitude of the correction factor.
ation of station factors shows neither a clear correlation to
major tectonic features nor to topographic relief and suggests
a strong inuence of local site effects on variations in the
amplitude of ground motion.
The station correction factors for the permanent IRIS/
GSN station FURI are 0.16 M
L
units on the northsouth
component and 0.14 M
L
units on the eastwest compo-
nent. Future permanent and temporary seismic-arraydeploy-
ments in Ethiopia are likely to include earthquake records
from FURI, and such studies will now be able to use ampli-
tude measurements from this permanent station to calibrate
new data with our magnitude scale for the MER.
Discussion
A comparison of the attenuation curves obtained from
Ethiopia, southern California (Hutton and Boore, 1987), and
Tanzania shows that attenuation in Ethiopia is relatively
high. The attenuation curve computed for southern Califor-
nia by Hutton and Boore (1987) is similar to Ethiopia, in
particular, at hypocentral distances of less than 300 km.
Rifted regions with elevated geothermal gradients such as
the southwestern United States are in general characterized
by high attenuation of seismic waves (e.g., Richter, 1958;
Hutton and Boore, 1987; Savage and Anderson, 1995). In
southern California, high body-wave attenuation in the lower
crust beneath the Salton Trough and San Gabriel Mountains
is attributed to a combination of high temperatures and par-
tial melt (Schlotterbeck and Abers, 2001). Our results of
relatively large amounts of attenuation in the MER are thus
not surprising considering the wealth of independent geo-
physical and geological data that show evidence for partial
melt and magma intrusions in the crust and upper mantle
beneath the MER and adjacent Ethiopian plateau (e.g., Bas-
tow et al., 2005; Keir et al., 2005; Kendall et al., 2005;
Rooney et al., 2005).
The high attenuation observed in Ethiopia is signi-
cantly different from the East African rift systemin Tanzania
where the crust and upper mantle have had little to no mod-
ication by rifting processes (Langston et al., 2002). In Tan-
zania, the combination of crystalline Archaean and Proto-
rozoic crust, in conjunction with low geothermal gradients
typical of Archaean craton give rise to very efcient wave
propagation in the lithosphere (Langston et al., 1998; Weer-
aratne et al., 2003).
The new magnitude scale for Ethiopia is used to inves-
tigate seismicity of the MER for 20012003. Because of high
attenuation in the MER, earthquakes located outside the net-
work but recorded on EAGLE stations are M
L
3 (Figs. 1
and 2). Therefore, we calculated magnitude statistics of the
1957 earthquakes located within the network of seismic sta-
tions. This ensures we sample an earthquake catalog that is
not biased toward large earthquakes located outside the net-
work and also ensures our magnitude statistics sample only
earthquakes in the MER. Most earthquakes are of M
L
12
and the largest earthquake is M
L
3.9 (Fig. 8a). The power-
law cumulative frequency-magnitude distribution shows that
the seismicity catalog is complete above M
L
2.1 (M
c
2.1)
Figure 8. (a) Magnitude-frequency distribution of earthquakes recorded within the
network of seismic stations. Most of the earthquakes are of magnitude M
L
12 and the
highest-magnitude earthquake is M
L
3.9. (b) GutenburgRichter distribution of earth-
quakes located within the network of seismic stations. Mc is the cutoff magnitude of
2.1 and the slope shows b 1.13. The straight line intersects the y axis at y 4.5.
(Fig. 8b) (Gutenberg and Richter, 1954). A b-value of 1.13
0.05 was estimated from earthquakes larger than the M
L
2.1 using the maximum-likelihood method (Aki, 1965) and
an error estimate determined from the standard deviation of
b (Shi and Bolt, 1982). The cumulative annual seismicity
rate is calculated from an annualized dataset and follows the
relation log N 4.5 1.13 M
L
. Hofstetter and Beyth
(2003) obtained a b-value of 0.83 0.08 from just 16 earth-
quakes on global and regional catalogs that were located
across a larger area that encompasses both the MER and
southern Ethiopian Rift as far south as 5 N.
The relatively high b-value of 1.13 for seismicity in the
MER during 20012003 is consistent with seismic energy
being released mostly as swarms of lower magnitude (M
L
4) earthquakes (Keir et al., 2006). This pattern of seis-
micity is likely representative of longer-term deformation
patterns as previous studies of seismicity in the MER also
report lower-magnitude seismic swarms and a similar pattern
is evident in data from global and regional catalogs that show
relatively few larger magnitude (m
b
4.0) earthquakes in
the MER (e.g., Gouin, 1979; Asfaw, 1982; Kebede and Kul-
hanek, 1994). The observed lack of large-magnitude earth-
quakes in the MER is consistent with geodetic data that show
that the majority of strain across the MER is accommodated
aseismically (Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003 Bendick et al.,
2006). Studies of seismically active magmatic systems show
that M
c
and b-value can vary in space and time (e.g., Wiemer
et al., 1998 Murru et al., 1999). The b-value obtained in our
study is based on only 16 months of data from a 250 km
350 km area and may thus be biased by short-term spatial
and temporal variations in the pattern of seismic activity. A
detailed appraisal of the recurrence interval of large-
magnitude earthquakes can only be achieved with longer-
term seismic monitoring in Ethiopia.
An estimated b-value of 1.13 for the MER is similar to
b-values of 1.051.3 calculated for the southern Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden seaoor spreading centers (Ayele and Kulha-
nek, 1997; Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003). Lower b-values of
between 0.7 and 0.9 are observed in the East African rift
system in southern Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania where
moment release as large-magnitude earthquakes located on
rift-bounding border faults accommodates the majority of
extension (e.g., Tongue et al., 1992; Langston et al., 1998).
Despite the lack of large earthquakes recorded over the
past 50 years in the MER, the recent dike-injection episode
and associated swarm of earthquakes, surface ssuring, and
volcanic eruption in Afar highlights the potential seismic
hazard of rift zones in Ethiopia. Seismicity within the mag-
matic segments of the MER is likely controlled by episodic
injection of dikes (Keir et al., 2006). Although a major rift-
ing event has not yet been directly observed in the MER,
structural data suggest that episodes of surface ssuring and
volcanic eruptions have occurred in MER magmatic seg-
ments during the last 10,000 years (e.g., Asfaw, 1982,
1998; Williams et al., 2004). Despite the current period of
quiescence, hazards associated with seismicity and volcanic
eruptions pose a serious risk to life and economy in the MER.
Conclusions
A local magnitude scale for Ethiopia has been devel-
oped from 30,908 amplitude measurements on simulated
WoodAnderson seismograms from 2139 earthquakes re-
corded on 122 EAGLE broadband instruments. The new
magnitude scale uses a distance normalization of 10 mm
motion at 17 km distance for a M
L
3.0 earthquake. The dis-
tance correction is given by;
log(A ) 1.196997 log(r/17)
o
0.001066(r 17) 2.0, (7)
where r is hypocentral distance in kilometers. The distance
correction shows that ground-motion attenuation in Ethiopia
is relatively high and is consistent with the presence of per-
vasive magma intrusion and partial melt beneath the MER.
The catalog of events used in this study is complete
above M
L
2.1. The annual cumulative seismicity rate in the
MER is log N 4.5 1.13M
L
. The relatively high b-value
is consistent with the observed pattern of low magnitude
M
L
4 swarms of earthquakes in the MER and lack of large-
magnitude earthquakes reported on global and regional cat-
alogs over the past 50 years.
The recent swarm of 162 m
b
4.0 earthquakes and
volcanic eruption and surface ssuring in the Dabbahu mag-
matic segment in Afar highlights the potential seismic and
volcanic hazard in volcanic rift zones such as the MER. Our
results are critical for current and future quantitative analysis
of seismicity in Ethiopia, which is important for scientic,
economic, and social development.
Acknowledgments
We thank SEIS-UK for the use of instruments and especially Alex
Brisbourne for assistance in the eld, with data management and analysis.
Cindy Ebinger, Eve Daly, Dave Cornwell, and Ian Bastow are thanked for
their signicant contributions to this study. Laike Asfaw of the Geophysical
Observatory Addis Ababa University and Bekele Abebe, Dereje Ayalew,
Gezahegn Yirgu, and Tesfaye Kidane are thanked for support throughout
the project. Research was supported by NERC Grant NER/A/S/2000/01004
and NERC Studentship NER/S/A/2002/10547.
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Department of Geology
Royal Holloway University of London
Egham, Surrey, TW20 0EX, United Kingdom
d.keir@gl.rhul.ac.uk
(D.K.)
School of Earth and Environment
University of Leeds
Leeds, LS2 9 JT, United Kingdom
graham@earth.leeds.ac.uk
(G.W.S., A.J.)
Geophysical Observatory
Addis Ababa University
Addis Ababa, P.O.B. 1176., Ethiopia
atalay@geobs.aau.edu.et
(A.A.)
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Strain Accommodation by Magmatism and Faulting as Rifting

C. J. Ebinger and D. Keir, Department of Geology, Royal Holloway

4 shows that the majority of earthquakes are located along

A. Ayele, Geophysical Observatory, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box

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